r.2.6.2.x. 


JTritttt  ti|r  Htbrarg  of 

If  quf  atljpli  bg  lyim  to 
tlfp  Sltbrarg  of 


.B45  1890 
Bennett,  Charles  W 

1891. 
Christian  arch  ology 


1828- 


LIBRARY 


OF 


BIBLICAL  AND  TIIEOLOfllCAL 


LITERATURE 


EDITED   BT 

GEORGE  R.  CROOKS,  D.D, 

AND 

JOHN  F.  HURST,  D.D. 


VOL.   IV.-CHRISTIAN   ARCHAEOLOGY 


NFW  YOrxK:    TIUXT  d:  EATOX. 

C/yC/XXATI:   CRANSTOy  db  STOWS. 

1890 


PUBLISHERS'  ANNOUNCEMENT. 


T^HE  design  of  the  Editors  and  Publishers  of  the 
Biblical  and  Theological  Library  is  to  furnish 
ministers  and  laymen  with  a  series  of  works  wliich,  in 
connection  with  the  Commentaries  now  issuing,  sliall 
make  a  compendious  apparatus  for  study.  While  the 
theology  of  the  volumes  will  be  in  harmony  with  the 
doctrinal  standards  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
the  aim  will  be  to  make  the  entire  Library  acceptable 
to  all  evansfelical  Christians. 

The  following  writers  will  co-operate  in  the  author- 
ship of  the  series :  Dr.  Harman,  on  the  Introduction 
to  the  Study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures;  Dr.  Terry,  on 
Biblical  Hernieneutics ;  Dr.  Bennett,  on  Christian  Ar- 
chaeology ;  Dr.  Miley,  on  Systematic  Theology ;  the  Edi- 
tors, on  Theological  Encyclopaedia  and  Methodology ; 
Dr.  Ridgaway,  on  Evidences  of  Christianity ;  Prof.  Little, 
on  Christian  Theism  and  Modern  Speculative  Thought; 
Dr.    Crooks,  on   the  History  of  Christian  Doctrine  ;  and 


iv  PUBLISHERS'  ANNOUNCEMENT. 

Bishop  Hurst,  on  the  History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
The  volumes  on  Introduction  to  the  Scriptures,  Biblical 
Hermeneutics,  Theological  Encyclopaedia  and  Method- 
ology, and  Christian  Archaeology  have  novr  been  issued 
In  the  case  of  every  treatise  the  latest  literature  will 
be  consulted,  and  its  results  incorporated.  The  works 
comprised  in  the  series  will  be  printed  in  full  octavo 
size,  and  finished  in  the  best  style  of  typography  and 
binding. 


Christian  ArcHvCology 


BY  / 

CHARLES  W.  BENNETT  D.D. 

PROFESSOR    OF  HISTORICAL   THEOLOGY   IN    GARRETT  BIBLICAL  INSTITUTE,   BVANSTON,   ILLINOIS 


INTRODUCTORY   NOTICE 

BY 

DR.  FERDINAND  PIPER 

PROFESSOR   OF  CHURCH    HISTORY   AND  CHRISTIAN   ARCHEOLOGY   IN   THE   UNIVERSITY  OF  BERLIN 


NEW  YORK:    HUNT  &  EATOX. 

CJNCINlfATI:  CRANSTON  it  STOWB. 

1890. 


Copyright,  1888,  by 
New  York. 


AUTHOR'S     PREFACE 


TT  is  with  much  diffidence  that  I  send  forth  upon  its  tnission 
this  work  on  Christian  Archajology.  I  will  let  that  veteran 
Christian  arclueologist.  Dr.  Piper,  my  much-revered  instructor, 
speak  of  the  need  of  some  such  book  as  this.  In  the  Introduc- 
tory Note,  which  he  has  had  the  great  kindness  to  furnisli,  tlie 
seoi)C  and  value  of  this  Discipline  are  sketched  in  liis  own  inimi- 
table style.  While  the  master  speaks  it  behooves  the  pupil  to 
keep  silence. 

The  arrangement  is  a  departure  from  tlie  usual  one.  I  have 
thought  that  by  giving  the  Archaeology  of  Christian  Art  the  first 
place  in  the  discussion,  the  results  of  this  study  could  best  be 
utilized  in  the  illustration  of  the  Constitution,  Worship,  and  Life 
of  the  (M»urch. 

It  oidy  remains  for  me  to  express  my  sincerest  appreciation  of 
the  kindly  encoui-agement  and  aid  which  have  been  so  freely 
given  uie  both  at  home  and  abroad.  It  would  bo  invidious  to 
make  distinctions,  but  to  my  associates  in  theological  instruction, 
to  friends  who  have  helped  me  in  making  the  requisite  travels  for 
personal  study  of  monuments,  to  my  most  highly  esteemed  pre- 
ceptor and  guide  in  the  Berlin  University,  and  to  those  who  have 
assisted  in  the  proof-readings  and  indexing,  I  wtiuld  express  my 
especial  obligations.  If  careful  readers  of  the  work  would  com- 
municate to  me  any  errors  which  they  may  discover,  it  would  he 
regarded  as  a  personal  favour,  as  well  ;us  lielp  to  the  attainment 
of  truth. 

Gaurett  BmucAL  Institute,  Evanston,  III,  May  16,  1888. 


INTRODUCTORY    NOTE. 


AT  the  invitation  of  the  esteemed  author,  I  write  a  few  words  of 
introduction  to  this  volume.  It  is  with  pleasure  that  I  greet  the 
first  work  on  Christian  Archaeology  which  has  appeared  on  Amer- 
ican soil.  With  hearty  good  wishes  I  welcome  it  to  a  position  of 
prominence,  even  before  it  has  come  into  my  hands.  At  the  same 
time,  I  cannot  be  in  doubt  in  regard  to  its  character.  The  ac- 
quaintance I  have  with  the  method  of  the  author's  studies,  his 
protra(!ted  connection  with  our  University,  his  travels  in  the  Old 
World  and  their  purpose,  give  assurance  of  its  solid  worth.  Since 
numerous  plates  and  illustrations,  as  well  as  several  maps,  accom- 
pany the  text,  the  work  comes  to  have  the  character  of  an  Art- 
Archaeology,  and  will  be  helpful  in  theological  instruction.  Thus 
it  appears  that  the  book  is  designed  for  the  Monumental  section  of 
ecclesiastical  science. 

I.  The  title  itself  is  full  of  significance.  In  Classical  Antiquities, 
where  the  word  aQX'^'-^^^l^^  is  in  common  use,  it  refers  primarily  to 
the  historic  life  of  a  nation,  as  Roman,  Jewish,  etc.  ;  since  the  idea 
of  life  (6  dp;:^af05"  <^i.oq  Trjg  ttoXem^),  as  the  essential  content  of  Political 
Antiquities,  occupies  the  foremost  place.  Only  after  several  modi- 
fications, through  the  development  of  the  "  Archfeolog}^  of  Art"  in 
connection  with  Classical  Antiquities,  has  the  present  character  of 
archaeological  science  been  determined.  By  further  adding  the  In- 
scriptions (which  as  a  whole  are  excluded  from  Classical  Antiqui- 
ties), we  reach  the  Discipline  which  has  too  long  been  neglected  in 
the  department  of  theological  inquiry.  In  view  of  the  progress 
made  in  the  corresponding  philological  fields  of  Archaeology  and 
Epigraph}'-,  and  of  the  pressing  demands  of  theological  science,  it  is 
evident  that  this  neglect  cannot  much  longer  continue.  In  the 
United  States,  where  an  able  Journal  of  ArchjEology  has  received 
support  for  several  years,  a  commendable  zeal  already  exists,  so  that 
the  author's  work  does  not  appear  prematurely  there. 

The  work  is  devoted  exclusively  to  the  first  six  centuries,  although 
the  name  Archaeology  does  not,  in  itself,  have  reference  only  to 
what  is  ancient.     But  for  this  very  reason  we  call  attention  to  the 


INTRODUCTORY   NOTE.  ix 

significance  of  this  field  of  iiKjuiry  for  the  study  of  theology  and 
for  th.e  service  of  the  Church. 

II.  This  significance  lies,  first  of  all,  in  the  fact  that  it  reveals  a 
source  of  information  which  supplies  a  serious  lack  in  our  knowl- 
edge of  Christian  Aiiti(iuity:  for  the  nearer  we  approach  the  be- 
ginnings of  the  Cluuch  the  more  meagre  are  the  literary  sources  of 
evidence.  These,  for  tlie  most  part,  are  all  which  have  hitherto 
been  taken  into  consideration.  Here,  accordingly,  the  contempo- 
rary monuments  in  stone,  metal,  and  color,  found  by  thousands 
in  all  parts  of  the  world,  especially  in  the  countries  around  the 
Mediterranean,  are  of  immense  assistance.  It  is  the  work  of  the 
archaeologist  to  make  a  critical  examination  of  these,  and  to  de- 
termine their  historic  value.  The  discovery  of  Pompeii  and  Iler- 
culaneum  affords  an  illustration  from  Classical  Antiquities  more 
comjjlete  than  had  been  thought  possible.  When  Paciaudi  imme- 
diately thereafter  visited  Ilereulaneum  and  the  Museum  at  Naples, 
he  exclaimed,  "  O  what  treasures  !  what  wonders  !  "  He  ventured 
to  affirm  that  by  the  spending  of  a  week  in  the  Museum  he  had 
learned  more  than  by  ten  years  of  previous  study.  In  the  domain 
of  Church  history  nothing  similar  were  possible,  because  through 
the  excavation  of  Pompeii  the  entire  domestic,  civil,  and  religious 
life  was  revealed,  whereas  Church  history  is  chiefly  concerned  with 
the  latter.  Subterranean  discoveries  pertaining  to  the  ancient  life 
of  the  Church  have,  however,  been  made  for  centuries,  and  with 
such  rich  results  that  a  special  theology  of  the  Catacombs  might 
be  compiled  from  them.  And  even  above  ground,  in  recent  years, 
numerous  remains  of  ancient  Christian  architecture  dating  from 
the  flourishing  period  of  the  early  Church  have  been  discovered, 
ruined  cities  of  Central  Syria  which  might  be  characterized  as  new 
Pompeiis, 

But  these  objects  and  these  discoveries  are  of  service  not  to  His- 
toric Theology  alone,  but  every  branch  of  theological  investigation 
has  thereby  been  benefited,  especially  Biblical  Interpretation  and 
Dogmatics,  since  texts  of  Scripture  and  doctrinal  opinions  frequently 
furnish  the  fundamental  thought  expressed  in  these  sculj)tures  and 
paintings.  Moreover,  the  iconographic  expression,  even  wlien 
comprised  in  lines  and  colors,  has  a  certain  advantage  over  the 
written,  especially  in  that  frank  unconsciousness  which  is  often  ob- 
scured b}'  words. 

Hence  it  is  that  however  large  a  share  the  "holy  building  fa- 
thers" may  have  had  in  these  ruined  edifices,  all  were  nevertlieless 
intended  for  Christian  worshippers  and  grew  out  of  their  needs,  so 
that  their  faith  and  sentiments  are  therein  expressed.     It   was  as 


X  INTRODUCTORY  NOTE. 

true  then  as  to-day,  that  in  order  to  understand  the  religious  life  of 
a  community  it  is  necessary  to  visit  their  places  of  burial ;  and 
fortunately  innumerable  cemeteries  of  ancient  Christendom  have 
been  preserved  to  aid  us  in  our  theological  investigations. 

But  all  these  remains  should  not  exist  merely  for  the  purpose  of 
forM'arding  the  investigations  of  the  scholar  and  the  theologian.  The 
religious  community  at  large  ought  also  to  derive  enjoyment  and 
profit  from  them.  There  are  no  more  memorable  sites  than  these 
sacred  places  on  the  border-land  between  time  and  eternity,  with 
their  testimonies  in  word  and  symbol  to  the  truth  on  which  the 
ancient  believers  based  their  lives,  and  in  which  they  died.  They 
are  inestimable  gifts,  intelligible  without  learned  interpretation, 
refreshing  to  simple  and  unlettered  Christians,  and  inspiring  even 
to  the  youth  of  the  Church.  On  this  account,  the  founding  of 
museums,  especially  the  sj^stematic  arrangement  and  exhibition  of 
copies  (where  originals  are  not  to  be  had)  for  schools  and  congre- 
gations, has  long  been  a  thing  to  be  desired.  But  this  cannot  be 
effected  unless  theologians  do  their  duty  and  earnestly  devote  them- 
selves to  the  work.  For  this  purpose  a  volimie  like  the  present  is 
an  available  help. 

III.  The  appearance  of  this  work  in  the  United  States  is  also  of 
special  significance.  The  monuments  which  are  therein  discussed 
direct  our  thoughts  to  Christian  antiquity.  But,  without  disparage- 
ment to  the  remains  of  a  primitive  civilization  which  are  found  on 
that  continent,  the  governments  and  peoples  of  America  belong  to 
modern  times.  Christian  Archieology  cannot,  therefore,  be  studied 
on  American  soil.  The  consciousness  of  this  fact  is,  of  course, 
there  fully  recognized.  Hence  among  American  scholars  there 
is  a  natural  impulse,  stronger  than  that  for  ordinary  professional 
purposes,  to  study  their  own  first  beginnings  on  this  side  of  the 
sea.  This  is  the  impelling  motive  which  leads  to  the  old  home, 
Europe,  and  the  still  older  Asia.  This  powerful  incentive  readily 
determines  the  American  scholar  to  undertake  the  voyage,  and  he 
reckons  the  journey  short.  This  also  leads  the  professional  theo- 
logian, both  for  practical  and  scientific  purposes,  to  the  memorials 
of  ecclesiastical  antiquity  to  be  found  in  the  seats  of  primitive 
Christianity,  Avhere,  above  all,  the  theater  of  the  events  affords  the 
best  possible  setting  for  their  history.  Thus  measurably  the  past 
becomes  the  present.  As  a  traveller  in  the  tropics,  while  ascending 
a  high  mountain,  passes  within  a  few  hours  through  all  climatic 
conditions,  even  to  polar  cold;  so  is  it  possible  for  the  archaeologist, 
as  he  examines  the  sites  and  memorials  of  his'.Dric  developments,  to 
enter  into  their  spirit  as  an  eye-witness,  and  so  cause  them  again  to 


INTRODUCTORY   NOTE.  xi 

pass  before  him.  Is  lie  coiieenied  with  the  apostolie  tiiiu's,  it  is 
certain  that  Paul's  sermon  on  .Mars  Hill  is  nowhere  read  so  intcl- 
litrihlv  as  on  the  spot  where  it  was  delivered,  in  si<,Mjt  of  the  Aeroi.- 
olis  and  its  te-iuples,  anil  lookin.ir  out  over  the  land  and  sea.  And 
from  high  ecclesiastical  anticjuity,  whifh  jtosscsses  no  documents 
more  precious  than  the  letters  to  the  ehurcii  in  Smyrna,  and  those 
to  the  Churches  in  Lyons  and  Vienne  concerning  their  martyrs,  w»- 
may  take  as  examples  the  stadium  at  Smyrna  (whose  site  is  per- 
fectly recognisable)  where  I'olycarp  suffered,  and  at  Lyons  the 
crypt  of  St."  Denis  where  the  prisons  of  Pothiniis  and  Hlandina  are 
shown.  When  authenticated,  these  places  and  a  thousand  others, 
next  to  those  in  the  Holy  Land,  incite  the  theologian  to  make  his 
pilgrimage. 

If  the  poet  sings  of  sacred  l*alestine, 

"  It  was  no  strange  desire, 

When  pilgrims  numberless  embarked 

But  at  Thy  sepulcher  to  pray, 

And  kiss  with  pious  zeal 

The  earth  Tiiy  fool  has  trod," 

it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  American  theologians  in  great 
numbers  leave  their  native  shores  to  visit  historic  spots  where  they 
may  view  the  mementoes  of  the  past. 

If,  then,  this  work,  next  to  the  knowledge  which  it  imparts,  may 
also  awaken  among  the  writer's  countrymen  a  still  stronger  desire — 
following  the  example  of  the  highly  esteemed  author,  who  in  the 
course  of  his  investigations  has  several  times  crosse<l  the  ocean,  and 
so  gained  the  right  to  speak  from  personal  observation— to  under- 
take that  pilgrimage,  in  order  to  reach  the  origins  of  the  Church 
and  to  get  a  view  of  its  primitive  monuments,  it  will  thereby  render 
anothe^valuable  service.  Dk.  Fekdinand  Piper. 

Berlin  University,  Jan.  15,  1888. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


figure  page 

1.  Ceiling    decoration    from    Santa    Domitilla,    Rome.      Northcote    and 

Brownlow 57 

2.  Ceiling  decoration  from  San  Pr^testato,  Rome.     Kraus 58 

3.  Ulysses   and   the   Sirens.      From   the   crypt   of  Santa   Lucina,   Rome. 

Northcote  and  Brownlow 65 

4.  A  Christian  sarcophagus,  with  tragic  masks.     Roller 66 

5.  From  a  Christian  sarcophagus,  decorated  with  dolphins.     Roller 66 

6.  Coin  of  Constantius,  showing  the  mingling  of  heathen  and  Christian 

emblems.     Piper 67 

7.  A  coin  of  Majorian,  fifth  century.     Piper 67 

8.  Amor  and  Psyche,  from  Santa  Domitilla.     Northcote  and  Brownlow.  . .  68 

9.  Amor  and  Psyche  with  the  Good  Shepherd,  San  Calisto,  Rome.     Kraus.  69 

10.  Genii  in  a  vintage  scene.      A  winged  genius  holding  back  the  veil. 

From  a  Christian  sarcophagus.     Roller 70 

11.  Supposed  eucharistic   scene.      Fresco  from  the  oldest  part  of  Santa 

Domitilla,  Rome.     Kraus 79 

12.  The  fish  a"ssociated  with   other  Christian   symbols.      From   an   early 

Christian  sarcophagus.     Piper 80 

13.  Fresco  from  the  "  Chamber  of  the  Sacraments,"  San  Calisto,  suggesting 

the  eucharistic  meal.     Roller 81 

14.  Fresco  from  a   Christian    catacomb    in   Alexandria,   representing  the 

EUCHARISTIC    MEAL.       KraUS 82 

15.  The  swastika,  with  Christian  emblems.     Munter 84 

16.  Monogram  on  coin  of  Anthemius,  A.  D.  467.     Piper 86 

17.  Various  forms  of  the   cross,  especially  of  the  monogram  of   Christ, 

Northcote  and  Brownlow 86 

18.  Monogram  of  Christ  on  an  arcosolium  of  San  Calisto,  Rome.     Kraus..  .  86 

19.  The  Constantinian  monogram,  with  palm  branches  and  the  legend,  IN- 

SIGNO.     Piper 87 

20.  The  monogram  of  Christ  encircled  by  a  wreath.     Munter 87 

21.  A  jeweled  cross  from  Ravenna.     Piper 88 

22.  The  A  12,  with  monogram  in  circle.     Munter 89 

23.  Monogram  and  A  £2  in  triangle.     Munter 89 

24.  A  12,  with  doves  and  monogram.     From  a  burial  monument.      Piper 89 

25.  Caricature  of  Christ.     A  pagan  graffito  probably  op  second  century. 

Palace  of  the  C^sars,  Rime.      Becker 95 

26.  From  an  antique  gem.     A  supposed  caricature  of  the  teaching  Christ. 

Northcote  and  Brownlow 96 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS.  xiii 

FIOrRE  I-ACE 

27.  Coin  ok   Alkxander  the  Great — an  ass  and  its  koai..     Nortiicote  and 

Browni-ow 9r> 

28.  Fresco  ceiling  from  Santa  Domitilla,  Rome.     Orpheus  in  center.    Krats.     90 

29.  Christ  raising  La/.arus.     From  a  fresco.     Piper KiO 

80.  Fresco  from  the  ceiling  in  a  chamber  in   San  Calisto,  Home.     Noktii- 

COTE   and   HrOWNLOW lOl 

81.  Bust   of   Christ  from  San   Ponziano.      Probably   from    ninth   century. 

NORTHCOTE  AND   BrOWNLOW 102 

32.  Bust  of  Christ  from  a  cemetery  of  Naples.     Probably  from  the  si.xth 

CENTURY.     Nortiicote  and  Bkownlow 103 

33.  Bust  of  Christ  fuom  the  crypt  of  Santa  Cecilia,  cemetery  of  San  Ca- 

listo.    Kraus 103 

34.  Fresco    from    the  cemetery  Santa  Generosa,  near   Rome,  Christ   with 

saints.     Kraus 105 

35.  Virgin    and   Star,    from    Santa   Priscilla,    Rome.      After   photograph 

from  Roller 106 

36.  Virgin  and  Child,  from  Santa  Domitilla,  Rome.     Northcote  and  Brown- 

low 107 

37.  Virgin  and  Child,  from  Santa  Agnese,  Rome.    Kraus 108 

38.  A  Good  Shepherd,  from  Santa  Generosa,  Kraus ]()9 

39.  A  Fresco  of  St.  Cecilia,  from  Crypt  of  Santa  Cecilia,  Rome.     Kkaus.  . . .  109 
10.  Vine  ornament  from  San  Calisto,  Rome.     Northcote  and  Brownlow....  110 

41.  Mosaic   vine   ornament,  from   Mausoleum   of  Galla   Placidia,  Ravenna. 

Northcote  and  Brownlow Ill 

42.  Mosaic  of  Christ,  in  archbishop's  palace,  Ravenna.     Kraus 124 

43.  Mo.^Aic  from  the  apse  of  SS.  Cosmas  e  Damiano,  Rome.     Sciinaase 126 

44.  Mosaic  of  Chri.'^t,  from  San  Apollinare  Nuovo,  Ravenna.     Kraus 127 

4').  Mosaic  of  Christ,  from  St.  Sophia,  Constantinople.     Schnaase 129 

40.  Statuette   of   the    Good    Shepherd,    Lateran   Museum.     From  an  orig- 

inal DRAWING 132 

47.  Good   Shepherd  with   crook   or  staff,  Laterax  Museum.     From  an  orig- 

inal DRAWING 133 

48.  The  Good  Shepherd.     To  compare  with  Hermes-Kriophoros.     Nortiicote 

AND  Brownlow 1 .34 

49.  Hermes-Kriophoros,  from  Wilton  House.     Northcote  and  Brownlow...  134 

50.  Restored  statue  of  Hippoly'tus.     Northcote  and  Brownlow 135 

51.  A  vintage  scene,  with  Good  Shepherd.     After  Roller 138 

52.  The  translation  of  Elijah.      Kraus 139 

53.  The  history  of  Jonah,  from  a  sarcophagus.    Piper 139 

54.  Early  Christian  sarcophagus.     Kraus 141 

65.  Sarcophagus  of  the  fourth  century.     Kraus 143 

56.  The  fall,  from  Sarcophagus  of  Junius  Bassus.     Piper 144 

57.  From  the  Junius  Bassus  monument.     Piper 144 

58.  A  LATE  sarcophagus.     After  a  photograph  by  Roller 146 

59.  The  Nativity  and  the  offering  of  the  magi.     Kraus 147 

60.  Sarcophagus  from  the  fifth  ce.ntury.     After  Roller 148 

61.  The  Last  Judgment  in  sculpture.     After  Roller 149 

62.  A  crucifixion,  from  an  ivory.     Kraus 162 

63.  Ivory   carving   from    the   cathedra  of   Bishop    Maximianus,   Ravexna. 

Schnaase 164 


xiv  LIST  OP  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIGURE  PAGB 

64.  A    Christian    lamp,    with    Constantinian  monogram.      Northcote    and 

Brownlow 155 

65.  A  so-called  blood-phial.       Kraus 156 

66.  The  house  of  Pansa.     Pompeii 166 

67.  Atrium  Tuscanicum.      Dehio 167 

68.  Atrium  displuviatum.      Dehio 168 

69.  Atrium  displuviatum,  with  covered  compluvium.     Dehio  170 

70.  Heathen  schola.  Via  Appia,  Rome.     Stockbauer 170 

71.  Another  heathen  schola.  Via  Appia,  Rome.     Dehio 171 

72.  Christian  schola  above  San  Calisto,  Rome.     Stockbauer 171 

73.  Form  of  an  early  basilica,  a  bronz  lamp,     de  Rossi   171 

74.  Cella  and  arrangement  of  graves  above  San  Sisto,  Rome.     Schjjaase..  172 

75.  Basilica  in  Santa  Generosa,  Rome.  Northcote  and  Brownlow 173 

76.  Groundplan   of  basilica  in  Santa  Petronilla,    Rome.     Northcote  and 

Brownlow 174 

77.  View  of  basilica  in  Santa  Petronilla,  Rome.      Kraus 176 

78    Plan  of  basilica  from  the  villa  of  Quixtilian.     Stockbauer 177 

79.  Palace  of  Diocletian,  Spolatro.     Schnaase. 179 

80.  Basilica,  from  villa  of  Hadrian,  Tivoli.      Dehio 182 

81.  Another  basilica,  from  villa  of  Hadrian.      Dehio 182 

82.  Interior  of  San  Clemente,  Rome.     Lubke 185 

83.  Groundplan  of  San  Clemente,  Rome 186 

84.  Interior  structure,  development  of  cross- ribbed  arches.    Wiegemann..  189 

85.  A  clustered  column.     Lubke 191 

86.  A  Gothic  interior 192 

87.  San  Clemente,  Rome.     Stockbauer 193 

88.  Cross-section  of  Basilica  Sessoriana,  Rome.     Stockbauer 193 

89.  Groundplan  of  the  same.     Dehio  and  Bezold 194 

90.  Groundplan  of  Santa  Pudenziana,  Rome.     Stockbauer 195 

91.  San  Pietro  in  Vaticano,  Rome.     Front  elevation.     Dehio  and  Bezold.  198 

92.  Perspective  interior  of  San  Pietro,  Rome.     Schnaase 199 

93.  Atrium  of  Sylvanus,  via  Appia,  Rome.     Dehio 200 

94.  San  Lorenzo  fuori  le  mura,  Rome.     Dehio  and  Bezold 204 

95.  Santa  Agnese  fuori  le  mura,  Rome.     Interior  view.     Dehio 205 

96.  Groundplan  of  Santa  Sinforosa,  Rome.     Stockbauer 206 

97.  Entablature,  etc.,  of  San  Apollinare  Nuovo,  Ravenna.     Schnaase.  . . .  208 

98.  San  Apollinare  in  classe.     Schnaase 209 

99.  San  Apollinare  in  classe.     Interior  view.     Schnaase 210 

100.  St.  Demetrius,  Thessalonica.     Cross  section.     Stockbauer 212 

101.  Basilica  at  El-Barah,  Central  Syria,     de  VoGifE 214 

102.  Church  at  Tourmanin,  Central  Syria,     de  Vogue 215 

103.  Baths  of  Diocletian.     Stockbauer 219 

104.  Temple  of  Romulus,  Via  Appia,  Rome.   Stockbauer 222 

105.  Groundplan  of  St.  George,  Thessalonica.     Stockbauer 224 

106.  St.  George,  Thessalonica.     Exterior  view.     Schnaase 224 

107.  San  ViTALE,  Ravenna.     Interior  view.     Schnaase 225 

108.  San  Vitale,  groundplan.     Schnaase 226 

109.  San  Vitale,  longitudinal  section.     Schnaase  227 

110.  Capital  from  San  Vitale.     Lubke 228 

111.  Capital  from  St.  Sophia,  Constantinople.     Lubke 228 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS.  sv 

FIOnRE  PA»iK 

112.  SS.  SERfiius  AND  Haccmls,  Constantinoplk.     Stockbacer 22i> 

\i:i.  Ham.  in  ancient  Roman  palace.     Dehio 2'25» 

114.  Section  of  St.  Sophia.     Stockbai'er 233 

1 1 5.  Section  of  the  Basilica  of  Constantine,  Rome.     Stockbauer 234 

lit).  (Jkoundplan  of  St.  Sophia.     Schnaase 237 

1 17.  St.  Sophia.     Longitudinal  section.     Schnaase 238 

118.  Section  of  Santa  Constanza,  Rome.     Dehio  and  Bezold 241 

119.  Santa  Maria  MA(i(;iouE  Noceka  de  TAtiANi,  section.     Schnaase 242 

120.  Bl'rial  chapel  OF  (Jalla  Placidia,  Ravenna.     Stockbalek 244 

121.  Section  of  the  same.     Dehio  and  Bezold 24B 

122.  Catiiedkal  of  Trier.     Schnaase 246 

123.  Graffiti  from  papal  crypt,  San  Sisto,  Rome.     Roller 2G9 

124.  Cross  in  circle  with  inscriptions.     Munter 270 

126.  Coh;mn  from  the  Basilica  of  Tetronilla,  Rome.     Northcote  and  Brown- 
low 270 

126.  Baptism  of  Christ.     Fre.sco  from  Santa  Lucina,  Rome.     Orkuxal  draw- 

ing   399 

127.  Another  baptism  of  Christ.     After  Roller 400 

128.  Supposed  baptism.     Fresco  from  Pretestato,  Rome.     After  de  Rossi....  401 

129.  A  baptism,  from  San  Calisto,  Rome.     Ai^ter  de  Ro.ssi 401 

130.  A  baptism,  from  San  Calisto,  Rome.     After  de  Ro.<si 402 

131.  A  baptism  on  a  fragment  of  a  glass  cup.     After  Martigny 403 

132.  Baitism   of  Christ.      Mosaic   from   San   Giovanni   in   fonte,   Ravenna. 

AtTKR  Piper 404 

133.  Baptism  of  Christ.     Mosaic  from   Santa  .Maria    in   Cosmedin,   Ravenna. 

After  Quast 405 

134.  A  baptism,  from  a  fresco  in  Santa  Pudenziana,  Rome.     After  Martigny  405 

135.  A  baptism  of  Christ,  from  a  fre.sco  in  San  Ponziano,  Rome.     Munter..   406 

136.  A  baptistery  from  a  sarcophagus,  Rome.       After  Dehio  and  Bezold.  ...   410 

137.  Groundplan   of   a   baitisterv  at  Deir  Seta,  Central  Syria.     After  de 

Vogue 410 

138.  Vertical  Section  of  baptistery  of  San  (Jiovanni.     Dehio 411 

139.  Vertical  Section  of  baptistery  in  Albegna.     Dehio 412 

140.  An  Altar  (meiisa)  of  the  fifth  century.     After  Roller 427 

141.  A  Roman  columbarium.     After  (Juhl 513 

142.  A     STREET     OF     TOMBS     LEADING     FROM    HeRCULANEIM    (iATE,    PoMPEII.       AtTER 

GUHL 615 

143.  Entrance  to  Santa  Domitilla,  Rome.     Kraus 517 

144.  A  GALLERY   IN  CATACOMBS.       XoRTHCOTE  AND   BrOWNLOW 518 

145.  Plan  of  Santa  Agnese,  Rome      Kraus 518 

146.  An  arcosolium.     Krai  s 519 

147.  Section  OF  chamber  AND  LUMiNARiuM.      Northcote  and  Brownlow 520 

148.  Rock-hewn  tombs  at  El-Barah,  Central  Syria,     de  Vogue 521 


Plate   I.  Gilded  glasses  and  bronze  busts,  represfnting  Peter  and 

Paui Fac-no  112 

"      11.  The  sarcophagus  of  Junius  Bassu.s,  Photograph Facing  144 

'■'     !!•.  The  sarcophagus  OF  Junius  Bassus,  Engraving Facing  145 

"    III.  Christian  INSCRIPTIONS  associated  with  Christian  symbols..  Facing  258 


xvi  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

Plate  IV".  Christian  symbols  on  burial  monuments Facing  261 

"         V.  Epitaphs  from  first  half  of  the  third  centurt Facing  262 

"       VI.  Inscriptions  of  doctrinal  import Facing  264 

"     Yir.  Inscriptions  of  Pope  Damasus,  fourth  century Facing  265 

"    VIII.  Epitaphs  of  second  half  of  the  fourth  century Facing  267 

"       IX.  Facsimile    of  the  first    page  of   the   Antiphonarium   of 

Gregory  the  Great Facing  313 

"         X.  NuMiE  FROM  early  Codices Facing  314 

Map  ok  the  Roman  Empire  at  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Justinian, 

showing  the  chief  sites  of  Christian  monuments Facing  22-23 

Map  of  Rome  and  its  environs,  showing  the  location  of  the 
catacombs,  principal  churches,  and  other  important 
objects Facing  545 


CONTENTS  AND  ANALYTIC  OUTLINE. 


INTRODUCTION 


(llAl'TKK    I. 

OENEKAL    PKlNCll'LES. 


1.  DefinUiim 13 

2.  Divisions 13 

3.  Divisions  of  Cliristiiin  uichteolojfy. 

,(1)  or  Christian  art 13 

(2)  Of    coustitutiou    and     govern- 

niunt 14 


(3 )  Of  worship  and  rites 14 

{4}  Of  Christian  life 14 

4.  History  of  arehteoloiry lo 

5.  lielutioiis  of  Ciiristiaii  to  classieal  ar- 

cliieoiogy 1 1> 

(j.  Clironoloyieal  limits  and  reasons. .  17,  16 


1.  Connection  of  arclueolojry   witli   his- 
tory of  civilization IS 

■2.  Utility  of  arclueology. 

(1 )  Has  corrected  elironolo<ry 20 

(2)  Has  corrected  false  notions  of  the 

hatred  of  art 2< i 


CHAl'TEK   II. 

UTILITY    OF   THE    STUDV. 

(3)  Has  aided  to  correct  tlie  text  of 


patristic  writings 20 

(4)  Ihus   helped  to  write  the  history 

of  heresies 21 

(5)  Unconscious  testimony 21 

(6)  Tliey    help    to    a-^certain    what 

Christ  taught 22 


BOO  K     FIRST. 

ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    CHRISTIAN     ART. 
CHAPTER    I. 

CEOOltAPnY    AND   cnUONOLOOY   OF   CHRISTIAN'    AI!T   MONUMENTS. 


1.  Reasons  of  the  rapid  spread  of  the 

Gospel 25 

2.  A  message  to  the  poor 25 

3.  (iaincd  some  of  the  hetter  classes. .. .  2i) 

4.  IS'umbiT  of  Christians  in  the  empire. .  215 

5.  Spirit  of  t)ie  new  religion 27 

6.  Adoption  In-  the  state 27 

7.  Monuments. 

(1)  Increase  of 28 


(2)  Nevertheless  limited 28 

(3)  Ruthless    destruction    of,    rea- 
sons     2S,  29 

8.  Monuments  of  first  century 29,  30 

30,31 

31-34 

34-36 

3i>-39 

39-41 


second 

third 

fourth 

tillh 

sixth 


CHAPTER    II 


THE    KF.LATIONS    OF    rUr.ISTIANITV    TO    ART    DlRINTt    THE    FIRST    SIX    TENTfUlKS. 


.  Tliree  chief  (juestions  involved. 

A.  The  Jewish  origin  of  the  first 
Ciiristiaii  converts,  and  the  pe- 
culiarity of  the  Semitic  imagina- 
tion. 

(1)  Firet  Christians  of  Jewish  ori-  42 

gin 42 

(2)  Jewish  exclusivene.s.s 42 

(3)  Depressed  condition  of  Jewish 

people 43 

(4^  Tliis  uniuvoruble  to  art  culture.  43 
1 


(5) 

{<->) 
(7) 

(S) 

(9) 

(10) 
(11) 


The  second  commandment  does 

not  proiiihit  art 43 

The  temple  site 44 

Vcgetalile  and  animal  forms. . .   4") 
The   commaiulmeiit  a   liinder- 

ance  to  iirt 45 

The    Semitic    imagination  im- 
petuous   45,  4ii 

Exain]>lcs  from  Scripture 4<j 

Coiiflrmetl  from  examjiles,  the 
temple,  sculpture,  poetry..  47,  48 


CONTENTS   AND   ANALYTIC    OUTLINE. 


B.  Diverse    opinions     of   Jews    and 

Greeks  ivhitive  to  the  nature  and 
revrlution  of  God. 
(i;  Hebrew  nionotlieisni   unfavor- 

ubl:  to  arts  of  tonn 49,  50 

(2)  Tlie  Greek  uiytliology,   its  ex- 

terniiliiess,  favorable  to  arts 
of  form 49,50 

(3)  Illustration  in  8l.  Paul's  vvrit- 

in<< 50 

C.  Tlie  (frowini;-  intluence  of  Clii-isti- 

:.uity,  and  its  etfeet  ou  art  cult- 
ure. 
(!)  Universalisin  of  the  Gospel..  51 

(2)  Powerful  art  intiuenees 51 

(3)  Early  opposition  of  Clinstipns 

to  art — its  extent  52,  53 

(4)  Decorative    art    tlie     earliest 

form 54 

(5)  Oriifiiuility  of  Cliristian  art. . .  54 

(6)  Syiiili"lisni  of  Christian  art. . .  55 
(,7j  The  Church  appropriated  what 

was  at  hand 55 

(S)  Deciiratiou    of    burial    monu- 
ments       50 

2.  The    Roman    Cataconibs,   decorative 

art  in  the  same    56-58 

3.  Comminoiinj^  of  Christian  and  pa- 

gan elements 59 


4.  The  mythological  element  in  Christ- 

ian art. 

( 1 )  Barberini  Dijjtych 60 

(2)  Sarcophajrus  of  Junius  Bassus     60 

(3)  Greek  manuscript 60 

(4)  Konian  imperial  coins 61 

5.  Types 61 

6.  Heathen    elements     in      Whristiau 

structures. 

( 1 }  Sarcophagi 62 

(2)  Churches 62 

7.  Prophecies  and   preparations  —  ex- 

amples. 
(Ij  Transhition    of    Elijah    and 

Apollo ' 63 

(2)  The  good  shepherd  and   the 

ram  bearer 62 

(3)  Christ  and  Orpheus 64 

(4)  Christ  and  Hercules 64 

(5)  Temptation  and  the  Sirens. . .     65 

(6}  Clirist  and  Mai'S •  66 

(7)  Numismatic  exnmples 66,67 

8.  No  bacchic  nor  amatory  scenes  ....     68 

9.  Amor  and  Psyche  the  type  of  eternal 

reunion 68,  69 

10.  The  genii 69 

11.  Tlie  piicenix  a  symbol  of  the  resur- 

rection  70,  71 


ciiAi'TKu  in. 


SVMIIOLISII    OK    (,UIl:lSTIA.\    .VUT. 


General  principles. 

(1)  Dctinition  ot  symbol 

(2)  Not  arbitrary.'. 

(S)  Caution  in  interpretation.... 

(4)  Canons  of  interpretation 

(5)  Schools  of  interpretation 

Examples — Christ. 

(1)  No    portrait  of    Christ    pre- 

served  

(2)  The  lamb 

(3)  The  fish — tlie  eucharist. . . .  77- 
Tlie  cross  and  crucifix. 

(1 )  Pre-Christian 

(2)  Signs  of  the  cross 

(3)  Prc-Constantine  cross 

(4)  Not  of  Indian  origin 

(5)  The  moiidgrani  of  Christ. ..  85- 


74 


(6)  The  Tau  cro-ss 88 

4.  The  Alpha-Omega  nionuiucnts 88 

5.  The  vine 89 

6.  The  Good  Shepherd 90 

7.  This  symbol  not  necessarily  derivetl  91 

8.  Tiie  disciples  aiin  the  Church. 

(1)  The  door— its  siirnificance. . .  91 

(2)  The  fish ': 92 

(3)  The  sliee|)  and  the  lambs 93 

(4)  Tiie  ship  explained 93 

9.  Other  symbols. 

(1 )  The  anchor 93 

(2j  The  palm-tree  and  the  palm 

blanch        93 

(3)  The  crown,  lyre,  peacock,  1  tc.  93 
li>.  The  caricatures  of  Ciiristand  his  iloc- 

trinc 94-96 


CHAPTKK    IV. 


EARLY    CHRISTIAN    PAINTING    AND    MOSAICS. 


Earliest  paintings  in  the  catacombs.  97 
Similarity  of  Cliristian  to  luathen 

painting 97 

The  cycle  of  Christian  art  peculinr.  98 

The  principle  of  aitistic  bahincing. .  98 

Naturalness  of  earlv  Christian  art  ..  99 

Two  types  of  Christ 100 

The  later  frescos   depart    from   the 

earlier  type 101 

Reasons  of  this  change 104 

Tiie  oranten 106 


N( 


symbolic  representation 
Viri'iii 


106 


11.  Various  types  of  the  Virgin. 

(1)  The  Virgin  and  star 106 

(2)  Virgin    and   child   in    Santa 

Domitilla 107 

(3)  Virgin    and   child   in   Santa 

Agnesc 108 

12.  The  Goo  I    Shepherd   and    St.    Ce- 

cilia    109 

13.  Vine  ornaments 110,111 

14.  Paintings  on  gilt  glasset* Ill 

15.  Primacy  of  Peter 111,112 

16.  Miniatures  and  illuminations 11'! 

17.  Fragment  of  a  Latin  Bible 114 


CONTENTS   AND    ANALYTIC   OUTLINE. 


1.  Genciiil  principlfi*. 

(H  How  clasMfiod 114 

( 'J)  Nearest  allied  to  puiiitiii^ 115 

(3)   Kinds  of  ninsaii's 11") 

2.  Limited  use  in  the  Catiicombs llo 

.1.   Utility  of  tlieir  study 11") 

4.  Caution  n<rainst  resloraiious 1  Hi 

r*.  Chronoloiry 1 10 

(5.  Santa  Con^tanza  in  Konic. 

(1)  Its  style 117 

( 2)  Its  description ll'J 

^3)  Transition  in   &tylo,  and  the 

cause 119 

7.  Ch:ipels  in  San  Giovanni  in  Latcr- 

nno 115 

8.  Santa  Pudi-nziana    119 

9.  Santa  Sahina  120 


vies. 
10, 
11. 


12. 


Saint  Paul  beyond  the  walls l'_'<> 

Santa  .Maria  Mu<rj{iore. 

(1 )  Deseriptiun 120 

(2)  Tiie  teachings  of  these  mosa- 

ics     121 

Mosaics  of  Kavenna. 

(1)  San  Giovanni  in  fonte 1'.'2 

(2)  Mausoleum  of  Galla  Phiciiliu.  122 
Other  mosaics  of  the  fifth  century . .  12:} 
Mosaics  of  tiie  si.vth  century. 

(1)  SS.     Tosmius    and      Dainian, 

Rome,  description....  124,125 

(2)  San    .Viiollinare    Nuovo,    Ka- 

venna      125 

(3)  St.  Soi)hia, Constantinople  127-129 

(4)  St.  Sophia,  Thes-salonica.  129,  l:iO 

(5)  St.  Calharine's,  Mt,  Sinai 180 


CHAPTER  V. 


EARLY    CniSISTIAN 
9 

10 


1.  Why  Christianity  seemed  hostile  to 

sculpture    131 

2.  Why  sculpture  experienced  a  deca- 

dence    131 

3.  No  portraitures  of  Christ 131 

4.  The  (iood  She[ilierd  in  statuary 132 

5.  Difference  between  the  Good  Shep- 

herd and  the  ram-bearing   Mer- 
cury    133 

().  The  bronze  statue  of  St.  Peter 133 

7.  Statue  of  Hippolytus,  its  Christian 

orisrin  questioned 133, 134 

8.  Types  of  Christ  in  Christian  sculp- 

'ture 136 


SCULPTIKE. 

The  decorative  principle  united  with 

the  symbolic 137 

E-Xamjiles  of  combination. 

( 1 )  Translation  of  Elijah 13H 

(2)  The  History  of  Jonah 139 

Frequency  of  recurrence  of  Scriptu- 
ral subjects  142 

.Architectural     elements    in    sarco- 

pha'.M 142,143 

The  Junius  Iia.ssus  monument. .  145, 146 

The  nativity   in  sculpture 14S 

The  la-st  judgment  in  sculpture 150 


CARVINGS    IN    IVORT. 


1.  Ivory  diptych.«i 151 

2.  ('onsular  and  ecclesiastical  tliptyc^hs  151 

3.  One  of  the  earliest  representations  of 

the  crucifi.xion 154 


4.  Carving  on  book-covers 155 

5.  Ivory  pixes 156 

6.  Sculptured  lamps 157 

7.  .\mpull?e  or  blood  phials 157, 158 


CHAI'TEK  VL 

EARI.Y  CHRISTIAN  ARCHITECTCRE. 

§1. —  Th(  Chrixtian  BntAlica. 


1.  Origin  of  the  ba.silica  : 

(1)  Alberti's  theory  from  the  Ro- 

man basilica 157 

(2)  Zestorniann's  theory,  a  (,'hrist- 

iaii  development 158 

(3)  His  live  eliis.ses l.V.l 

(4)  Tiie  hypa-thral  temple 159 

(5)  Messmer's  theory,  from  the 

triclinium K,l 

(fi)  From  the  private  dwelling. .    162 

(7)  From  the  pagan  ■vc///>/a 162 

(S)  An  eclectic  view,  its  di.scua- 

sion 162-166 

(9)  Relations  of  private  ilwellings 

to  churches 166 

flO)  Development  of  the  atrium 

167-169 
(11)  The  schola  and  burial  guilds 

170-172 
MJi  The  cellse 172-175 


2.  Origin  of  pagan  Roman  basilica. 

(1)  Form  of  the  law  basilica 175 

(2)  The  apse 177 

3.  Constructive  elements 17H 

4.  Erroneous  theories 178 

5.  Earliest  notices  of  Christian  basili- 

cas   180 

6.  The  Christian   Church   an   organ- 

ism   l^^l 

7.  The  ap.se  the  unifying  member  in 

the  Christian  basilica 181 

8.  Suggestion  of  the  apse  in  heathen 

structures 1 82 

9.  Differences   between    heathen   m\>\ 

Christian  basilicas 183 

10.  The  parts  of  the  basilica: 

(1)  The  ap-c  and  its  furniture...  184 

(2)  The    vestibule 1S5 

(3)  The  traiisci.t 187 

(4)  The  triumphal  arch 157 

(5)  The  naves 158 


CONTENTS   AND   ANALYTIC   OUTLINE. 


11.  The  irfluence  of  the  Cliristian  hr>-_ 

wilicii    on   other   tonus   of 
Christian  architecture. 

(1)  First  germs  of  the  Gothic.. ..  IS'.t 

(2)  The  unifyint;  spirit 189 

(3)  Furtljcr  transformations 190 

12.  Some  of  the  earliest  Christian  churches. 

(1)  Few  pre-Constantine 191 

(2)  E.\an.ples 193-196 

13.  B:i>ilieiis  of  Roiiian  origin  in  the  time 

of  Coiistantine. 

(1)  Constantine's  influence 190 

(2)  Few  churches   survive— ex- 

amples  197-202 


14.  Some  hasilira^  of  the  post-C'onstan- 

tiuc  [icriod. 

(1)  Conti'asts   Ijetween   Ea.st  and 

West 202 

(2)  Splendour    of    Constantine's 

reign 203 

(3)  E.xam  pies  of  churches...  203-206 

15.  Churelies  of  Ravenna. 

(1)  Periods  of  architecture  in  Ra- 

venna   207 

(2)  Examples  of  churches  in  each 

period 208-211 

KJ.  Christian    basilicas   in   other  coun- 
tries  211-217 


§  2. —  The  Central  or  Dtmud  Church. 


1.  Its  peculiar  home  in  the  East 217 

2.  Oi'l'^in  of  the  domud  structure. 

(1)  Verv  obscure 218 

(2)  Resemble  baptisteries 218 

(3)  Central  buildmg  in  Constan- 

tine's time 220 

3.  Classification  of  domed  structures. 

(1)  Witii  niches 220 

(2)  Cruciform  structures '. .   221 

(3)  The  simple  rotunda 221 

(4)  With   niches  and   columns— 

e.xamiiles 222-229 

4.  Byzantine  arcliitecture. 

"  (1)  Syncretism  in  art 230 


(2)  Valuable  art  services  of  By- 

zantium     231 

(3)  A    product   of   the    Oriental 

spirit 232 

(4)  Three  liistoric  periods 232 

(5)  Fixedness  of  art  fonhs  in  the 

.-ceond  period — reasons,  232,  233 
Saint  Sopliia. 

n)  Difficulties  of  structure 234 

(2)  Vast  preparations 235 

(3)  Description 230-241 

The   circuhu-  structure,  and   exam- 
ples  241-244 

The  cruciform  buildings,  and  exam- 
ples  ; 244-246 


CII.\PTER  VII. 

EARLY    CnniSTIAN    KPIGRAPHY. 


1.  Definitions  and  principles. 

(1)  Early  Christian  use 

v2)  Increased   interest   in    later 

times 

(3)  Value     of     Christian     epi- 

graphv 

(4)  Number"  of    Christian    in- 

scriiitions 

(5)  Materials  on  which  inscrip- 

tions are  found 

(0)  Kinds  of  inscriptions 

2.  PalEeographic  principles. 

(\\  How  are  inscriptions  read. . 

(2)  Punctuation 

(3)  Orthography  of  inscriptions. 

3.  Chronology  of  inscriptions. 

(\)  Indictions •  ■  ■ 

^2)  Provincial  eras 

(3)  Inscriptions  without  dates. . 

(4)  Special  indications 

4.  The  subject  and  content  of  inscrip- 

tions. 

(1)  Pagan  influence  in  Christ- 

ian ciiiL^rMphy 

(2)  Beck(M-'s  four  conclusions  re- 

spectmg  D.  M 


247 
247 
248 
248 

249 

249 

250 
2.50 
251 

252 
252 
2^3 
253 


254 
255 


(3)  Views  of  death  and  of  the 

future 256, 

.Application  of  pi-inciples  and  their 
illustration. 

(1)  The  magi 

(2)  Paradise 

(3)  Orantes 

(4^  The  church 

(5)  Tapers  in  church  service 

Ml)  Other  symbols 261, 

(7)  The-  significance  of  dorrnit . . 

(6)  Carelessness  in   preparation 

of  inscriptions 

(9)  The  future  life 

(10)  The  Dainasenc  inscriptions. 

(11)  Prayers  to  tlie  dead 

(12)  The  terms  for  chief  pastor. . 

(13)  Warning   against   hasty  in- 

ductions  

(14)  Po-sible  ignorance  of  Christ- 

ians as  to  tlie  significance 

of  certain  inscriptions 

Eulogistic  charac'er  of  later  inscri]'- 

tions 

The  Grrfffifl 268, 

Epigraphic   and    pictorial    aids    to 

liistory  illustrated  .    .  270, 


257 


258 
258 
258 
259 
260 
262 
263 

262 
264 
264 
265 
206 

267 


207 


268 
269 


271 


CONTENTS   AND  ANALYTIC   OUTLINE. 


CIIAl'TER  VIII. 

EAIILV   CUniSTIAN    POETKY    AMI   HVMNOLOGY. 


1.  Pivliiuinary  coiisidernlioiis. 

(1)  Kelutious   of  poetry   to    re- 

lU'ion 272 

(2)  Earliest  liynins 272 

(3)  Early  Cliristianity  prclific  of 

poetic  themes 272 

(4)  Yet  not  favourable  to  met- 

rical forms 273 

(5)  The  I'salter  at  fii-st  in  gen- 

eral use 273 

(6')  Gems  of  hyninolo|;y  in  the 

New  Testanienl 273 

(7)  The  probable  use  of  hymns 

in  the  second  century 274 

(8)  Miiiitur's  conclusions 275 

(9)  The  Greek   fathers   favour- 

able to  the  use  of  hymns.   276 
(10)  Reason   of    the   fewness    of 

hynin.s 276 

2.  Sacred  poetry  of  tlie  Syrian  Church. 

(1 )  Antioch  the  mother  city 277 

(2)  The  liynms  of  the  Gnostics.  278 

(3)  Ephracm     of    Edcssa,    his 

methods 278 

(4)  His  poems  numerous,  their 

metrical  principles 279 

(5)  Example  of  his  poetry.  279,280 

3.  The  Greek  hvnniology. 

(1)  The  iipi/aj/w/w^  of  Clement.  280 

('2 1  Gregory  of  I^azianzcn 281 

(3;  Synesius,  his  defects 281 

(4)  Anatolius  and  his  hymns..  282 


Tlie  poetry  and  hymnology  of  the 
VVcBtern  Church. 

(1)  Two  kinds  of  sacred  poetry. 

(2)  Lyric    poeuy   an    exotic   in 

Home 

(3)  High  cliaracter  of  Cliristiun 

lyric 

(4)  Commodianus,    his     poem-, 

their  value 

(5)  Lacluntius       and       Juven- 

cus 285- 

(6)  Damasus,    hynnis    of,    and 

character 2^7, 

(7)  Disturbed  conditions  under 

Constantino 

(8)  Julian  ancl  his  policy,  iis  ef- 

fects upon  Christian  litera- 
ture    2s9, 

(9)  Paulinus      of      Nola,       his 

theory  of  poetry,  and  his 
themes 290, 

(10)  Ambrose,  his  education  and 

contributions  to  hynniol- 
'W 201, 

(11)  Inriui-nce  ot  Arian  hymns.. 

(12)  Prudentius,   his   works  and 

their  character 293- 

(13)  Fortunatus,  his  poems..  295, 

(14)  Other  hvnni  writers 

(15)  Doxolog'ies 29ii, 

(It!;  Gregory's  hymns  ot  doubt- 
ful genuineness 


283 
2S4 
2»4 
285 
287 
288 
288 

290 

291 


292 
292 

295 
296 
296 
297 


296 


CHAPTER  IX. 


EARLY    CHRISTIAN   MUSIC. 


Educational  value  of  Jewish  cere-  18. 

monies 298 

Hebrew  music  lost 298    19. 

First  Christians  familiar  with  Jew-  20. 

ish  forms 299 

Greek  inHuence  jwwerful 299    21. 

The  old  temple  service  a  partial  con-  22. 

servator 300    23. 

InHuuiice  of  Jewish  sects 300 

The  early  Christians  adopted  what  24. 

was  then  at  hand 301 

Improvisation 301    25. 

Music  not  an  imitation  of  nature. . .  302    26. 
The  bcL'innings  of  Christian  music 

uncertain  in  date 302  i  27. 

•Arian  inHuence 303    28. 

Conciliary  actif)n 303  1 

I  )i.inions  as  to  this  action 303,  304    29. 

Cliaracter  of  the  singing  service 304  . 

Aiiibrosian  chant 305  ,  30. 

Cluingetl     circumstances     of     the         | 

Church— its  effect  on  music 305  j  81. 

Music  and  poetry  associated  by  the 

Greeks 306  '  32. 


The  Greek  musical  notation— its 
complex  clijiracter 

Romans  not  patrons  of  art 

Cliristianity  first  developed  the  dia- 
tonic   

Ambrose  reduced  the  modes  to  four 

The  modes  and  scheme 

(Jthcr  musical  writers — Macrobius, 
Boethius,  etc ..   .. 

Gregory  the  Great,  his  services  in 
reforming  music 

The  Authentic  and  Plagal  modes. . 

Explanation  of  these  aiul  the  nature 
of  the  development 31 2-: 

Gregorian  Antiphonanum 

The  Nuiiue — illustrations  and  Iran— 
lations  i)roposed — the  key  lost. . . 

Perpetuations  of  the  Gregorian  cliaiit 
— its  originality ... 

Decline  of  music  in  the  Eastern 
Churcii 

Connection  of  religion  with  art  'iil- 
ture 317.3 

Remarks  of  Cousin 8 


307 
307 

308 
309 
309 

SIO 

311 
312 

!14 

314 

315 

316 

316 

isn 
IBII 


CONTENTS   AND   ANALYTIC    OUTLINE. 


BOOK     SECON  D. 

THE     ARCHAEOLOGY     OF     THE     CONSTITUTION     AND     GOVERN- 
MENT OF    THE    EARLY   CHRISTIAN    CHURCH. 

CHAPTER  I. 


THE   CHRISTIAN    CHURCH    IN    ITS    lUEA   AND    ORIGIN. 


1.  New  Testament  idea  of  the  Church. 

( 1)  A  kingdom 322 

(2)  'EKKhjGia 322 

(3)  The  body  of  Christ 323 

(4)  A  temple 323 

(5)  The  bride 323 

(6)  A  visible  form 323 

2.  Tiiu  names  applied  to  its  members. 

(1)  Disciples 322 

(2)  Believers 323 

(3)  Brethren 323 

(4)  Opprobious  epithets 323 

(5)  The    clients    of    their    Master, 

Christ 323 


Apostolate. 

The  triumph  of  the  Church  as- 
sured    323 

No  inspired  iorm  of  the  Church  324 

Charisms 324 

Christ  alone   was   teacher,   the 

apostles  were  disciples 324 

A  fellowship 325 

Apostles  known  to  the  Jewish 

Church 326 

I  Other  ministers 328 

I  The  Twelve— its  significance. ..  327 

I  Other  apostles 328 

I  The  first  test  of  apostleship 328 


CIIArTER  II. 


THE   APOSTOLIC   CHL'RCH — ITS 


The  apostles  and  deacons. 

(1)  First  officers 

(2)  But  one  order  at  first 

(3)  Who  were  the  deacons? 

(4)  Gravity  of  their  functions 

(5)  Adopted  by  the  Gentile  churches 

also 

(6)  Deaconesses • 

(7>  Tliediaconate  peculiarly  Chris- 
tian   

(8)  The  deacons  also  preached 

(9)  Prior  to  the  first  persecution  no 
formid  church 332, 


no)  The  Church  orcranized 
(1 1)  James,  his  office 


320 
330 
330 
330 

331 
331 

331 
332 

333 
333 
333 

334 

334 
334 

335 
335 


2.  Presbyters  and  bishops. 

(1)  First  pertained  to  local  societies 

(2J  Presbyters  common  to  Jewish 

and  Cliristian  societies 

(3)  A  council — what  I 

(4)  The   entire  community   had    a 
share  in  the  deliberations  . . . 

(5)  Each  congregation  independent. 

CHAPTER  III. 

THE  POST-APOSTOLIC  CONSTITUTION  FROM  THE  DESTRUCTION  OF  JERUSALEM  TO  IREN/EUS. 


COMPOSITION   AND  OFFICERS. 

(G)  The    presbyters  chiefly  officers 

of  administration 335 

(7)  The  early  type  republican,  not 

monarchical 33R 

(8)  Presbyters  a!so  teacliers 336,  337 

(9)  Presbyters  in  Gentile  churches. 

337, 33S 

3.  Essential  identity  of  bishops  and  el- 

ders, 
f  n  Reasons  for  so  believing 338 

(2)  SchafF's  summary 339 

(3)  Why  two  terms?    Two  theories 

339,  340 

(4)  Supervisor  of  charities 340 

4.  General  conclusions. 

(1)  Duties  of  officers  at  first  not 
sharply  defined 341 

(2)  Charisms  the  first  preparation . .  341 

(3)  Clement  makes  no  distinction 
between  bishops  and  pres- 
byters   342 

(4)  No  {race  of  a  primacy 342 


Influence  of  the  death  of  apostles  and 
the  destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem. 

(1)  Their  vast  imyjortance 343 

(2)  The     destruction     of    Jerusii- 

lein  scattered  the  apostles 
ain-oad 343 

(3)  Emancipated  the  ("hurch  from 

Jewisli  prejudices 343 

(4)  Compelled     a     more     compact 

organization 344 

The  Icrnatian  episcopiicy. 

(1)  Funelicns  (if  a  bishop 344 

(2)  Bishops   and   presbyters   diflfcr 

in  their  derivation 345 


3.  The  Clementine  liomilies. 

(1)  A  monarchical  episcopacy 346 

(2)  Bishops  successors  of  the  apos- 

tles   346 

(3)  Arbiter  of  doctrines 347 

4.  The  Shepherd  of  Hennas  and  Polyearp. 

(1)  Distinction    between    the    lay 

and  clerical  clement 347 

(2)  No    Catholic   Church   yet   rec- 

ognized    34S 

(3)  The      bishop      the       unifying 

power 348 

(4)  Church  letters 348 

(5)  No  priesthood  of  the  clergy  in 

tlie  New  Testiimcnt 34a 


CONTENTS   AND   ANALYTIC   OUTLINK. 


(6)  Kise  of  siiecrdotalisni,  its  cf- 

fc'CUs 349 

(7)  The   views    found   in   "  The 

Teiicliin;;  " 350 

6.  The  form  of  ifoviTiiiiiiiil. 

(1)  A  coiiitivj^atloniii  episcopacy.  850 

(2)  Tiic  cluirisiii  11  result  of  tlic 

office 351  ' 


(8)  Tlio  ciioicu  of  l/isiiops. SAl 

(4)  Tliecpiscopncy  11  development  3.'»1 

(5)  Relations  of  bislio|>s  to  eucli 

otlier 35a 

(C)  Bishop  of  Kiinie 85SJ 

(7)  (-'liaiii,'e  in  itrcsliytoriiil  power  Z'i 

(8)  Ditfurent  aulliorUy  of  bishop 

and  presbyter 3'i.i 


CIIAI'TKK  IV. 


THE   ClIURCn    CONSTITUTION    FROM    1KEN.KU8  TO   THE   ACCESSION    OF   C0N8TANTINE. 


1.  The  theory  of  Iicnieus. 

(1)  Peculiar     conditions     of     the 

Church 353 

(2)  Tlic  Gnostic  tlireuts 353 

(0)  Itivisions 354 

(4)  Testimony    of    Hejjesippus— of 

Irciioeus 3'4 

(5)  TlieChurchprinciplcof Iiena>us  354 
(a)  Harmony  of  apostolic  teach- 
ing    354 

(h)  The  bishops  the  deposita- 
ries of  this  teaching 355 

(c)  A  regular  succession 355 

(d)  Compilation    of     lists    of 
bishops 355 

(6)  Others  in   harmony  with   this 

principle 356 

2.  The  influence  of  Cypiian. 

(1)  Unity  of  Church  identical  with 

the  episcopate 35() 

(2)  Wliicli  unify  jtrocceds  from  the 

chair  of  St.  Peter's 357 

(3)  Power  and  authority  of  tradi- 

tion    357 


(4)  The  episcopate  no  longer  con- 
gregational but  general 

(»)  This  ell'ccted  by  onlination 

Tlie  sacerdotal  principle. 

(1)  Growth  of  sacerdotalism 

(2)  The    priesthood   of  the   clergy 

came  from  the  priesthood  of 
the  body  of  believei"8 

(3^  CyDiian's  view 

(4)  Did  tlie  sacerdotal  prineii)le 
come  from  the  Jewish  or  Gen- 
tile Churches? 

f5)  Lightfoot's  opinion 

fG)  This  not  so  clearly  established. 
Tlie  Apostolic  Constitutions. 

(\)  The  Church  a  divine  state 

(2)  Ordination,  how  cft'ected,  and  its 

significance 

Conclusion. 

(1)  The  (Jhuich  forms  and  govern- 

ment affected  by  their  envi- 
ronments . .  .*. 

(2)  Cliureh  government  a  develop- 

ment  


359 
35y 


360 
3  CO 
361 

362 

362 


362 
362 


CIIAI'TKI!  V. 

THE   OFFICES   AND  OKKICEKS   OF   THE    POST-APOSTOLIC    CIIUKCH. 


i.  Origi 

0) 


i2> 

2.  The 
(1) 

(5) 
(«) 

^'^} 
(8) 


(10) 


n  of  episcopacy. 
Tiieoncs. 

(a)  Of  aposto'ic  origin 

(b)  It  originated  in  household 
societies 

(c)  It  was   formed    out  of  the 

pivsbytcrial  oltice  by  ele- 
vation  

Conclusion 

presbyters,  deacons,  deacon- 
esses, etc. 

Duties  and  jirerogativcs 

Limitations  of  tiic  rights  of  the 
laity 

Functions  of  the  presbyters 

Changes  in  the  functions  of  the 
deacons 

Could  baptize 

Could  not  consecrate  the  eu- 
chnrist 

When  eli>.rible  to  this  office 

The  number  of  deacons 

The  areluleacon. 

|,a)  How  elecfed 

(I>)  His  iinporfancc 

The  deacone-^ses. 

(a)  Qualifications 


363 

364 


364 
365 


365 


365 
366 


366 
367 


367 
367 
368 

36s 
368 

36b 


(2) 
(3) 


(b)  Their  ordination 36'.) 

(e)  Did  not  baptize 369 

(d)  Their  duties 369 

Chorepiseopi,  metropolitans,  and  pa- 
triarchs. 
(1)  Divisions  of  the  empire  accept- 
ed b^  the  Church 369 

Subordination  of  officers .'{70 

Chore]ii.scopi. 

(a)  Occ.ision  of  institution .371 

^b)  I'rcsbvtii-s  or  deacons 37 1 

(c)  Functions 371 

(d)  Sat  in  councils 371 

(4)  Primates. 

(a)  Time  of or.ein  uncertain...  372 

(b)  How  appointed .T,  J 

(c)  Their  <luties ;{72 

(5)  Patriarchs. 

fa)  Arose  gradually 373 

(b)  Duties ." 373 

Suborders  of  the  cleriry. 

(1)  Providential  indications 378 

(2)  Subdeacons 373 

h)  Acol\  tcs 874 

(4)  ExorcisLx,  their  duties 374 

(."')  Other  inferior  officers,  us  read- 
ers, door-keepci-s,  etc 874 


CONTENTS  AND  ANALYTIC   OUTLINE. 


CHAPTER   VI. 

SYNODS   AND   COUNCILS — THEIR   AUTHORITY. 


1.  The  synod  of  Jerusalem 375 

2'.  Church  synods  after  the  analocry  of 

civil  leacfues 375 

3.  Necessary  to  preserve  Cliurcli  unity.  375 

4.  Provincial  synods 375 

5.  Decline  of  lay  intiuence 375 

0.  Metropolitan  synods 37U 

7.  The  representative  principle 376 


Ecumenical  councils 376 

(n  Wlio  assembled  the  councils?  376 

^2^  Who  presided  ? 376 

(3^  Subjects  considered 377 

(4)  Method  of  voting 378 

^5)  Were  their  decisions  binding?  37o 
(6)  Growing  authority  of  concil- 

iar}'  decisions 377 


CHAPTER    VII. 


CHURCH     DISCIPLINE. 


1.  Reasons  and  degrees  of  punishment. 

^1^  Design  of  church  discipline. .   378 
(■2)  Catechumenical  training  a  lat- 
er institution 378 

(3)  Tjie  regulafidei 379 

(4)  Church  discipline  incurred  no 

loss  of  civil  rights 379 

(5)  Sins  venial  and  mortal 379 

((5)  Admonition    and    lesser    ex- 
communication   379 

Cl)  The  greater  excommunication  379 

(8^  Notice  to  other  churches 380 

(9)  Did  not  annul  benefits  of  bap- 
tism   380 

(10)  Right  of  appeal 380 

2.  Penitential  discipline. 


(\)  The  lapsed 381 

(2)  Four  orders  of  penitents 381 

(3)  Special  penitential  presbyter.  382 

(4)  Decline  of  the  penitential  sys- 

tem    382 

{k))  Ceremony  of  readmission 382 

(6)  Five  iitages  of  absolution 383 

(7)  The  care  of  the  early  Church 

respecting  discipline 383 

Discipline  of  the  clergy. 

(1)  More  stringent  than  lay  disci- 

pline     383 

(2)  Penalties  inflicted 383 

(3)  Deposed    clergy  rarely    rein- 

stated    383 

(4)  Ancient  discipline  wholesome  384 


BOO  K    THIRD. 

THE   SACRAMENTS    AND    WORSHIP   OF   THE   EARLY   CHURCH. 
l^'TRODUCTION. 

1.  Nature  of  the  sacraments 389  I  3.  The  number  of  sacraments 388 

2.  Confounding  sacraments    with  mvs-  4.  Ircnanis' view  of  sacrament  and  mys- 

teries   387, 388  '  tery 3S8n 

CHAPTER   I. 

THE    SACRAMENT   OF    BAPTISM. 

§  1.  Tlic  Idea. 

,1.  The  formula 389  1  3.  Opinions  respecting  its  nature 390 

2.  Peculiaritv  of  the  baptism  instituted  I  4    Its  characterizations 390 

by  Christ 389  l 

§2.  Subjects  of  Ba}?ti.'im. 

1.  First  subjects  were  adults 391  I  5.  Oi  igen's  testimony 392, 393 

2.  Scriptures  and  Apostolic  fathers  si-  li.  Intimt    baptism   postponed  till  third 

lent  respecting  infant  liaptisni. . .  391  I  year 393 

3.  Patristic  views 391.  392  !  7.  Liberal  practice  of  the  Church 39  i 

4.  Not  general  until  fourth  cent\n-y 392  I 

§  3.  CntecJmmctiical  Training  of  Adults  for  Baptism. 
'1.  Baptism  immediate  on  profession  of         ,  2.  Special  training  necessary  in  case  of 

faith 394  I  Gentile  converts 394 

S4.  T!ic  Mini-itrants. 

1.  A  function  of  the  bishops 394  |  2.  ()tlir.r«  conM  administer  it  in  extreme 

I  cases 395 


CONTENTS   AND   ANALYTIC   OUTLINE. 


8  5.  The  Mode  af  Uaijtutin. 


1.  Christ  inado  use  of  known  niudcs, . .  3lt5  | 

2.  Aimloifies  traced a'.i.'>,  a'jti 

8.  hninei-sion    tlic   usual    mode  anioug 

the  Jews 3!Mi 

4.  Juwisli  |>roselyte  baptism 31)0 

5.  IiniuersiMii  the  usual  mode,  but  lib- 

erty ^le^milted 3'J7 

6.  "Teaching  of  tiie   Twelve"    as    to 

mode : 3!>S,  3!»'J 

7.  Monumental  testiuKjny    31*8-406 

^1)  Frescos  from  Santa  Lucina. . 

39(5-400 


(2)  Frescoes  from  San  PretCBtuto  401 

(3)  "        "      San  CaliHto.  401,402 

(4)  Glass  froni  the  Ei|uiliiio 403 

(6)  Mosaics  from  U:ivenna..  404-4o7 
( t))  ( )ther  frescos 405-407 

8.  Clinic  biiplisni 4u7 

y.  Cyprian's    opinion   of   clniic    bap- 
tism   407,  408 

10.  Baptism  by  uspei-sion  by  Celtic  and  ' 

Coptic  churches 408 


6  0.  Timen  aud  Places  <>/  Baptmm. 

1.  Apo-totic  custom 408  I  3.  A  reuBonablc  liberty  allowed 409 

2.  Favorite  times  of  baptism 409  I  4.  Baptisteries 409-412 

§  7.  Immiidiatc  Preliminariai. 

1.  Profession  of  faith  required 412  I  3.  Sponsors  and  obligations 413 

2.  Renunciation  of  the  devil 412  I 

§  8.  Accompanying  CcrcmonkK. 

1.  Trine  hapti-m  of  the  nude  figure 413  14.  Influence  of  the  Arians 414 

2.  Tertullian's  and  Ambrose's  account         I  5.   Unction 414 

413,  414  j  6.  Imposition  of  hands 415 

8.  Explanations  of  the  practice 414  | 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE    LOKD's   supper. 

i  1.  Idea  and  Mode  of  Cekbratum. 


1.  The  meal  symbolic. 

2.  Celebrated  dail  v.. . 


3.  Testimony  of  earl v  frescos 416, 

4.  A  conununal  meal 

5.  Its  administration  not  confined  to  a 

class 

6.  How  celebrated 

7.  The  agape  discontinued 

8.  The  two  parts  of  w  orship 

9.  The  simplicity  of  early  observance 

418, 

10.  Early  accounts  of. 418, 

11.  Order  of  celebration 419, 

12.  Infant  communion 


416 

13 

416 

14 

417 

417 

15 

16 

417 

17 

417 

18 

418 

418 

19. 

20 

419 

21 

419 

22 

420 

23 

420 

24 

Oblations  of  the  whole  Church 420 

Lituriricid    forms   gradually   devel- 
oped  421,  422 

Character  of  the  liturgies 421 

No  recognition  of  a  sin-oftering 421 

In  what  sense  a  sacrifice 421,  422 

Opinions  respecting  the  eucharist 

422,  423 

Obligation  to  commune 424 

No  private  mass 424 

P^lemcnts  .sent  to  the  sick,  etc 425 

Where  celebrated 425 

When  and  how  often  celebrated.  425,426 
No  elevation  of  the  host 426 


§  2.  The  Altar  and  its  Furniture. 


1.  Names  atid  forms 426 

2.  Position  of  altar 426,  427 

3.  The  chalice  and  paten 42S 


4.  Richness  of  altar  furniture 428,  429 

5.  Protest  against  luxury 429 


CHAPTER  III. 

EAKLY    CnUISTIAN   WOR.«HlP. 

6  1.  The  A])ogtolic  Age. 

1.  Suggestions  of  an  early  liturgy 4.30  14.  Composition  of  early  churches. .  431,432 

2.  Jewish  influences 430    5.  Greater  indeixjndence  among  heathen 

8.  Foniis  of  worship 431  I  converts 433 

8  'i.  Worxhip  in  time  of  ApostnilicFatherg. 

1.  Statement  of  "  The  Teaching  " 4.^3  j  3.  Heathen  testimony 484 

2.  T&stimony  of  Ignatius 434  1 


10  CONTENTS    AND   ANALYTIC   OUTLINE. 


§  3.  Public  }Voiship  in  Second  and  Third  CerUuries, 

1.  Justin  Martvr's  account 434,  435  1  3.  Cyprian's  and  Augustine's  testimony. 

2.  Tertullian's  statement 436  I  436,  437 

CHAPTER  IV. 

THE   EARLIEST   LITURGIES. 

§  'i.— Origin. 

1.  Occasions  of  growth 438  I  3.  Have  undergone  great  moditicationa,  439 

2.  Penitential  system 438  I 

§  2 — Classification  and  Description. 

1.  Neal's  classification 439,  440  I  5.  Liturgy  of  St.  Mark 441 

2.  Two  parts  of  a  liturgy 440  I  fi.  Classes  of  Western  liturgies 441,  44'2 

3.  Litursy  of  St.  Clement 440  1  7.  The  philosopliy  of  the  liturgy 442 

4.  Liturgy  of  St.  James 441  '  8.  Central  tlrouglil  in  each. . .  .V. . .  442,  443 

CHAPTER  V. 

THE  lord's  day,  OR  SUNDAY. 

§  1.— Historic  statement. 

1.  Reason  for  observing  the  first  day. . .  444  I  4.  Imperial  rescripts  concerning. . .  445,  446 

2.  Relation  of  the  seventh  to  the  fii-st. .  444  1  5.  Humane  provisions 44(5 

8.  Early  testimonies  to 445  I 

§  ^.—Sanctitii  and  Ground  of  Observance. 


6.  The  fourth   connnandment  not  the 
basis  of  obligation 449,  450 

7.  Patristic    testimony    respecting    the 
grounds  of  obligation 449,  450 

8.  Reasons  of  seeking  a  legal  sanction..  450 
Jewish  law '■ 449  j  9.  The  legal  at  length  supplanted  the 

moral 451 


1.  The  resurrection  of  Christ 446 

2.  No  positive  enactment 447 

3.  Early  testimony 447,  448 

4.  Provisions  for  observance 448,  449 

5.  Gentile  churches  not  bound  by  the 


CHAPTER  VI. 

EASTEU   AND   OTHER   FESTIVALS. 

g  i.—Tdea  and  Time  of  Observance. 

1.  Influence  of  tlie  Jewish  passover 452  I  3.  The  parties 452,  453 

2.  Controvei-sy  about  observing  Easter         I 

452,  453 

§  2.— Attempts  at  Reconciliation. 

1.  The  import  of  the  question 453  I  4.  Conciliary  decisions 454 

2.  The  demand  of  Victor 453,  454  I  5.  Rule  for  celebration 454 

3.  The  arguments 4.54  I  6.  Dillerent  cycles 454,  455 

§  3.— r?if  Cerrminiics  of  Easter. 

1.  Two  divisions  of  the  festival 455  i  3.  Lengthened  observance  of 45t; 

2.  Acts  of  mercy 456  I 

§  4.— 77ic  Fefitival  of  Pentecost. 
1 .  Two  uses  of  the  word  Pentecost. 456  |  2.  Mode  of  observance 4oi] 

§  5.— The  Feasts  of  Epiphanu,  Otristmas,  etc. 

1.  Multiplication  of  feasts 456  I  4.  Supposed  origin  of  Christmas 457 

2.  Oricrin  of  the  festival  of  Epiphany. .  456  1  5.  Conclusions  reached 457.  45S 

3.  Dale  of  birth  of  Christ  unknown .'. . .  4-57  I  6.  Influence  of  Mariolatry 458 


CONTENTS   AND   ANALYTIC   OUTLINE. 


11 


BOO  K     FOU  RTH. 

THE   ARCHAEOLOGY    OF   CHRISTIAN    LIFE. 
CIIAPTEK    I. 

run    (IIKISTIAN    FAMILV. 


The  family  a  typo  of  the  Church. . .  4*51 

Christ's  sanction  of  tlic  Uiinily 461 

The    apostles    in     harmony     with 

Christ 461,  4C2 

Tciu-hinif  of  the  Fathers 462,  463 

l'o>ition  of  woman  among  tlie  Ro- 
mans     463 

Evils  under  the  liter  Republic 463 

Christian  ami  licjithen  view  of  al>or- 

tion 464 

Opinions  respoctinjj  infanticide.  464,  465 

Training;  of  children 465 

Tlic  Roman  law  concerning  the  chil- 


dren   465 

11.  The  Church  had  oversight  of  mar- 

riage     466 

12.  Prescrilx'd  limits  of  consjii^fuinity.  46i> 

13.  Inrtucnce  <jf  a-sceticLsm  nnd  ccliljttcy.  467 

14.  Pos.sil>le  origin  of  a.scetici:<m 467 

15.  Heathen  examples  of  a»cctici.'^iii 467 

16.  Causes    strcni^hei.ipg     it     in     the 

Church 46S 

17.  Civil  legi.-lation  adverse  to  asceti- 

cism      46« 

18.  Evil  ertect*  of  the  exaltation  of  cel- 

ibacy and  virginity  in  the  Church  469 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE   CHURCH    AND    SLAVERY. 


The  relations  of  the  Church  to  civil 

government 470 

Christianity  gave  a  new  law 470 

Slavery  a  fi.xed  institution  in   the 

Roman  empire 470 

Condition  of  the  slave 470,  471 

Christianity  did  not  attempt  direct 

alx)lition 471,  472 

Its  care  for  the  slave 472 

Emancipation  encouraged  and  prac- 
tised    472 

Slight  influence  of  first  Christian 


emperors  on  abolition  of  slavery.  473 
9.  The   moral    ty{>e   influenced   ab  )li 

tion 473,  474 

10.  The  simplicity  of  Christianity  un- 

favorable to  slavery 474 

11.  Slaves  eligible  to  office  in  the  Church  474 

12.  Monumental  evidence  of  equality  of 

all  classes  under  Cliristiatiitv  475,  476 

13.  The  testimony  of  the  hnllce.. .'.  476,  477 

14.  Christianity  elevated  labor 477 

1.5.  Illustrative  inscriptions 477 

16.  Evidence  entirely  Imnnoniouji 478 


Cn.\PTER  III. 

RELATION   OF   THE    EARLT   OIILRCH    TO   CIVIL    AND   MILITARV    LIFE. 


1.  Christianity  encouraged  lalxir 479 

2.  Trying  position  of  the  early  Christ- 

ians    479 

3.  Certain  trades  condemned 480 

4.  Patristic  opinions 4S0 

5.  Public  amaseiiients  interdicted 480 

6.  Low  condition  of  the  Hoinan  drama  4>*1 

7.  High  tragedy  un[»opular 4'*1 

8.  Legal  disabilities  of  actors 481 

9.  Allshows  tainted  with  idolatry 482 

10.  Tertullian's   and    Cyprian's    state- 
ments   482,  483 


11.  Actors  excluded  from  the  Church..  4H3 

1 2.  Conciliary  action 4S3 

13.  Roman  love  of  spectacles 4«3 

14.  Aversion  to  military  life 4S4 

l.'i.  Tainted  wit'i  idolatry 4H4 

16.  Decadence  of  the  military  spirit. . ..  4»5 

17.  Milder  views  at  length  prevail 4H5 

18.  The  provi-ion  of  the  Church   for 

.aoldicrs 4.^5,  486 

19.  Monumental  evidence 486,487 

20.  Few  monumental  references  to  mil- 

itary life 487 


CHAPTER  IV. 

CHARITIES    IX   THE    EARLV    CHCRCH. 


1.  Poor-relief  by  heathen  peoples 4SS 

2.  Teaching  of  the  Stoics 488,  489 

3.  iLs  defects 489 

4.  The  clulw  and  (fuihls 4S9 

5.  The  element  of  selfisliness  in  them.  489 

6.  IntluoiK-e  of  the  t'o/^^ia  on  Christ- 

ian cliarilies 490 

7.  The  Church  a  true  community 490 

8.  Heathen  charities  tainted  with  self- 

ishness    490 


9.  True  inspiration  of  Christian  charity  491 

10.  One  family  of  believers 491 

11.  Financial  prosperity  in  the  Roman 

empire 492 

12.  Its  iiifluena;  on  charities 49;; 

13.  .■\dverse  influences* 49;> 

14.  Christian  charities  broml  and  organ- 

ized  49.3,  494 

15.  Influence   of   ('hristian   charity   on 

pauperLtm 495 


12 


CONTENTS  AND   ANALYTIC   OUTLINE. 


16.  Opportunities  for  Christian  charities 

in  persecutions  and  misfortunes 

496,  497 

17.  Influence  ofMoutanism  upon  charity  497 


18.  Influence  of  union  of  Church  and 

State 498 

19.  Decay  of  pure  charity 499 

20.  Eise  of  liospitals 499 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  RELATIONS  OF  THE  EAKLY  CHURCH  TO  EDUCATION  AND  GENERAL  CULTURE. 


1.  The  culture  of  the  apostles  difficult 

to  ascertain 500 

2.  Influence  of  Jewish  practices 500 

3.  Schools  in  time  of  Christ 501 

4.  Influence  of  the  synagogue 501 

5.  Christ's  method  suggestive 502 

6.  Exalted  character  of    the    apostolic 

teachings  and  writings 502,  50.3 

7.  The  Christian  duty  to  children 503 

8.  The  prevalence  of  secular  schools. . .    504 

9.  The  declining  condition  of  education 

iu  the  West 504 


10.  Embarrassments  of  the  Christians.   504 

11.  The  Catechumenate 505 

12.  The  uses  of  Greek  learning 505 

13.  The  schools  of  Alexandria  and  An- 

tioch 505-507 

14.  A  more  favorable  view  of  pagan  cul- 

ture    507 

15.  Christian  theory  of  education  as  de- 

veloped by  the  Christian  fathers. 

507-509 

16.  Ett'ects  of  the  barbarian  invasions.  509 

17.  Education  in  the  Eastern  Church..  509 


CHAPTER  VI. 

CARE  FOR  THE  DEAD  IN  THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH. 


1.  Jewish  burial  customs 510 

2.  Burial,  not  burning 510 

3.  Three  kinds  of  tombs 511 

4.  Jewish  monuments 511 

5.  Greek  burial  customs 511 

6.  Both  burying    and   burning  prac- 

tised   511,512 

1.  Cheerfulness  attempted 512 

8.  Roman  customs 512,  513 

9.  Legal  provisions 513 

10.  Both  burial  and  burning  practised.  513 

11.  The  Columbarium 514 

12.  Ornamented   tombs   on   the  public 

streets 514,  515 


13.  Christian  care  for  the  dead 515 

14.  Inhutnation  and  not  burning 516 

15.  The  family  idea  preserved  in  bur- 

ial     516 

16.  No  secrecy  necessnry 516 

17.  Burial  clubs 516 

18.  Origin  of  Roman  catacombs 516,  517 

19.  Description  of  catacombs 517 

20.  Extent  of  catacombs 517,  518 

21.  (lubicula  not  used  for  public  wor- 

ship    519 

22.  The  lighting  of  the  catacombs 520 

23.  Theology  of  the  catacoiubs 520 

24.  Tombs  of  Central  Syria 521 


ADDENDA. 


I.  Glossary  of  Terms 523 

11.  Italian    Churches    and   Catacombs, 

with  English  Names 527 


III.  Translation  of  Inscriptions 529 

IV.  Literature  of  Christian  Archaeology  538 
V.  General  Index 549 


INTRODUCTION. 


CHAPTER  I. 

GENERAL  PRINCIPLES. 

ARCILEOLOGY  (dp\;a'oAoyta)'   is  tlu;  science  of  antiquit}'.     lis 
province   is  to  ascertain  the  life  of  ancient  jieojdes 
by  the  study  of  their  nioniunents,  customs,  hnvs,  institu-         ^  nton. 
tions,  etc.     It  is  an  auxiliary  of  general  history. 

It  may  be  divided  into  u;eneral  and  special   arclia^olo<^y.    General 
archa'oloyy     considers     those     fundamental     })rincij)le8 
which  must  alike  control  in  the  study  of  the  early  life  vsions. 

of  all  pco])les.  Si)eeial  arclueoloijy  has  reference  to  the  life  and 
institutions  of  a  particular  people  or  age,  or  to  a  i)articular  kind  or 
class  of  evidence. 

Christian  arch:coIogy  should  be  further  limited  to  the  systematic 
study  of  the  art,  constitution,  government,  discipline,  FurtherHmita- 
worship,  rites,  and  life  of  the  early  Christian  Church.       tionoftheUTm. 

It  can  be  conveniently  examined  under  the  following  fourfold 
division  :  ^.   .  , 

,,„  ,         ,  ,•  ^,     •     •  D 1 V 1  s  i  o  n  .s  of 

a.    1  he  arcli:rology  ot  C  hristian  ait.  nnisiiun     ur- 

This  examines  Christian  thought,  life,  doctrines,  and  ♦'"'''oiof.'y. 
institutions  as  they  are  found  crystallized  and  expresse<l  in  monuments; 
monumental  evidence  being  here  used  in  distinction  from  document- 
ary. It  therefore  includes  the  examination  of  the  geography  and 
chronology  of  Christian  art  momnncnts;  the  inlbiences  exerted  uj)on 
Christian  art  by  Judaism  and  heathenism  ;  the  synd)oIism  of  Christ- 
ian art  ;  the  history  and  monuments  of  Chi-istian  painting  and 
iiKtsaics,  of  Christian  sculpture,*  architecture,  imisic,  and  poetry. 
It  carefully  studit's  the  Christian  burial  monuments,  also  Christian 
inscriptions,  coins,  medals,  seals,  rings,  diptychs,  and  furniture.'     A 

'  Tlio  word  apx(^"^^"y'(f  seems  to  Ijc  tlie  nd^qiiate  Greek  "vnonymc  for  tlie  Liilin 
AntiquitiiUs.  llenco  some  writers,  nolablj  Biiip;l);im,  have  prel'orred  to  ii=e  tlio 
latter  term. 

'  Otto  Jalin  would  rank  numismatics  among  the  sources  of  liistory,  and  regard 
epigraphies  as  an  auxiliary  of  pliilology. 


14  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

scientific  treatiueiit  presupposes  a  correct  estimate  of  monumental 
evidence,  which  is  the  result  of  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
autoptics,'  criticism,  and  hermeneutics  of  Christian  art  monuments."'' 

b.  Archaeology  of  the  constitution  and  government  of  the  Christian 
Church. 

This  includes,  1.)  The  examination  of  the  fundamental  idea  of 
the  Christian  Church  as  revealed  in  the  New  Testament  Scriptures. 
2.)  The  Church  in  its  organized  form.  3.)  The  offices  and  officers 
of  the  Church  ;  the  superior,  including  the  bishops,  presbyters,  and 
deacons,  and  the  inferior,  including  the  subdeacons,  deaconesses, 
catechists,  acolytes,  exorcists,  etc.  The  government  by  councils, 
synods,  etc.  4.)  The  Church  discipline,  which  examines  the  con- 
ditions and  methods  of  admission  into  the  Church  ;  the  duties  of 
the  individual  members  to  the  organic  body  ;  the  nature  and  extent 
of  penalties,  etc. 

c.  Archtcolog}^  of  Christian  worship  and  I'ites. 

This  embraces,  1.)  The  means  of  public  religious  education  and 
edification,  including  prayer,  singing,  reading  of  the  Scriptures, 
preaching,  etc.;  in  which  all  might  participate.  2.)  The  sacraments, 
their  nature,  number,  efficacy,  candidates,  ministrants,  mode  and 
place  of  celebration.  3.)  The  sacred  times  and  seasons,  as  Sabbath, 
Easter,  Christmas,  Quadragesima,  etc. 

d.  Archaeology  of  C^hristian  life. 

This  considers,  1.)  Tiie  Christian  family,  its  basis  and  significance. 
2.)  The  opinion  of  the  Church  respecting  the  marriage  relation,  the 
treatment  of  slavery,  household  religion,  etc.  3.)  The  relation  of 
Christians  to  trades  and  business  ;  what  vocations  were  lawful,  what 
forbidden.  4.)  The  relation  of  the  Christian  Church  to  charities  ; 
the  care  for  the  poor ;  the  existence  of  orphanages,  hosjjitals,  etc. 
5.)  The  social  and  literary  position  of  the  early  Church.  6.)  The 
care  for  the  dead.  Christian  burial,  prayers  for  the  dead,  etc.^ 

'  This  term  is  applied  to  the  simple  description  of  monuments ;  their  materinl, 
extent,  degree  of  preservation,  style,  place  of  discovery,  etc. 

*  Kraus:  Udier  Begriff,  Umfang,  unci  Bedeutung  der  christlichen  Archceologic. 
Freiburg,  1879.     s.  1?. 

'  V.  Schultze:  In  Zcicklor's  H i ndbuch  der  theologischen  Wissenscha/ten,  etc.  '.'>  Bdc. 
1884.     Vol.  ii,  ss.  •2:!G-272. 

This  is  mainly  after  the  analogy  of  classical  arch;Bology ;  and  no  valid  reason  can 
be  urged  vvliy  the  archajology  of  the  Christian  Churcli  should  not  have  like  logical 
division. 

The  two  latest  treati'^es  upon  Christian  arcliajology  are: 

J.  Mnllet :   Cours  Elemmtaire  d\4rcheologie  religieuse.     Paris,  1883. 

Rciisens:  Elements  d'Archeologie  chretienne.    Aix-la-Chapelle,  1885. 

The  former  dethies  arclueology  as  the  science  of  ancient  monuments.   "  Archseology, 


INTRODUCTION.  16 

The  study  of  Christian  arclKi'oIoLry  proptTly  dates  from  the  six- 
teenth century.     It  was  occasioned  not  only  by  the  general  revival 
of  classical  lcarnin<;,  but  cs])ccially  by  the  earnest  con-    History  of  ar- 
troversii's  of   the   reformation   period.     The  Protestant    •■'"^'"'"Ky- 
reformers  had  vij^orously  arraiLjned  the  Church  for  a  wide  departure 
from  the  primitive  simplicity  of  worship,  doctrine,  and  polity,  and 
they  believed  that  tliis  charge  could  be  best  justified  by  a  thorough 
examination  of  the  life,  the  institutions,  and  the  customs  of  the  early 
Christian  centuries.     The  Magdeburg  centuriators'  thus    The     centuri- 
became  the  pioneers  in  special  archaeological  studies  ;  to    '''^'^• 
justify  the  revolt  against   the  media.'val    Church    was   their   chief 
aim. 

To  answer  this  arraignment  of  the  centuriators,  the  adherents  of 
Rome  were  in  turn  compelled  to  enter  upon  like  funda-  Baronluu 
mental  studies.  Ca»sar  Baronius  (f  1G()7),  a  priest  of  the 
Roman  oratory,  then  a  cardinal,  afti'r  thirty  years  of  most  labo- 
rious investigation  published  his  AhjuiIcs  A'cdciiw,  a  work  which 
has  ever  since  been  regarded  as  the  well-furnished  arsenal  from 
which  tlie  Roman  Catholic  writers  have  derived  their  weapons  of 
defense.' 

While  tlie  thought,  doctrines,  usages  and  life  of  the  early  Christ- 

in  the  sense  in  whicli  we  use  it  includes  the  study  of  architecture,  sculpture,  paint- 
ing— all,  indeed,  enil)raced  under  the  term  arts  of  design  ;  also  paleojrrapliy,  or  the 
science  ofinscriptioiis  and  ancient  writings  :  ninnismatics,  or  ancient  coins  and  medals; 
{tlyptics,  or  en<rravinpf  on  precious  stones  ;  sphrai!;istics,  or  the  science  of  seals;  ce- 
ramics, or  a  knowledge  of  potter}' ;  and,  finally,  furniture — this  last  term  not  beins? 
confined  to  its  ordinary  meaning,  but  including  ever}'  thing  connected  with  Christian 
worship,  as  baptismal  fonts,  chairs,  stalls,  sacred  vessels,  crosses,  chandeliers, 
censers,  vestments,  and  liturgical  ornaments."     pp.  1,  2. 

Canon  Ileusens  says:  "The  stndj'  of  antiquity  can  he  divided  into  two  parts: 
1.)  Sciences  philological.  2.)  Sciences  liistorie.  The  first  embraces  the  literary 
sources,  the  second  the  monumental.  The  word  Clirislian  arclueology  has  ciiicf 
reference  to  the  latter,  or  monumental.  It  therefore,  proper!}'  speaking,  includes  the 
study  of  the  nioniunents  of  Christian  w<irship,  that  is,  church  edifices,  and  church 
furniture  in  its  broadest  sense." 

'Matthias  Flacius,  a  preacher  of  Magdeburg,  an  lilyriati  by  birth,  associated  with 
himself  a  number  of  learned  Protestants,  ainong  whom  were  Matthew  Judex,  Holtz- 
huter,  Andrew  Corvinus,  and  Basil  Fal)er,  for  the  purpose  of  writing  a  Iiistory  of  the 
('hurch  by  centuries.  Hence  these  writers  are  called  centuriators.  This  woik  is 
learned,  and  exiiibits  much  actiteness  and  great  powers  of  generalization,  but,  as 
might  bo  expected,  is  too  often  intensely  partisan. 

*  While  not  himself  an  arclueolngisi.  in  tiio  strict  sense  of  tlie  term,  Baronins 
nevertheless  in  certain  sections  of  his  Aunak-s  examines  the  arcliteologicnl  material.s 
that  are  important  to  answer  certiin  debalod  q-iestions  of  the  early  Christian  his- 
tory. These  were  afterward  collected  and  ndited  l)y  Schidting-  Thesaurus  Anti'iui- 
tattim  Ecclesiasticarum,  etc..  ICOl. 


16  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

ians  were  characteristic,  they  can,  however,  hest  be  studied  in 
Relations  of  connection  with  Jewish  and  classical  archoeolog3\  The 
^i^il^w"!?  ol"  fii"«t  converts  had  been  adherents  of  the  then  ex- 
chaeoiogy.  tant  religious  systems,  Jewish  and  heathen.     On  tlieir 

acceptance  of  the  new  faith  prejudices  were  not  immediately 
corrected,  but  long  continued  in  the  Church  as  modifying 
factors.  The  tenacity  of  the  Jew  for  his  venerated  religion 
and  its  stately  ritual  caused  serious  embarrassment  to  the  apostles 
and  early  Christian  fathers.  The  heathen  mythology  left  its 
deep  impress  upon  the  art  of  the  early  and  mediaeval  Church.' 
The  philosophic  systems  of  Plato  and  Aristotle  furnished  a  vig- 
orous and  exact  terminology  for  the  expression  and  defense  of 
Christian  doctrine,*  while  the  corrupted  Neo-Platonism  of  a  later 
period  was  the  fruitful  source  of  dangerous  heresies.  The 
methods  of  investigation  and  the  forms  of  expression  that  matured 
under  the  influence  of  classical  antiquity  greatly  aided  in  the 
discussion  and  precise  formulation  of  Christian  thought.  These 
philosophic  systems  were  not  merely  negative  i«i  their  relations 
to  Christianity,  but  they  contained  positive  elements  of  the  good, 
the  true,  and  the  beautiful.  They  have  remained  unsurpassed 
for  terseness  and  comprehensiveness,  for  beauty  and  variety.' 
Thus  Christian  archfeology  receives  important  aid  and  illustra- 
tion from  the  study  of  Jewish  and  classical  archeology.  These 
latter  disciplines  are,  however,  with  respect  to  their  content,  almost 
the  exact  antipodes  of  each  other.  Aside  from  purely  literarj'^ 
remains,  nearly  all  the  materials  for  classical  archaeology  are  to  be 
found  in  works  of  architecture,  sculpture,  and  epigraphy,  M-hile  the 
Hebrews  largely  lacked  the  al)ility  to  produce  works  of  a  high  order 
of  excellence  in  formative  art.  Hence  many  of  the  ablest  classical 
archaeologists  make  the  formative  arts  the  centre  and  kernel  of  clas- 

'  Compare  Piper :  Mytliologie  der  cJirisUichen  Kwiint  ron  der  uUesten  Zeit  his  ill's  secli- 
zelinte  Jahrhundert.  Weimar.  Bd.  i,  1847.  Bd.  ii,  1851.  Fr.  Miinter:  SinnUlder 
und  Kunstvorstellungen  der  alien  Christen.  Altonu,  1825.  I\  X.  Kraus :  Die  christ- 
liche  Kunst  in  ihren  friihesten  Anfiingen.     Leipzig,  1873. 

^  Besides  the  numerous  historie.s  of  Clirislian  doctrines,  see  especially  Ucberweg: 
History  of  Philosnjihy,  translated  by  Morris.  2d  Part:  T/te  Patristic  and  Scholastic 
Period.  Backer:  Das  philosophv<che  System  Plnto^s  in  seiner  Beziehung  zum  christ- 
lichen  Dogma.  Freiburg,  18G2.  Aekermann:  Tlie  Christian  Element  in  Plato  and 
the  Piatonic  Philosophy.  Edinburgli,  1861.  Cocker:  Christianity  and  the  Greek 
Philosophy.  New  York,  1870. 

=*  Compare  Kraus:  Lehrlmrh  der  christKchen  Geschichte.  Treves,  1872.  Sepp:  Das 
Heidenthum  und  dessen  Ikdiiufung  fiir  das  Christenthum.  Bd.  ill,  ss.  285-289.  DiJllinger: 
Tilt  Gentile  and  the  Jew  in  the  Courts  of  the  Temple  of  Christ.  Translated  by  N. 
Darnell.  London,  1862.  Piper :  Virgil  ols  Theologe  und  Prophet  in  Evangel.-Kal- 
ender,  1862. 


INTRODUCTION.  17 

sical  archaeology,'  wluk'  writers  on  l»il)li(;il  iirchoeology  must  neces- 
sarily regard  these  arts  as  constituting  but  a  eoini)aratively  insig- 
nitieant  part  of  their  investigations.' 

The  date  from  which  {terminus  a  quo)  this  examination  should 
begin  is  naturally  wlien  the  tirst  germs  of  the  Christian  Church  ap- 
pear, or  when  their  existence  can  be  well  authenticated,  chronological 
even  though  the  documents  and  monuments  may  have  limits  of  our 
entirely  disapjjeared.  1  his  limitation  will,  however, 
be  detenniiied  by  the  main  purpose  which  the  investigator  may  have 
in  mind.  With  respect  to  tiie  other  limiting  period  {tennlnus  ud 
(jue/n)  widely  different  opinions  have  been  entertained.  In  this  case 
there  is  no  natural  terminus.  Some  have  regarded  tlie  deatli  of 
Gregory  tlie  Great,  A.  D.  004,  a  proper  limit  to  Christian  arclueolog- 
ical  iiKpiiries.*  Others  have  extended  it  to  the  eleventh  century,  or 
to  the  age  of  Ilildebrand;*  while  still  others  would  make  the  Refor- 
mation of  the  sixteentli  century  the  line  of  separation  between  the 
old  and  tlie  new."  Some  of  the  later  writers  on  Christian  art 
archaeology  would  place  no  boundary  to  its  appropriate  study, 
regarding  whatever  is  past  as  falling  legitimately  under  the  term 
arclKcological.' 

While  no  strictly  historic  limit  can  be  fixed,  beyond  which  Chris- 
tian archaeological  studies  may  not  be  continued,  we  shall  confine  our 
examinations  to  the  period  ending  with  the  second  Trullan  Council 
at  Constantinople,  A.  D.  092.  Prior  to  this  tlie  Church  had  under- 
gone most  of  its  fundamental  changes,  and  Christian  art  and  institu- 

'  Stark:  HanJbuch  der  Arrhcaologieder Kurust.  Leipzig,  1880,  IteTlieil.  Otto  Jahn  : 
Uehtr  dus  Wtsen  und  die  wichtiijsten  Aufyahen  der  archceoloiji.'ichen  Studien.  Win- 
kleniaiHi :    Geschichte  dtr  Kun-st.  des  Alterthums.     2  vols.,  4lo,  1776. 

'  For  discussion  of  causes,  v.  Bk.  i,  cliap.  ii. 

^Giiericke:  Lthrbuch  der  christlich-kirchhchen  Arrhdoloqie.  2te  Aufl.  Berlin, 
1859,  g  1. 

■•Biii^iiam  :  Origines  EcdesiasticcB ;  or,  Antiq^itien  of  the  Christian  Church.  2  vols. 
1867.     Giiericke:    Op.  cit.     Rhelmvukl:  Die  kirrhliche  Arrhiiologie.   Berlin,  1830,  g  3. 

*Augusu:  llandbiichderch.  Archaologie.  .3  Bdo.  Bd.  i,  s.  23.  Augiisti  rather  inclines 
at  times  to  the  sixteenth  century  as  a  better  limit. 

*Baumgarteu:    Voiiesungen  iU)er  chrisilichrm  Alt^rthiimer. 

'  Hagenbach:  EnajclopiHdia  der  theologi<tchen  Wi.ssemchiften.  6te  Aufl.,  §77.  Crooks 
»fe  Hurst:  Thifohigical  EruydopcRilia  and  Methodology,  pp.  388,  389.  Rosenkranz: 
KiirycL  der  theol.  Wissemclmften,  1867,  {596.  Piper:  Einleilung  in  die  inonumenUde 
TIteotogie,  IS67,  §  17.  Piper  snys :  "Of  course  for  the  monuments  of  art  the  Refor- 
mation constitutes  a  distinct  line  of  demarkatiou.  occasioned  by  the  revival  of  the 
study  of  classical  literature,  and  by  the  changed  conditions  of  life  in  which,  besides 
Christianity,  still  other  elements  of  culture  made  tl'emsolvcs  effective.  .  .  .  But  to  this 
branch  of  theology  (monumontjd)  the  close  of  the  Middle  .Vgea  can  by  no  means  fur- 
;iisii  .1  proper  hmit,  since  the  Ciiristian  spirit  can  never  cease  to  interest  itself  in 
ri)onuin(<nt;il  studies.  To  this  extent  only  is  this  limitation  reasonable,  namely,  liiat 
2 


18  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

tions  had  developed  a  type  that  remained  essentially  fixed  for  five 
hundred  years.  This  comprehends  the  classic  period  of  ancient 
Christian  art  and  the  formative  period  of  Christian  doctrines.  In 
it  are  most  clearly  noted  the  teachings  of  primitive  (^hristianit}^,  and 
just  to  what  extent  art  may  be  a  helpful  auxiliary  of  the  Church  or 
become  a  corrupting  and  misleading  power.  From  the  close  of  the 
seventh  century  begins  a  new  period,  in  which  the  Grffico-Roraan 
element  in  the  West  yields  to  the  Teutonic,  and  the  Byzantine 
church  life  and  art  become  stiff  and  immobile.  The  Church,  by 
the  controversy  over  image  worship,  Avas  now  sundered,  and  thence- 
forth two  distinct  historic  streams  flow  side  by  side.  There  is  no 
longer  one  undivided  Church,  but  the  Greek  and  the  Latin-Germanic 
develop  each  its  own  distinctive  character  and  life. 

The  more  noted  modern  archoeologists '  substantiall}^  agree  to  limit 
Archifioiogists  the  term  Christian  antiquity  to  that  period  during  which 
and  historians  Cliristianit}^  moved  chiefly  within  the  compass  and  influ- 
in  agreement.  ^^^^^  ^^  Grgeco-Roman  civilization.  While  the  duration 
of  this  movement  varied  somewhat  in  Rome,  in  Gaul,  and  in  the 
Orient,^  it  will  be  sufiiciently  exact  for  the  purposes  of  our  inquiry" 
to  limit  the  period  to  the  Council  in  which  the  great  schism  between 
the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches  originated.  In  this  limitation 
the  Christian  archa?ologists  are  in  substantial  harmony  Avith  the 
more  recent  historians  ^  of  the  Church,  Avho  regard  the  seventh  cen- 

at  the  ppriod  of  the  Reformation  art  activity  is  divided  into  the  contrarieties  of  a 
Protestant  and  a  Oatliolic  art.  But  the  products  of  art  history  do  not  connect  with 
ipast  history  alone :  tlie  present  has  also  matured  in  both  communions  tlie  ripe  fruits  of 
a  higher  art  endowment,  and  of  a  profounder  insight  into  the  sacred  Scriptures.  As 
such  works  exert  over  each  other  a  powerful  spiritual  influence,  a  suggestion  is  thus 
furnished  that  in  art  may  be  found  a  ground  not,  indeed,  of  ecclesiastical  union,  but 
of  real  reconciliation."  s.  52. 

'  V.  especially  De  Rossi:  InscripUones  Christiance  urhis  Bomce.  I.  Romae,  1861, 
fol.     Eoma  Sotterranea.     I.  Roma,  1864  ;  II.  Roma,  1867;  III.  Roma,  1877. 

Garrucci:  Haiiiorjhjpta  s.  Pictura  et  Sculpturce.  sacrce  antiq.,  etc.  Paris,  1856. 
Vetri  ornati  di  F'Kjnrt  in  Oro,  etc.  Roma,  1857.  Storia  ddV  Arte  cristiana, 
Prato,  187."?,  3  vols,  fol 

Le  Blant:  Manuel  d'Epigraphie  chretienne,  1869.  lascripKons  cltretiennes  de  la 
Gaul,  1856-1865. 

Martigny:  Dlctinnnaire  des  AniiquUes  cJrretiennes,  1877. 

2  It  is  well  known  that,  while  tho  death  of  Gregory  the  Great  (A.  D.  604)  marks 
sufficiently  the  point  of  transition  from  tlie  antique  to  tlie  mediicval  type  of  the 
Church  in  Italy,  the  Gr?eco-Roman  civilization  was  felt  as  a  controlling  power  in 
Gaul  for  nearly  a  century  later;  so  that  our  studies  must  be  extended  among  the 
monuments  of  (laul  till  near  the  close  of  the  seventh  century. 

3  Neander,  Gieseler,  Baur,  and  others  begin  the  second  or  mediapv.nl  period  with 
the  death  of  Gregory  the  Great;  Niedner  begnis  the  secind  period  with  the  middle, 
and  Kurtz,  Hase.  Alzog,  and  others  with  the  last  quarter  of  the  seventh  century. 


INTRODUCTION.  19 

tiiry  as  tlic  line  of  clivLsioii  bflwcen  anciont  Christianity  and  tliat  of 
the  Middle  Ages;  between  the  period  during  which  the  Church  was 
influenced  by  ajid  influenced  in  turn  (Tneco-llonian  thought,  and 
that  period  during  which  she  came  more  directly  into  contact  with 
the  Teutonic  and  Sclavonic  peoples. 


CHAPTER  II. 

UTILITY  OF  AIlCHvEOLOGICAL  STUDIES. 

Thk  opinion  has  too  commonly  prevailed  tliat  archjEology  is  a 
study  of  the  merely  strange  and  curicnis,  and  that  it  chiefly  contrib- 
utes to  the  gratiHcation  of  the  relic-hunter  and  anticpiarian.'  Doubt- 
less there  was  some  reason  for  this  opinion  when  things  ancient  were 
examined  in  their  isolation  and  for  their  own  sake,  rather  than  in 
connection  with  the  organic  development  of  a  civilization  of  which 
they  are  the  surest  indexes.  Since  arclu-eology  is  con-  yitai  connec- 
nected  vitally  with  the  past,  and  shows  that  any  type  of  tion  of  aroiuc- 
civilization  is  measurably  influenced  by  a  given  environ-  torv^ot  civiu- 
ment,  it  ranks  among  the  most  |)ractical  of  disciplines,  zation. 
The  materials  of  an  earlier  civilization  sustain  relations  somewhat 
similar  to  those  of  the  organic  remains  that  may  have  been  collected 
by  the  paleontologist.  So  long  as  the  latter  are  pre-  Arehteoiopicai 
served  in  nniseums  simply  to  gratify  the  curious  they  objects  iiko  or- 
are  of  little  value.  But  when  by'the  application  of  «an«c  regains, 
clearly  defined  principles  each  bone  and  fragment  becomes  the 
means  of  constructing  the  entire  skeleton  of  an  animal  of  a  far-off 
age,  whose  habits  and  hahitat  are  thereby  reproduced  before  the 
eyes — the  ancient  world  being  thus  made  real  to  the  geologic  investi- 
gator— i)aleontology  becomes  a  vital  science,  and  these  otherwise 
(Ic'ikI  organic  remains  are  instinct  with  life. 

So  with  archa'ologieal  objects  of  either  heathen,  Jewish,  or  Christ- 
ian origin.  Through  the  story  which  they  have  told  many  serious 
errors  of  ancient  history  have  been  corrected,  the  past  of  long-buried 
dynasties  has  1)een  made  to  pulsate  with  a  life  l)efore  wholly  un- 
known, the  i)lans,  occupations,  and  institutions  of  men  have  been 
revealed  as  clearly  as  though  they  were  passing  before  our  eyes. 

'  V.  Crooks  and  Hurst:  Encydopcedia  and  Methodclofiy,  p.  389.  "By  taking  archne- 
ology  out  of  its  councrtion  with  tlie  livinjr  development  of  the  Cliurch  and  making 
it  an  incense-breathing  reliquary,  we  degrade  it  as  a  science,  into  a  mere  hunt  for 
bric-a-brac,  and  give  it  an  un-Protestant  varnish  of  idle  curiosity  and  favoritism." 


30  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

As  by  the  study  and  interpretation  of  Egyptian  hieroglyphics  tue 
Aids  to  profane  history  of  that  ancient  people  has  been  thorouglily 
history.  reconstructed  ;  as  Assyrian  history  has  received  richest 

illustration  and  been  entirely  transformed  by  the  discovery  of  art 
and  epigraphic  remains  on  the  sites  of  buried  cities;'  as  the  Hellenic 
scholars  already  feel  that  the  most  thorough  and  elaborate  treatises 
of  Grote  and  Curtius  no  longer  furnish  adequate  statements  relative 
to  many  phases  of  Greek  life  and  thought  ;  ^  so,  too,  in  the  history 
Equally  to  of  the  Christian  Church  has  archaeology  essentially  aided 
Christian.  jj^  ^j^g  correction  of  many  misleading  statements,  and  led 

to  a  fuller,  juster,  and  more  satisfactory  knowledge  of  the  early 
Christian  centuries. 

Among  many  that  might  be  named,  the  following  points  may  suf- 
fice to  illustrate  the  utility  of  these  studies: 

1.  Much  erroneous  chronology  of  the  history  of  the  first  three 
Has  corrected  centuries  has  been  corrected,  Avhile  the  faithful  study 
c  rono  ogy.  ^£  ^j^^  inscriptions,  both  classical  and  Christian,  has  been 
the  means  of  casting  an  unlooked-for  light  upon  the  lives  and  writings 
of  the  early  Christian  fathers.^ 

2.  Archaeological  studies  have  also  corrected  the  false  notions  rela- 
And  false  no-  ^^^^  ^^  ^  supposed  hatred  of,  or  aversion  to  art  on  the 
tions  relative  part  of  the  early  Christian  fathers.  The  remains  of  the 
*°  ^^^'  catacombs  clearly  teach  that  they,  on  the  contrary,  en- 
couraged the  cultivation  and  practice  of  the  fine  arts.  * 

3.  They  have  been  useful  in  perfecting  the  text  of  the  Patristic 
Aids  to  perfect  writings.  By  them  the  spurious  has  been  separated 
the  Patristic  from  the  genuine,  and  falsifications  have  been  detected 
writings.  g^^^j  eliminated.  By  the  use  of  the  analytic  method 
they  have  enabled  the  investigator   to   bring   into   a  fair   historic 

'  "  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  refer  to  their  value  as  contributions  to  m^-thological, 
historical,  and  pliilolo.G;icnl  knowledge,  as  this  is  now  universalh'  recognized.  They 
suddenly  appear  as  apparitions  of  a  departed  past  which  at  one  time  it  was  supposed 
would  never  be  recovered.  The  history  of  the  West  had  been  told  in  glowing  pages  of 
the  Greeks  and  Romans:  that  of  the  East,  a  hazy  and  ill-defined  conception  of  thought, 
remained  so,  till  rock  and  cla}',  leather  and  papyrus,  had  be?n  compelled  to  reveal 
the  secrets  of  the  unknown  and  almost  magical  characters  in  which  that  history  was 
written.  Some  errors  in  translation — as  in  all  things — but  the  grand  outlines  and 
principal  details  remain,  and  nothing  can  mar  the  chief  outlines  and  beauties  of  the 
history."     S.  Birch:  Records  of  the  Past. 

'■*  V.  K.  L.  Hicks:  A  Manual  of  Greek  Historical  Inscriptions,  pp.  xi,  xii. 

■^  Piper:  Zur  GeschicJite  der  Kirchenvilter  aus  epigraphisdien  Quellen  in  Zeitschrifl 
fur  Kirchengeschichte.  1876. 

■*  de  Rossi:  Roma  Soiterranea,  Introductory  Chapter.  Inscriptiones  Christianoe 
etc.,  Prolegomena. 


INTRODUCTION.  21 

succession  what  was  before  mixed,  confusincr,  and  uncertain. 
I>v  likeness  of  alphabet,  by  siniihirity  of  expression,  by  eom- 
parinsjf  etynioloG^ieal  and  art  characteristics  as  noticed  in  in- 
scriptions and  surviving  art  works,  a  juster  and  truer  text  has 
resulted.' 

4.  The  history  of  the  early  heresies  has  received  important  aid 
from  the  study  of  inscri})tions  both  on  burial  monuments  History  of  her- 
and  on  gems  and  seals.  "  Thus  the  new  religions  of  esies. 
mixed  origin  that  flourished  under  the  Roman  Empire,  the  Mithraic, 
the  later  Egyptian,  and  the  various  forms  of  Gnosticism,  cannot  be 
properly  studied  without  a  constant  reference  to  these  genuine  illus- 
trations (the  Abraxas  gems,  etc.)  of  their  doctrines;  since  the  only 
written  documents  concerning  them  have  been  transmitted  to  us  by 
either  igjiorant  or  ])rejudiced  adversaries,  whose  sole  object  was  to 
heap  as  many  foul  charges  as  they  could  collect  or  devise  upon  the 
members  of  the  rival  sects."  * 

5.  The  peculiar   nature  of   monumental    evidence  mu.st   not   be 

overlooked.      Inscriptions    and     art     remains    become    _.  .„   „„„„„ 
I  _  Their    unron- 

unconscious    witnesses    to    the   facts    of   history,    and    scious  testi- 

to  the   extent   of   this   unconsciousness   is   their  value    ^°°^- 

augmented.     This  becomes  more  manifest  when   we  consider  liow 

large  a  part  of  the  surviving  literature  of  the  first  three  Christian 

centuries   is  of   the  nature  of   apologetics.      These  writings  were 

designed   for   the   defence    of    the   Christian   system   against   the 

attacks  of  adversaries,  or  to  correct  erroneous  doctrines  of  lieretical 

sects.     They  contain,  therefore,  a  strong  personal   element  that   is 

not  most  favorable  to  the  revelation  of  the  whole  truth.     Some  of 

the  most  extended  and  valuable  treatises  are  marked  by  evidences 

of  strong  })assion   which   manifestly  leads  the  writer  to  represent 

the    oi»inions   of   opponents   in    the   most   unfavorable    , 

'  ri  ^  _  In  cent rast 

light,  and  to  conceal  the  weak  points  of  the  apologist,  with  early  apoi- 
Such  weakness  can  hardly  attach  to  monumental  evi-  *'P''"*"'- 
dence,  since  this  implies  calmness  as  well  as  unconsciousness, 
and  is,  therefore,  more  of  the  nature  <»f  average  judgments, 
and  expresses  more  nearly  the  general  public  opinion.  "  The 
unimpeachable  form  of  inscriptions'"  is  a  characti'ri/.ation  of  this 
species  of  evidence  which  has  come  to  be  generally  accepte<l.  A 
rude  inscription  with  grammatical  inaccuracies,  a  palm  branch,  a 
symbol  scratched  upon  the  soft  plaster  used  to  close  a  Christian 
tomb,  a  simple  "  dejiositus,"  or  "  in  pace,"  may  thus  unconsciously 

'  BritUh  Quarterly  Review,  October,  1880,  p.  470. 

'  King:  Antique  Gems,  pp.  xviii,  xix. 

*  Hatcli :   The  Orfjanizatiim  of  the  Early  Christian  Churches,  p.  16. 


22  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

tell  the  story  of  the  real  thought  and  life  of  the  early  Church  more 
truly  and  justly  than  the  most  elaborate  treatise.' 

6.  The  attention  of  scholars  is  now  more  than  ever  before  directed 
toward  the  first  Christian  centuries.  In  the  estimate  of  earnest 
Christian  investigators,  the  questions  of  supreme  importance  are: 
Who  was  Jesus  of  Nazareth  ?  What  were  the  doctrines  which  he 
inculcated  ?  What  was  the  genius  of  the  kingdom  which  he  estab- 
lished ?  What  were  the  institutions  that  he  ordained  ?  What  were 
the  life,  the  customs,  the  accepted  beliefs  of  the  original  Church 
before  it  was  allied  with  earthly  and  governmental  powers  ?  What 
were  the  sources,  nature,  and  intensity  of  the  forces  that  vitiated 
the  purity  and  simplicity  of  the  first  Church  ?  What  are  the  truths 
of  absolute  authority,  because  uttered  and  enforced  by  the  Founder, 
or  by  his  immediately  inspired  apostles  ?  What  is  of  mere  human 
origin,  or  of  prudential  value,  which  may,  therefore,  be  accepted 
or  rejected  according  to  the  shifting  environment  of  the  Church  ? 
The^e  are  some  of  the  pressing  questions  which  Christian  archae- 
ology is  specially  helpful  to  answer,  because  it  regards  the  objects 
which  it  investigates  as  indexes  of  the  life  and  Avill  of  the  early 
Christian  actors  and  of  the  real  spirit  of  the  Church. 

'  Stevens:  The  Old  Eunic  Monuments  of  Scandinavia  and  England.  London,  1865, 
1867,  1868.  "This  absence  of 'grammatical  propriety,'  and  this  presence  of  'a  most 
illiterate  and  unskillful  artist'  are  doiiblv  precious  in  the  eyes  of  the  speech-killer, 
even  as  much  so  as  the  'accurate  spelling'  indiilfjed  in  by  the  more  wealth}'  and 
educated  families  of  the  deceased.  Tliey  open  out  to  us  glimpses  of  the  most  an- 
cient and  widely  spread  and  popular  Lingua  Bustica,  in  its  various  dialects,  which, 
rather  than  the  Book-Latin,  of  which  it  was  independent,  is  the  base  of  all  the  Ro- 
mance tongues  now  flourishing  in  Europe,  with  all  their  various  and  old  patois." 
Vol.  ii,  p.  394. 

The  quotations  in  the  above  passage  are  from  Burgou's  remarks  on  the  great  vari- 
ety of  monuments  and  inscriptions  in  the  Roman  catacombs. 


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26                                         30                                         sa 

10                                                 IS 

BOOK  FIRST. 


The  Archeology  of  Christian  Art. 


THE 

AECHiEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  AET. 


CHAPTER  I. 

GEOGRAPHY  AND  CHRONOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART  MONUMENTS. 

TnK  rapid  propagation  of  Christianity  during  tlie  first  tliree 
ccnturii's  lias  long  been  the  vexed  problem  of  the  deistic,  the  natu- 
ralistic, and  the  mythical  schools.  Solutions  have  been  various,  but 
each  has  proved  inadecpiate.  Only  a  religion  of  divine  origin  and 
sanction  can  exj»lain  the  facts  of  the  early  Christian  history. 
Absolutely  unassisted  l)y  human  philosophy  or  state  patronage, 
stubbornly  ojiposing  the  indulgence  of  passion,  awakening  no  h(i])e 
of  temporal  reward,  in  directest  contradiction  to  the  prevalent 
thought  and  life,  a  pronounced  monotheism  in  the  midst  of  a 
debased  polytheism,  it  nevertheless  gained  disciples  in  every 
provijicc  of  the  Roman  Empire  and  in  the  far-off  regions  beyond. 

The    wonderful    history  recorded    in    the  Acts    of    the    Apostles 
(Chapter  II)  represents  that  persons  from  widely  sepa- 
rated  countries   were   converted   by  the  preaching  of    spread  of  the 
Peter  on  the  day  of  Pentecost.  ^'*'^^- 

Doubtless  many  returned  to  their  homes  after  the  celebration  of 
the  great  national  feasts  at  Jerusalem,  and  others  would  naturally 
hasten  to  spread  the  tidings  of  salvation  among  tlieir  fctrnu'r  asso- 
ciates. From  each  of  these,  as  from  a  centre,  the  rapid  propagation 
of  the  Gospel  in  distant  parts  went  forward.  By  the  sjiarks  that 
were  scattered  abroad  from  this  pentecostal  baptism  of  fire  a  bright 
and  un(iuenchable  fiame  was  kindled  throughout  the  Roman  world. 

To  the  poor  and  the  oppressed  the  Gospel  must  have  been 
especially  j)recious.  The  car|)enter''s  son  spoke  com-  a  mpssajre  to 
forting  words  to  the  enslaved,  and  dignified  the  ^^*^  p^""- 
honest  toiler.  He  who  in  the  agonies  of  the  crucifixion  said  so 
tenderly  to  his  favored  discijile,  "Behold  thy  mother"  (John 
xix,  27),  founded  a  religion  that  appealed  with  especial  force  to 
the  heathen  woman  of  the  East.     In  these  very  countries  where  her 


26  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

condition  was  most  degraded,  Christianity  elevated  her  to  be  the  peer 
of  her  husband.  By  virtue  of  a  communion  of  spirit  and  a  common 
hope  it  gave  to  marriage  a  new  sanction,  to  maidenhood  a  new 
sacredness,  to  the  whole  life  of  woman  a  higher  worth. ^ 

Few,  indeed,  of  the  official  class  were  at  first  attracted  toward  the 
Influenced  the  ^^ew  religion  ;  yet  the  testimony  of  records,  as  well  as 
better  classes,  of  xh.Q  monuments,  is  conclusive  that  some  of  the  refined 
and  of  the  honorable  early  embraced  the  new  faith.  The  mention 
during  the  apostolic  times  of  Joseph  of  Arimathsea  (Matt,  xxvii, 
57-60,  et.  al);  Sergius  Paulus  (Acts  xiii,  6-12);  Dionysius  of 
Athens  (Acts  xvii,  34);  and  of  Priscilla,  Aquila,  and  Pudens, 
"  dearly  beloved  in  the  Lord,"  in  whose  house  at  Rome  Christian 
services  were  held  (Rom.  xvi,  3-5;  1  Tim.  iv,  21);  as  well  as 
the  evidence  of  the  interment  of  some  members  of  the  Flavian 
family  of  Domitian's  reign  in  the  cemeteries  of  Domitilla  and 
Lucina  at  Rome,  fully  confirm  the  belief  that  the  Gospel  had  already 
found  faithful  witnesses  among  the  patrician  classes  and  even  in  the 
imperial  household.*  The  governor  of  Bithynia  complained  to 
Trajan  that  persons  of  every  age  and  of  both  sexes  embraced  the 
pernicious  faith.  ^ 

In  the  second  century  Tertullian  boasted  that  in  Carthage  one 
Number  of  tenth  of  the  population  were  Christians,  including 
Christians.  some  even  of  .  senatorial  rank.  "  We  are  a  people 
of  but  yesterday,  yet  we  have  entered  all  your  places — cities, 
islands,  fortifications,  towns,  market-places,  yea,  your  camp,  your 
tribes,  companies,  palace,  senate,  forum."*  This  must  be  taken 
with  caution,  since  at  a  still  later  date  Origen  says  that  the 
number  of  the  Christians  as  compared  to  the  whole  population  was 
very  small.  From  a  letter  of  Pope  Cornelius  it  has  been  estimated 
that  under  Maximian  the  Church  at  Rome  could  not  liave  numbered 
more  than  fifty  thousand,  or  one  twentieth  of  the  population,  and 
the  total  throughout  the  empire  could  not  have  been  more  than 
one  twelfth  to  one  tenth  of  the  entire  people,  or  approximately  from 
eight  millions  to  twelve  millions.'"     By  the  middle  of  the  century 

'  Friediander :  Sittengeschichte  Roms.     Bd.  iii,  s.  587. 

*  de  Rossi:  Bulletino  Arch.  Christ,  iii,  1865,  p.  33,  etc.;  Roma  Sotierranea,  t.  i. 
pp.  196,  319-321. 

^  Pliny  :  1.  x.,  ep.  97.  "  Multi  cnim  omnis  aetatis,  omiiis  oidiiiis,  utriiisque sexus,"  etc. 

*  "Hestemi  sumus  et  vestra  omnia  implevimus  urbes,  insiilas,"  etc.  Apologetictis 
ad  versus  gentes,  cap.  xxxvii. 

^  Staiidlin:  Univ.  Gesch.  der  christ.  Kirche,  1833,  s.  41,  places  the  number  of 
Christians  at  the  crownino:  of  Constantine  at  {la  moitie)  one  half  of  the  population  of 
the  empire.  Matter:  Hist,  de  V  Eglise,  t.  i,  p.  120,  puts  it  at  one  iiftli.  Gibbon: 
Decline  and  Downfall,  etc.,  cliap.  xv,  places  it  at  one  twentieth ;  Chastel :  DestruC' 


CHRISTIAN  ART  MONUMENTS.  27 

the  apologists  of  the  Church  were  luuiierous,  and  were  e(|ual  in 
learning  and  controversial  power  to  their  ablest  opponents.  While 
the  foregoing  statement  of  the  zealous  African  is  to  ,p,,p  j,p,^,j  ^^ 
l>e  taken  with  caution,  it  nevertheless  illustrates  the  the  new  reilB- 
earnestness  and  tidelity  of  the  early  C'hristians,  and 
the  marvelous  proi)agative  power  of  their  religion.  These  results 
seem  all  the  more  remarkable  in  the  entire  absence  of  evidence  of 
an  organized  association  for  the  spread  of  the  new  faith  into  foreign 
j)arts.  Rather  did  the  rapid  extension  of  tiie  (iospcl  in  the  century 
of  its  origin  result  from  the  apostolic  preaching,  from  the  enthusiasm 
which  this  must  have  aroused  among  peoples  imi)overished  in  faith 
and  longing  for  spiritual  nourisliiuent,'  from  the  consistent  and 
devoted  lives  of  its  individual  professors,  and  from  the  simple  testi- 
mony of  the  men  and  women,  who  had  accepted  the  divine  message, 
to  its  saving  power.  The  words  of  Christ,  "  Ye  are  the  light  of  the 
world.  A  city  that  is  set  on  a  hill  camiot  be  hid"  (Matt,  v,  14), 
were  eminently  true  of  the  members  of  the  early  Christian  conmiu- 
nity.  Before  the  accession  of  Constantine  the  influence  of  Christ- 
ianity had  penetrated  the  thought,  the  ]>rinciples,  and  the  life  of 
the  empire.  While  the  old  systems  showed  a  most  remarkable 
tenacity  of  life,  their  hold  on  the  nation  was  nevertheless  becoming 
weaker  and  weaker. 

The  clear,  discerning  genius  of  Constantine  saw  in  the  new 
religion  the  sure  promise  of  the  future.  With  it  he  Adoption  by 
united  his  fortunes,  and  in  legalizing  he  subjected  it  to  "le  state. 
perilous  temptations  not  before  experienced  even  in  the  times  of 
fiercest  i)ersecution.  From  this  time  the  Church  took  on  a  form 
of  organization  before  unknown  to  it.  The  empire  as  a  political 
machine  was  now  transferred  to  the  rule  of  Christ ;  its  laws  and 
its  institutions  were  placed  on  a  Christian  foundation."  The 
recognition  of  Christianity  as  the  established  faith,  the  protec- 
tion of  its  votaries,  and  the  patronage  of  it  by  the  government 
must  be  reckoned  among  the  most  powerful  influences  to  win  the 
mass  of  the  j)opulation  to  the  profession  of  Christianity.  The  new 
system  could  now  count  the  emperor  as  its  chief  ])ontiff,  and  thus 
the  religious  sen.se  of  Rome  remained  true  to  its  traditions. 

From  the  fourth  century  the  extension  of  Christianity  must  have 

lion  du  Pn<i<iaisme  dan.s  F Empire  d'Oiicnt.  p.  3G.  at  one  fifteenth  in  the  Western 
Empire,  ami  one  lenili  in  the  Kastern ;  La  Bastio:  Du  Souv.  pontif.  des  Emp.  (Acad, 
(i.  Inscr.  torn.  12,  p.  77),  at  one  tontii. 

'  V.  Reiis3 :  History  of  the  New  Testament,  2d  ed.  (translated  bv  Iloiighton),  vol.  ii, 
p.  446. 

'  Meriviile:   Conveision  of  the  Roman  Empire,  London,  1864,  p.  14. 


28  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

been  rapid  indeed.  The  fear  of  persecution  having  been  removed, 
multitudes  who  had  before  been  intellectually  convinced  of  its 
Increase  of  Superiority,  and  multitudes  more  who  were  ever  ready 
monuraentai  to  be  identified  with  a  winning  cause,  swelled  the 
number  of  the  converts.  From  this  time,  therefoi*e, 
the  evidences  are  much  strengthened  through  the  preservation  of 
burial  monuments,  by  the  building  of  churches  and  their  richer 
adornment  and  furniture,  by  the  imperial  coins  that  contain  Christ- 
ian symbols,  and  by  other  remains  of  plastic  and  epigraphic  art. 

The  expectation  that  these  monuments  may  now  be  found  as 
These  objects  widely  distributed  as  was  the  Church  of  the  first  four 
nevertheless  centuries  is  not,  however,  fulfilled.  In  this,  as  in  every 
other  period  of  history,  the  important  and  substantial 
monuments  must  have  been  few  as  compared  with  the  total  number. 
Only  in  the  great  marts  of  trade  and  in  the  cities  of  wealth  and  of 
power  could  the  needed  means  for  the  erection  of  abiding  monu- 
ments be  found.  Only  these  centers,  therefoi'e,  generally  furnish 
the  materials  for  monumental  study.  The  instances  of  chance 
preservation  are  necessarily  few  and  widely  separated.  Even  these 
must  have  been  largely  modified  by  climatic  influences  and  hy  the 
civil  and  military  fortunes  of  the  different  provinces.  Within  a 
limited  belt  of  country  on  either  shore  of  the  Mediterranean  were 
the  chief  centres  of  the  civilization  of  the  first  six  Christian  cen- 
turies. The  advantages  of  climate,  of  soil,  and  of  easy  intercommu- 
nication are  the  manifest  reasons  of  this  concentration.  Moreover, 
the  geologic  and  climatic  conditions  M^ere  most  favorable  to  the 
erection  and  preservation  of  monuments.  The  dryness  of  the  air, 
the  almost  complete  immunity  from  frosts,  the  abundance  of 
valuable  quarries,  the  superiority  of  the  beds  of  clay,  and  the 
excellence  of  the  materials  for  the  famous  cements,  contributed 
to  the  erection  and  preservation  of  many  structures  which  are 
invaluable  witnesses  to  the  civilization  of  the  times. 

But  the  ruthlessness  and  cupidity  of  men  have  proved  even  more 

Ruthless    de-    destructive  than  the  forces  of  nature.     The  fearful  in va- 

struction  of    sions  of  the  Teutonic  tribes,  and  the  inroads  of  the  more 

savage  Huns,  blotted  out  from  the  Roman  world  many 

of  her  noblest   monuments.'     Nor  must  it  be  forgotten  that  the 

^  V.  Bunsen:  Bt^sdireihung  der  Stadt  Rom.  Bd.  i,  ss.  234.  etc.  "But  the  damage 
which  tlie  so-called  barbarians  caused  to  Rome  consisted  not  so  much  in  the  destruc- 
tion of  buildings  and  public  monuments  as  in  tlie  robbery  of  the  public  treasuries 
and  jewels." — s.  230.  Yet  it  must  be  remembered  that  tliese  very  objects  rathoi 
than  imposing  structures  often  supply  the  best  materials  for  writing  the  history  of 
civilization. 


ClIinSTIAX  ART  .MONUMENTS.  29 

edicts  of  llie  CMuistiaii  omiRTors  ri-sultcd  in  the  loss  of  tlu'  most  iiotfii 
monuments  of  ])agan  art.  Statues  of  incomparable  beauty,  and 
temples  of  matchless  u^raiideur  were  ruthlessly  destroyed  in  Syria, 
Eijypt,  Italy,  and  (Taul.  Invaluable  nuiterials  for  comparative 
studies  were  thus  hopelessly  lost.  The  edicts  of  persecution 
also  resulted  in  the  destruction  of  many  Christian  churches.  To 
these  must  be  added  the  still  more  sad  effects  of  the  wars  of  rival 
Christian  sects  and  factions.  The  s<piabbles  of  the  Green  an<l  the 
Red  at  Constantinojde  often  resulted  in  conrta<^rations  in  which 
many  beautiful  churches  were  consumed. 

In  the  wretched  wars  over  image  worship  the  best  statuary  and 
paintings  of  the  early  Christian  world  were  irretrievably  lost.  The 
burial  places  of  Rome  were  terribly  devastated  by  the  Lombards 
under  their  king,  Astolplio,  in  A.  D.  757,  so  that  their  abandonment 
was  hastened,  and  the  remains  of  martyred  saints  were  gathered  into 
the  crypts  of  churches.'  The  iconoclastic  fury  of  the  Mohammedan 
invaders  further  des])oiled  the  seats  of  Christian  power  of  their 
tinest  works  of  art,  while  the  Crusades  completed  the  destruction 
of  most  that  then  survived.  Only  by  the  more  kindly  treatment 
of  nature  have  some  of  the  most  precious  records  of  the  jjast  been 
preserved.  The  buried  cities  of  Pompeii  and  Ilerculaneum,  and  the 
art  remains  that  were  hidden  in  tlie  obscurity  of  the  catacomlis,  fur- 
nish sonu'  of  the  most  valuable  monuments  that  continue  to  our  age. 

First  Century.  It  has  been  questioned  whether  any  well- 
authenticated  Christian  monuments  of  the  first  century  survive. 
Nevertheless,  some  of  the  ablest  Christian  archieologists  Moniiments  of 
find  satisfactory  evidence  that  parts  of  some  Roman  fl"^' ♦^^ntury. 
catacombs  are  contemporary  with  the  apostolic  age.  "  Precisely  in 
those  cemeteries  to  whicli  both  history  and  tradition  assign  an  apos- 
tolic origin,  do  I,  in  tlie  light  of  the  most  exact  arduvological  criti- 
cism, see  the  cradle  as  well  of  the  Christian  catacombs  as  of  Christian 
art  and  epigraphy.  I  also  there  find  monuments  of  persons  who  ap- 
pear to  Ix'long  to  the  time  of  the  Flavii  and  of  Trajan,  as  well  as 
inscri|»tions  that  date  from  thissanu'  period.  Since  these  things  are 
so,  a  sound  understanding,  which  alone  can  be  a  safe  guide  in  all 
historical  as  well  as  arduvological  matters,  must  say  to  every  one 
who  is  free  from  preconceived  opinions,  that  such  a  mass  of  concur- 
rent indications,  monuments,  and  dates  cannot  possibly  be  the  work 
of  chance,  that  we  accordingly  therein  may  find  a  warrant  for  the 
truth  of  the  origin  of  these  monuments  which  we  have  maintained" 
(that  is,  the  first  century)."     The  sepulchrts  of  the  Vatican,  certain 

'de  Rosii:    Rom.  SoU.  t.  i,  p.  220.  *tle  Rossi:   Horn.  Soil.,  i,  p.  185. 


30  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

inscriptions  in  the  cemetery  of  Santa  Lucina,  on  the  Via  Ostia,  near 
the  present  church  of  San  Paolo  fuori  le  mura,  the  decorations  of 
the  entrance  to  Santa  Domitilla,  the  Virgin  with  the  Child  and 
star,  and  portions  of  the  cemetery  of  Santa  Priscilla,  are  also 
believed  by  some  arcliJBologists  to  belong  to  the  first  century.' 
To  this  century  have  also  been  attributed  certain  portions  of  the 
walls  of  the  house  of  Pudens,  within  whose  area  stands  the  present 
church  of  Santa  Pudenziana,  at  Rome.  The  outer  wall  of  this 
palace  "  can  be  seen  behind  the  altar,  with  the  large  hall  windows 
in  it,  of  the  first  century."  *  In  regard  to  the  chronology  of 
these  and  a  few  other  monuments  there  is  such  difference  of 
opinion  that  they  become  of  somewhat  doubtful  evidential 
value.* 

Second  Century.  In  the  second  century  the  zeal  of  modern 
archaeological  research  has  firmly  placed  a  number  of  most  interest- 
ing and  valuable  monuments.  Rome,  as  before,  furnishes  most  that 
has  been  preserved.  The  cemetery  of  Santa  Priscilla  on  the  Via  Sa- 
laria  Nuova,  of  Santa  Domitilla  (Nereus  and  Achilles)  on  the  Via 
Ardeatina,  of  San  Praetestato  on  the  Via  Appia,  and  of  San  Ales- 
sandro,  on  the  Via  Nomentana,  also  the  ceiling  decorations  in  San 
Gennaro  dei  Poveri  at  Naples  are  about  all  that  with  certainty  can 
be  referred  to  it.  In  the  frescos  of  these  cemeteries  is  noticed 
the  beginning  of  that  symbolic  treatment  of  art  which  in  the  next 

'Krau8:  Synchronistische  Tahelkn  zur  christUclien  Kunstgeschi'chte,  1880,  ss.  4,  5. 
Schnltze:  Die  KataJcomhen,  1882,  s.  91.  Ch.  Leiiormant,  L&i  Catacombes,  1858,  does 
not  hesitate  to  place  the  paintings  of  Santa  Domitilla  in  the  first  century.  For  like 
reasons,  namely,  the  essential  likeness  of  the  art  spirit  of  these  to  the  wail  decora- 
tions of  Pompeii,  and  to  the  paintings  in  the  pyramid  of  Cains  Cestius,  Raoiil- 
Rochette  and  Welcker  agree  with  Lenormant. 

*  J.  H.  Parker:  The  House  of  Pudens  in  Fame.  v.  Archceological  Journal,  vol.  xxviii, 
pp.  42,  43.  This  is  a  most  interesting  fact,  since  we  are  led  at  once  into  the 
meeting-place  of  those  converts  to  Christianity  who  were  companions  of  Paul 
during  his  last  imprisonment. 

'The  chronology  of  these  monuments  is  most  thoroughly  examined  by  de  Rossi : 
V.  Rom.  Sott,  t.  i,  pp.  184-197.  Contra,  J.  H.  Parker:  The  Archoiology  of  Borne, 
1877,  12  vols.  V.  vol.  iv,  in  which  he  treats  of  the  Christian  catacombs.  He  does 
not  recognise  any  picture  of  a  religious  subject  as  of  earlier  date  than  the  fourth 
century.  It  must  be  evident  tliat  his  conclusions  are  not  the  result  of  careful  induc- 
tive processes,  but  are  somewhat  hastily  reached  from  almost  exclusively  one  kind 
of  evidence.  On  architectural  questions  Parker  is  an  authority  of  the  first  order,  but 
on  questions  relating  to  painting  his  opinion  cannot  be  regarded  as  decisive.  Renan, 
Marc-Aurele,  p.  543,  concludes  that  the  pictures  in  Santa  Domitilla  cannot  be  earlier 
than  the  third  century.  Th.  Mommsen,  than  whom  there  can  be  no  more  reliable 
authority  on  Latin  inscriptions,  would,  largely  on  epigraphical  grounds,  refer  the 
cemetery  of  Domitilla  to  about  the  middle  of  the  second  century ;  v.  Contemporary 
Revieio,  May,  1871. 


CHRISTIAN  ART  MONUMENTS.  :}1 

century  iTadieJ  its  t-liinax.  In  the  second  century  some  arclueolo- 
jrists  liave  likewise  placed  the  so-called  Abraxas  gems.  The  Abraxas 
iJy  some  these  are  believed  to  have  arisen  amont^  the  «•'"'»• 
Hasilidiin  (inostics,  by  others  they  are  regarde<l  as  the  product  of  the 
strange  syncretism  of  Indian,  Zoroastrian,  P]gyptian,  Jewish,  ami 
Gnostic-Christian  thought  which  was  so  prevalent  in  the  second 
century.  In  some  respects  they  resemble  the  early  Egyptian  Scara- 
bean  gems.'  While  comparatively  few,  these  monuments  are, 
nevertheless,  most  interesting  and  important  for  their  artistic  and 
doctrinal  suggestions. 

Tmui)  Ckntitrv. — By  the  third  century  Christianity  had  gained 
a  firm  foothold  in  nearly  every  })rovince  of  the  empire.  The  claims 
of  the  Christians  for  protection  had  more  and  more  secured  the 
attention  of  the  govenunent.  The  higher  social  position  of  the 
adherents  of  the  Church  further  conciliated  the  favor  of  gov- 
ernment. Clement,  Origen,  and  others  had  already  The  Aiexan- 
given  great  dignity  and  fame  to  the  thet)logical  school  drian  school, 
at  Alexandria.  Before  the  middle  of  the  century  Egypt  had  more 
than  a  score  of  bishops.  In  A.  D.  258  Cyprian  assembled  in 
Carthage  a  synod  of  eighty-seven  l)ishops,  and  a  Latin  translation 
of  the  Scriptures  had  already  been  made  for  the  use  of  the  West 
African  churches.  (4aul  had  been  visited,  and  by  the  i>roKress  in 
tliird  century  intluential  bishoprics  existed  in  Lyons,  <'»"'• 
Vienne,  and  ^Marseilles.  There  is,  also,  strong  evidence  that  by 
the  middle  of  this  century  the  Celtic  Church  had  a  vigorous  life 
and  organization.  In  Asia  Minor  and  C4reece  were  Asia  Minor  and 
seats  of  many  influential  bishoprics,  presided  over  by  tirc-ece. 
a  most  thoroughly  learned  clergy — the  forerunners  of  those  great 
theologians  who,  in  the  following  century,  were  to  give  form  to 
C^hristian  doctrine  in  the  councils  of  Nice,  Chalcedoii,  and  Con- 
stantinople. 

The  monuments  which  survive  from  this  century  are,  as  might  be 
])resumed,  nu)re  numerous,  and  are  found  in  more  widely  extended 
districts  ;  Rome  is,  however,  still  the  seat  of  the  most  interesting 
and  instructive.  The  subterranean  burial  places  are  nuich  more  ex- 
tensive and  rich  in  art  remains  than  in  the  previous  century. 
The  incorporation  of  brotherhoods  for  the  burial  of  the  Burial  brotii- 
dead,  and  the  special  protection  accorded  to  places  of  erhoods. 
sepulture,  encouraged  the  Christians  to  greater  care  for  their  ceme- 

'  Bellermsnn,  J.  J.:  Drei  Programmen  ubei-  die  Abraxas- Gemmen.  Berlin,  1820. 
Knma:  Op  cit.,  s.  7.  Anionjj  tlie  earlier  expositors  of  these  curious  objects  were 
(roltfried  Wentleliii,  Beausobre,  nnd  oilier^.  Among  the  more  recent  nrc  Matter. 
King,  and  others. 


33  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

teries.  We  are  informed '  that  Callixtus  was  intrusted  with  the 
direction  of  the  clergy,  and  had  supervision  of  the  cemetery  that 
bore  his  name.  Doubtless  this  has  reference  to  the  fact  that  the 
Christian  congregations  of  Rome  took  advantage  of  the  legal  pro- 
vision '  to  care  for  property  held  by  them  in  common,  especially  for 
such  as  was  devoted  to  the  cemeteries  and  to  the  charities  of 
the  Church,  by  the  appointment  of  a  legal  representative.  This 
Cemetery  of  ^^^  ^^  *^®  founding  of  the  celebrated  cemetery  of  San 
San  Caiisto.  Calisto,  on  the  Via  Appia,  in  which  so  many  martyrs, 
bishops,  and  popes  were  interred  ;  and  it  also  accounts  for  the  change 
of  the  burial-place  of  these  high  church  officials  from  the  Vatican  to 
this  cemetery. 

At  this  time,  also,  are  first  met  the  SD-called  FahriccB  that  St.  Fabi- 
anus,  in  A.  D.  238,  ordered  to  be  constructed.  These 
appear  to  have  been  small  buddings,  jslaced  near  to,  or 
over  the  entrance  to  the  cemeteries;  they  were  used  as  oratories  and 
for  the  celebration  of  the  eucharist.  All  these  probably  disappeared 
during  the  ]3«rsecutions  of  Decius  and  Valerian,  Avhen  the  necessity 
for  concealment  of  the  entrances  to  these  places  of  Christian  sepul- 
ture was  first  felt.  Notwithstanding  these  persecutions,  and  the  still 
more  sweeping  edict  of  Diocletian,  in  A.  D.  303,  by  which  all  Chris- 
tian cemeteries  were  confiscated  and  all  Christian  churches  wei'e  or- 
dered to  be  razed  to  the  ground,  the  catacomb  of  San  Calisto  has 
continued  to  our  day,  a  marvellous  museum  for  the  study  of 
Christian  life  and  doctrines  in  the  third  century. 

Recent  excavations,  conducted  by  the  Abbe  Delattre  on  a  site 
called  Damous-el-Karita,  near  the  ancient  Carthage,  have  revealed 
an  open-air  cemetery  of  very  considerable  dimensions.  The  im- 
portance of  the  discovery  appears  from  the  fact  that  only  two  or 
three  other  open-air  cemeteries  are  known.  Delattre  considers  the 
date  of  this  area  as  the  end  of  the  third  or  the  beginning  of  the 
fourth  century.^ 

Surviving  The  Only  remains  of  churches  in  Rome  from  this 
th-"'^^tT''t  century  are  possibly  portions  of  the  subterranean  San 
Rome.  Clemente,    a    small    part    of    Santa    Croce     in    Geru- 

salemme,  and  of  Santa  Pudenziana.^    By  some  authorities  the  beauti- 

'  Philosoplmmema.  This  has  been  well-nigh  demonstrated  to  be  the  work  of 
Hippol3rtus,  and  not  of  Origen,  as  was  thought  by  the  Benedictines  and  others. 

2  Digest,  iii,  4,  1,  §  1,  de  Collegiis.  "  Quibus  autem  permissum  est  corpus  collegi 
societatis,"  etc. 

^  V.  Delattre:  Arckeologie  chretienne  de  Carthage. — Fouilles  de  la  Basilique  de 
Dawiufi-el-Kanta.     Lyon:   1886. 

■*  As  we  have  before  seen  (p.  30),  Mr.  Parker  reSsrs  portions  of  this  Church  to  the 
first  century. 


CHRISTIAN  ART  MONUMENTS.  3:? 

fill  statue  of  tlu'  Good  Slu'plu'nl  (Fii;.  4")),  now  in  the  Lateran  Mu- 
seum, a  marble  sareophatifus  diseovered  in  1H5;J  in  the  cemetery  of  San 

Pretestate  at  Koine,  and   the  statue  of  St.  Hiiipolvtus,' 

,       r  \w  ,  ,  •        I  •  Sculpture, 

also  in  the  Lateran  Museum,  are  placed  in  tins  century. 

From  this  century  a  large  class  of  symbols,  many  allegorical  pictures, 
and  biblical  scenes  of  synibolico-alli'gorical  significance  have  also 
been  preserved.  A  limited  number  of  historical  and  liturgical  rej)- 
resentations  are  likewise  believed  to  date  from  the  latter  part  of 
it.  Figures  wrought  in  gilt  upon  glass  vessels,  found  Glass  ves.seis 
in  the  Konian  catacombs  and  at  Cologne,  and  a  few  and  gems, 
gems  of  clearly  recognised  Christian  (irigin,  \vd\v  been  referred  to 
this  period. 

In  Africa,  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Castellum  Tingitanuin,  the 
modern  Orleansville,  are  found  the  remains  of  the  Church  of  St. 
Reparatus,  some  parts  of  which,  from  an  inscription  still  extant, 
are  by  some  believed  to  date  from  the  yeai"  A.  I).  252.'  Architectural 
By  some  arclueologists  the  churches  found  at  Djemlia  nionumeuts. 
and  at  Announa  in  Algeria,  at  Ibrim  in  Xubia,  and  at  Armeiit  or 
Erment,  the  ancient  Ilermonthis,  in  Egypt,  have  been  referred  to 
the  third  century.  The  excavations  on  old  sites  in  Asia  Minor,'  in 
Syria,  and  in  the  Ilauran,  are  bringing  to  light  remains  of  old  Chris- 
tian  churches  whose   age   has  not  yet  been   fully  detenniiieil,  but 

'  Much  discussion  has  been  liad  over  iliis  statue  and  tlio  bronze  statne  of  St.  Peter 
in  San  Plctro  Vaticano, al  Rome.  Man\'  deny  to  both  a Cinistian  orisrin  and  character. 
But  the  Easter  cycle,  engraved  upon  the  chair  of  the  statne  of  St.  Ilippolytiis,  is  a 
significant  circnmstance,  and  seems  to  fnrnisii  a  strong  argnnient  for  its  Christian  origin 
and  genuineness,  v.  Siilmon:  Chnmolo'jy  of  /fippoli/tw^,  in  /fermnthenn,  for  187:^. 
pp.  82-85;  also  Diillinger :   IlippolyUis  und  CullisUus,  ss.  T.Wll. 

*  Tlie  inscription  bears  the  year  285  of  the  .Manritanian  era.  If  we  arc  to  follow 
some  of  tlie  arcluc-^logists  and  opigraphists  this  era  began  tliirly-three  years  before 
the  Christian  era  (v.  Prevost);  according  to  others  it  began  forty  years  after  the 
Christian  era  (i;.  Henzen,  on  No9.  5337,  5338,  and  5859  of  Orelli's  Lisnipt.  lat).  In 
the  former  case  the  date  of  the  inscription  would  point  to  A.  D.  252 ;  in  the  latter, 
to  A.  D.  325.  Kergusson:  Hist,  of  Arch.,  vol.  i,  pp.  403.  404;  Moihes,  0.:  Bnsiliken- 
fwrm,  8.  30;  Kugler:  GtS':h.  d'-.r  B'tukuust,  Bd.  i,  s.  372,  and  others  accept  the  ear- 
lier date.  Schnaase:  Gesch.  der  hildende  Kilmte.  2te  Anfl.,  Bd.  iii,  s.  3.  note  4;  Kraus: 
Sijnchron.  Tab.,  etc.,  s.  18,  and  others  Jiold  to  the  later  dale. 

^  V.  J.  T.  Wood:  Discoveries  at  Ephe.sv.s,  Boston,  1857,  pp.  58,  59.  lie  believes 
that  he  lias  discovered  the  tomb  of  St.  Luke,  that  seems  to  belong  to  the  Inst  part  of 
the  lliird  or  to  the  early  part  of  the  fourth  century.  Near  this  was  found  what  ap- 
peared to  be  a  basilica,  one  of  the  earliest  churches  in  Ephesus.  v.  pp.  99,  luO. 
Many  of  the  sarcophagi  bear  the  well  known  monogram,  A  :^  Q,  of  the  fonrth  or 
Sflh  century,  v.  p.  120.  Excavations  on  the  sites  of  "  the  seven  churches  which 
are  in  Asia,"  promise  well  for  llie  illustration  of  the  history.  Much  has  already 
been  done,  but  comparative  studies  are  still  greatly  needed. 
3 


34  ARCHiEOLOaY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

which  seem  to  date  back  as  early  as  to  the  close  of  the  third  or  to 
the  early  part  of  the  fourth  century.' 

Fourth  Century. — The  able  reign  of  Diocletian  was  to  close 
in  disgrace  and  most  cruel  injustice.  The  fourth  century  opened 
with  the  last  but  most  fearful  trial  by  persecution  to  which  the 
Church  was  to  be  subjected.  Except  in  Gaul,  Britain,  and  Spain, 
where  the  co-regent  was  more  lenient,  the  emperor's  cruel  edicts 
Destruction  of  were  most  mercilessly  executed.  The  imposing  houses 
under"  Dtocie-  ^^  worship  were  despoiled  of  their  collections  of  sacred 
tian.  writings,  of  their  costly  decorations,  and  of  the  numer- 

ous vessels  of  gold  and  silver  which  were  used  in  the  administration 
of  the  sacraments.  What  treasures  of  art,  what  invaluable  man- 
uscript copies  of  the  sacred  Scriptures,  what  wealth  of  materials  for 
the  history  of  the  early  Church,  which  had  been  accumulated  through 
the  previous  forty  years  of  peace,  were  forever  lost  must  remain  a 
matter  of  mere  conjecture.  It  is  only  certain  that  scarcely  a  church 
escaped  this  visitation. 

In  A.  D.  311,  Galerius  issued  his  unlooked-for  edict  of  toleration, 
which  was  followed,  in  A.  D.  313,  by  the  edict  of  the  co-regents, 
Constantine  and  Licinius.  By  its  provisions  all  confiscated  church 
property  was  restored  to  the  Corpus  Christ'umorum  at  the  expense 
Restoration  of  ^^  ^'^®  imperial  treasury ,2  and  complete  toleration  of 
church  prop-  worship  and  belief  was  granted.  By  the  defeat  of 
^^^'  Licinius  in  A.  D.  323,   Constantine  became  sole    em- 

peror. From  this  event  dates  a  new  pei'iod  of  monumental  art  as 
well  as  of  church  history. 

From  the  last  three  quarters  of  the  fourth  century  numerous  in- 

'  "  Recent  researches  in  Africa  have  shown  thnt  when  properly  explored  we  shall 
certainly  be  able  to  carry  the  history  of  the  Romanesque  style  in  that  country 
back  to  a  date  at  least  a  century  before  his  (Constantine's)  time.  In  Syria  and  Asia 
Minor  so  many  early  examples  have  come  to  light  that  it  seems  probable  that  we 
may,  before  long,  carry  tiie  history  of  Byzantine  art  back  to  a  date  nearl)'  approach- 
ing that  of  tlie  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus."  v.  Fergusson:  History  of  ArcJi., 
vol.  i,  pp.  403,  404  Hiibsch :  Die  altchristlichen  Kirchen,  etc.,  Carlsruhe,  I8G3,  fol., 
ss.  xxiv,  XXV,  etc.,  believes  that  besides  the  so-called  chapels  of  tlie  catacombs,  the 
churches  San  Alessandro,  San  Steffano,  San  Andrea  in  Barbara,  the  basilica  in  Or- 
leansville,  San  Agostino  in  Spolcto,  and  the  oldest  part  of  the  cathedral  in  Treves,  are 
to  be  referred  to  the  pre-Constnntine  period.  Also.  v.  Mothes,  0. :  Die  Baukumt  des 
MiiteMters  in  Italien,  Jena,  1884,  2  vol"*.,  8vo,  who  holds  to  nearly  like  views.  On  the 
contrary,  Schnaase,  C. :  Gesch.  d.  bilden.  KUnsfe,  2te,  Aufl.  1869,  Bd.  iii,  s.  37,  claims 
that  no  churches  which  have  been  preserved  to  our  day  are  older  than  the  time  of 
Constantine.  Of  nearly  like  opinion  is  Bunsen :  Beschreibung  d.  Stadt  Rum.,  Bd.  i, 
ss.  418,  419. 

2  For  the  account  of  large  sums  given  to  the  African  churches  in  A.D.  314,  v. 
Eusebius:  Hist.  Eccles.,  x,  6,  and  de  Vit.  Const,  iv,  28. 


CHRISTIAN  ART  MONUMENTS.  35 

tcrcstintj  nioimint'i»ts  still  siirvivi'.     In   all  tlu'  chief  cities  churches 
were    now  built  uiuler  imperial   patronage,  and    orna-    Revival  of 
mented  and  furnished  with   the  utmost  magnificence,    church    buiiii- 
The   monuments   are  now  more   widely  distributed  and 
varied  in   character.     From   this  time   inimismatics  and  epigraphy 
become  important  aids  in  the  interpretation  of  Christian  life  and 
doctrine.     To  the   fourth   century  can  probably  be  referred  the  fol- 
lowing l)asilicas  at  Rome  :  San  Giovanni  in  Laterano,  founded  about 
A.  D.  340;   Santa  Pudenziana,  eidarged  about   A.  D.    Architectural 
345  (?);  San  Pietro  in  Vaticano,  about  A.  D.  350;  San    monuments. 
Paolo  fuori  le  mura,  about  A.  D.  38G  ;  San  Clemente,  rebuilt  before 
A.  I).  392. 

The  catacombs  were  now  less  used  for  interment,  and  less  fre- 
quented by  visitors.  During  the  last  quarter  of  the  catacombs  less 
century  burial  in  subterranean  recesses  seems  to  have  "sed. 
been  almost  discontinued,  liasilicas,  built  over  or  near  the  entrances 
to  the  catacombs,  supplied  their  place.*  Portions  of  the  catacombs 
of  Naples  probably  belong  to  a  very  early  date  in  Monumenu  in 
this  century.  They  are  especially  valuable  for  their  Naples, 
paintings,  and  for  the  information  which  they  furnish  relative  to 
the  early  practice  of  Christian  burial. 

Slight  remnants  of  the  Neapolitan  churches,  San  Gennaro  dei  Poveri, 
Santa  Maria  della  Sanita,  and  Santa  ^Faria  della  Vita,  also  survive.' 

The  catacombs  of  old  Syracuse  have  awakened  much  careful  in- 
quiry as  to  their  origin  and  age.  Nearly  one  hundred  catacomhs  of 
inscriptions  and  several  paintings  have  been  discovered  Syracuse, 
and  (h'scribed.  The  museum  of  Syracuse  contains  more  than  a  hun- 
dred Christian  lamps  found  in  the  catacomb  of  San  Giovanni  of 
that  ancient  city.  The  form,  the  ortliography,  and  general  contents 
of  the  inscriptions,  as  well  as  the  symbols  on  the  lamps,  clearly 
indicate  that  they  belong  to  the  last  half  of  the  fourth  century.  A 
few  may  be  of  the  time  of  Constantine.^ 

The  records  establish    the  belief  that  in  the  East  a  very  large 

number  of  churches  were  built  under  the  special  i>atn)n-    „ 

I       _       '  Many  churches 

age   of    Constantine,    his    family,    and    his    immediate    havedisap- 
successors.    Unfortunately,  nearly  all  of  these  have  per-    P®*'**'- 
ished.     The    basilica    of   the   Nativity  at    Bethlehem,  St.    Clary's, 

'  Krans:  Roma  SotO-rranea,  s.  98. 

*Scliultze:  Die  Kalakomhm  von  San  Gennaro  dei  Poveri  in  NeapeL  Forster: 
mtiel-u.   Unter  Italien,  ss.  414,  429. 

'  Scliultze:  Archcdngische  Sttidien  ilher  alkhHstlirhe  Monumente,  as.  1. '14-1. 10;  de 
Roasi:  Bull.  Arch,  cri.st.,  1877.  Tav.  x,  xi.  Contra  and  in  favor  of  a  pre-Christian 
origin  v.  Quatremfere  de  Quincy,  Hirt,  and  Schubring. 


36  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

remains  to  illustrate  the  character  and  style  of  these  churches.' 
Some  interesting  Christian  inscriptions  have  been  found  amidst  the 
massive  ruins  of  Baalbec.  They  seem  to  date  from  about  the  time 
of  the  founding  of  the  Basilica  of  Theodosius,  A.D.  379-395. "•' 

The  catacombs  of  Malta  must  be  assigned  to  the  fourth  or  fifth 
century.  While  Caruana'  holds  that  these  are  of  pagan  origin,  and 
were  transformed  into  a  place  for  Christian  burial  during  the  period 
of  Arabian  dominion,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  ninth  century,  his 
argument  seems  to  be  entirely  unsatisfactory.  The  reference  of 
these  burial  places  to  a  Christian  origin  in  the  fourth  or  fifth  century 
is  much  more  consistent  with  the  facts.  They  suggest  nearly  the 
same  cycle  of  artistic  and  religious  thought  as  the  Roman  catacombs, 
although  the  number  of  objects  is  comparatively  small.  Christian 
inscriptions  of  the  fourth  century,  and  well-preserved  figures  in 
sculpture,  have  been  found  at  Tripoli  in  Asia  Minor.  One  of  these 
is  a  figure  of  Christ  with  the  hammer,  probably  representing  the 
carpenter's  son.* 

Traces  of  churches,  probably  from  this  century,  have  been  found 

in  Egypt  and  in  the  Country  bordering  on  the  West 
Traces     of  ^®*'^  •  *' 

churches  In    Mediterranean  in  Africa;^  also  a  few  other  monuments 

Egypt    and    of  Christian  origin  have  been  recently  excavated  in  these 

France.  ,  -^  •  •         •  •  '  t-\ 

regions.  Likewise  in  middle  and  southern  France,  at 
Aries,  Marseilles,  Narbonne,  Toulouse,  etc.,  Christian  monuments 
dating  from  the  fourth  century  have  been  discovered.  Some 
beautiful  sarcophagi  with  Christian  symbols  and  biblical  historic 
scenes,  found  in  these  cities,  are  from  this  time,  while  others 
more  probably  belong  to  the  Merovingian  period.  °  Connected  with 
the  churches  of  this  century  are  found  some  beautiful 
mosaics,  while  the  sculptured  sarcophagi  and  a  few 
raural  paintings  in  the  cemeteries  fairly  illustrate  the  condition  of 
Christian  art.  The  numerous  inscriptions  from  the  tombs,  cata- 
combs, and  churches  furnish  interesting  and  valuable  epigraphic 
material,  and  the  coins  of  the  emperors  contain  many  rich  sugges- 
tions. 

Fifth   Century. — The  brief  but  earnest   attempt  of  Julian  to 

'  De  Vogiie  maintains  that  the  present  Clmrcli  is  the  original  structure.  He  ar- 
i?>ies  tliis  from  the  simplicity  of  the  style,  and  the  entire  absence  of  features  that  are 
peculiar  to  the  buildings  of  Justinian's  day,  as  well  as  from  the  lack  of  references  in 
literature  to  any  changes. 

^v.  Survey  of  Western  Palestine,  special  papers,  1881,  pp.  135,  136. 

^  Caruana  :  Hypogeum  Tal-Liehru,  Malta.     Malta,  1 884. 

*  Survey  of  Western  Palestine,  pp.  152,  153. 

^  Fergusson :    Op.  Git.,  vol.  i,  pp.  403,  seq. 

^  deCaumont:  Abecedaire  d'Arclieologie;  Era  Galln- Romaine,  pp.  350-352. 


CHRISTIAN  ART  MONUMENTS.  37 

revive  the  deeayini;  heathenism  ha<l  proved  utterly  aV)ortive.  Iliin- 
sc'lf  a  pervert  from  Christian  teaehiiii^,  his  misdin-etiMl  cH'ort  hrmi^hl 
to  him  deepest  sorrow  and  disa])poiiitmeiit.  Notwithstaiidini^  thf 
tenacious  life  of  pagan  institutions,  Christianity  was  now  the  ac- 
cepted belief,  and  the  Roman  world  was  thoroughly  pervaded  with 
Christian  thoiiglit.  'i'lic  Church  had  put  on  the  strength  of  a  long 
()rgani/,e(l  institution.  The  monuments  are  now  greatly  midti[»lic(|. 
Wiiilc  this  was  a  century  of  waning  political  power  and 
of  general  art  decadence  in  the  West,  and  the  destruc-  dence  iu  ibi- 
five  incursions  of  the  Teutonic  hordes  sweitt  away  ^^'* 
nxany  of  the  most  noted  and  beautiful  churches,  enough  survives  to 
furnish  highly  valuable  monumental  evidence. 

In  Rome  this  century  is  represented  by  Santa  Sabina  on  the  ^'ia 
Aventina,  built,  as  the  mosaic  inscription  informs  us,  about  A.  I). 
423  by  Pope  Celestine;  and  Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  first  built  in  A,  D. 
352,  but  rebuilt  by  Sixtus  III.  in  A.  D.  432.  This  is  probably  the 
earliest  church  of  Rome  that  was  dedicated  to  the  Virgin.  It  con- 
tains some  noteworthy  original  mosaics  and  sarcophagi  which  become 
valuable  aids  in  the  illustration  of  the  Christian  sculpture  of  the 
fifth  century. 

San  Pietro  in  Vincoli,  ])uilt  by  Eudoxia  between  A,  D.  440  and 
4G2,  has  well  preserved  the  form  and  general  appearance  otber  ciiurch- 
of  the  early  Christian  basilica.'  In  a  very  few  in-  es  or  Rome, 
stances  the  furniture  of  the  churches  still  survives.  The  mosaics, 
altars,  ambos,  sarcophagi,  etc.,  which  still  remain  in  these  churches, 
are  of  inestimable  value.  Coins  of  both  the  Eastern  and  the  West- 
ern Empire  now  are  found.  Numismatics  now  becomes  of  real 
confirmatory  service,  especially  in  correcting  chronology.  The 
number  of  Christian  inscriptions  is  very  greatly  increased,  and  they 
assume  more  of  a  dogmatic  character,  thus  clearly  reflecting  the 
strifes  and  controversies  of  the  times. 

During  this  century  Ravenna  *  becomes  a  most  interesting  center 

'  For  a  full  ami  sjcnerally  reliable  account  of  the  basilicas  of  Rome  v.  Bunseu  and 
Plattner:  Bcsckreibung  Burns.  5  Bdo.,  with  maguiliccut  illustrations  by  Gutensohu 
and  Knapp. 

Hiibscli:   Die  (dtchristUchii  Kirrhen,  1863. 

H.  Gaily  Knight:    Tlie  Eccle-suisdcal  Architecture  of  Italy. 

'  For  a  careful  scientific  description  of  the  Christian  monuments  of  Ravenna,  sec 
among  others,  Quast:  Die  alt-chri.stlichen  Bnuwerke  von  Ravenna.  1  Bd.  fol.,  Berlin, 
1842. 

Richtcr,  J.  P.:  Div  Jfosaiken  Ravennas.     Wien,  1878. 

Rahn:  Ravenna,  Eine  kun-stgeschichtliche  Stndie.     Leipzig,  1869. 

Berti:  SvW  antico  duomo  di  Ravenna.     Ravenna,  1880. 

Miiutz:   Lost  Mosaics  of  Ravenna,  \n  Am.  Journal  of  ArcluJtology,  vol.  i,  pp.  1 15-120. 


38  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

of  Christian  monuments  which  greatly  aid  in  understanding  the 
Monuments  of  condition  and  progress  of  Christian  art  in  nearly  every 
Raveuna.  department.      Among  the  most   interesting   buildings 

which  survive  are  the  Baptistery,  Baptisterium  Ecclesiae  Ursianae, 
probably  first  erected  in  the  fourth  century,  but  restored  in  A.  D. 
451  by  Archbishop  Nero  ;  San  Francesco,  from  about  the  middle 
of  the  century;  San  Giovanni  Evangelista,  a  votive  three-naved 
church,  built  by  Galla  Placidia  in  A.  D.  420;  SS.  Nazario  e  Celso, 
the  place  of  sepulture  of  Galla  Placidia,  which  was  erected  before 
A.  D.  450,  and  is  well  preserved  and  most  instructive;  Santa  Maria 
in  Cosmedin,  an  Arian  baptistery,  very  like  in  form  and  mosaics  to 
Baptisterium  Ecclesijs  Ursianse.  These  churches  are  rich  in  sarco- 
phagi, altars,  ambos,  and  mosaics. 

In  the  Byzantine  Empire  very  considerable  archaeological  material 
The  Byzantine  f^'ODi  the  fifth  century  has  survived.  In  Egypt  and 
Empire.  West  Africa  many  interesting   objects   have  recently 

been  discovered  on  the  sites  of  old  monasteries  which  prove  of 
invaluable  aid  to  the  history  of  monasticism. 

In  southern  and  middle  France  is  found  a  large  number  of  inter- 
esting monuments,  especiallj^  sarcophagi,  which  probably  belong  to 
France  and  the  fifth  century.*  Roman  Judea  and  Samaria,  called 
Palestine.  j^  ^]jg  ^ii\\  century  Palestina  Prima,  had  thirty-three 

episcopal  towns.  Tlie  expectation  that  a  region  so  permeated  with 
Christian  influence  would  furnish  many  monuments  of  its  former 
prosperity  is  largely  disappointed,  since  the  number  of  churches  and 
other  objects  connected  with  Christian  history  hitherto  brought  to 
light  is  comparatively  small.  "What  treasures  more  extensive  sys- 
tematic excavations  in  the  old  centers  of  Christian  activity  may  yet 
reveal  can  only  be  conjectured.  From  the  rich  finds  at  Troy, 
Olympia,  Larnica,  Pompeii,  etc.,  we  may  hope  that  equally  valuable 
results  may  repay  the  Christian  explorer  in  Palestine. 

Remains  of  many  Christian  churches  and  other  antiquities  are 

found  at  various  points  in  Syria.     Their  chronology  has 

not  been  fully  determined;  yet  some  able  archaeologists 

place  them  as  early  as  the  fourth  century.^     They  promise  much 

'  V.  de  Caumont:   Op.  Cit,  Architecture  Heligieuse,  pp.  48-56. 

Laborde:  Plate  cviii. 

And  very  excellent  and  thorough,  Le  Blant:  Etud^  sur  les  Sarcoj)hages  Chretiens 
antique  de  la  Ville  d' Aries.     Paris,  1878.     1  vol.  4to,  with  numerous  plates. 

Inscriptions  chretiennes  de  la  Gaule.     2  vols.  4to,  Paris,  1 856-65. 

His  Epigraphie  chretienne  is  a  most  convenient  and  iustruolive  manual. 

^  "  "We  are  transported  into  tlie  midst  of  a  Christian  society ;  we  are  surprised  at  its 
life.  It  is  not  the  concealed  life  of  the  catacombs,  nor  a  humiliating,  timid,  and  suf- 
fering existence  that  is  generally  represented  here ;  but  a  life  generous,  opulent, 


CHRISTIAN  ART  MONUMENTS.  ft9 

for  the  ilhistratioii  of  Christian  arcliiti'cturt'  in  a  jx-riod  liitliorto  en- 
veloped in  nuieli  obscurity.  Especially  the  trans-Jurdanic  region  must 
liereafter  become  a  most  invitinj^  tield  to  the  Christian  archteologist.' 

Durini;  the  excavations  at  Olynipia,  in  Greece,  a  Hyzantine  church 
was    discovered,    also     many    Christian    graves.     This 
church  was  built  on   what  Pausanias  describes  as  the 
"  workshop  of  Phidias."     Its  entire  plan  as  well  as  the  rich  details 
seem  to  indicate  a  marked  revival  of  art  in  the  Jiyzaatine  Empire 
during  the  tirst  half  of  the  fifth  century.^ 

Tile  archieological  remains  found  on  numerous  sites  in  Italy,  Al- 
bania, Hungary,  etc.,  which  aid  to  illustrate  the  history  of  the  liftli 
century,  cannot  be  further  described.  They  are  interesting  and  im- 
portant.' 

Sixth  Century.  Numerous  monuments  still  survive  from  the 
sixth  century.  Notwithstanding  the  general  decadence  of  art  and 
the  fearful  political  upheavals,  several  im]»osing  churches  are  be- 
lieved to  have  been  built  in  Rome  during  this  century,  gj^^^jj  century 
The  older  parts  of  San  Lorenzo  and  of  Santa  Balbina  churches  m 
are  generally  referred  to  this  period.  In  Ravenna  por-  ^^'"'^• 
tions  of  the  churches  of  San  Apollinare  Nuovo,  Santa  Maria  della 

artistic,  in  grand  houses  .  .  .  and  magnificent  churclics,  flanked  with  towers  and 
surrounded  with  eleg.inl  tombs.  .  .  .  Tiie  clioice  of  (Scripture)  texts  indicates  an 
epoch  near  to  tlie  triumpli  of  tiic  Cimrch;  there  prevails  an  accent  of  victory.  .  .  . 
The  date  of  tlie  Roman  epoch  is  given  not  only  by  tiie  stylo  of  the  architecture,  but 
by  inscriptions  of  considerable  number  which  form  an  almost  continuous  chain  from 
the  first  to  tlie  fourth  century." — De  Vogiie:  Syrie  Centrale;  Archikcture  Civile  et 
Rdiijieuse,  vol.  i,  pp.  7,  8. 

W.  Waddington,  who  accompanied  De  Vogiie  on  his  tour  of  discovery,  has  given 
tlie  areli:co'ogy,  tlio  history,  and  the  inscriptions  of  tiiis  interesting  region  under  the 
title  of  Iii'icriptions  Greojues  et  Latines  de  la  Si/rie.  1870. 

'  ''Thai  the  Christians  were  in  the  fourth,  fiftii.  and  sixtli  centuries  spread  tlirough 
the  whiile  country,  the  survey  abunliinllv  testifies ;  from  the  deserts  of  Becrsheba 
to  the  slopes  of  Hermon  we  liive  come  across  inntunerable  churches  whicli  caimot  be 
dated  later  than  that  period.  The  nomenclature  of  the  coinitry  bears  witness  to  the 
existence  of  flourishing  communities,  charitable  convents,  and  holy  Christian  sites, 
in  every  part;  and  the  titles  given  to  ninny  ruins  show  the  fate  they  finally  under- 
went in  p 'rishing  by  fire."     u.  C.  R.  Conder:   Survey  of  We-stein   Pukstine. 

Special  Papers:    Chrixlian  and  Jewish  Ti-aditiom,  p.  232. 

V.  also,  Merrill:  Enst.  of  the  Jordan. 

'  I'.  Curtin«,  Hirschfeld.  etc. :  Awtgrahungen  zu  Olympin,  Bd.  ii,  ss.  G  and  18.  For 
description  of  Church  i'.  Bd.  iii.  ss.  29-.12.     For  plans,  etc.,  r.  Bd.  iii,  Taf.  xxxvi. 

*  I',  especially  Garnicci :  hlorin  delC  Arte  Christiana,  rnito,  1875-79.  5  vols, 
fol.  Vol.  i,  Text;  vol.  ii.  Burial  monuments,  plates,  and  explnnations;  vol.  iii,  Mon- 
umonis  other  ihan  burial;  vol.  iv,  Mosaics  in  catacombs  and  elsewhere:  vol.  v,  Sar- 
cophagi in  cemeteries.  Magnifiooiitly  oxecuied.  and  a  latest  authority  from  the 
Catholic  stiindpoint,  yet  extreme  iu  liia  llioory  of  Christian  symbolism. 


40  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

Rotonda  (the  burial  chapel  of  Theodoric),  San  Apollinare  in  Classe, 
Ravenna  ^^^^   the   most   interesting  and  instructive  of   all,  San 

churches.  Vitale,  are  yet  preserved.     Thougli  it  has  been  much 

tampered  with,  the  dome  of  the  small  baptistery  of  San  Giovanni 
in  fonte,  in  Naples,  contains  some  very  rich  mosaics  of  the  latter 
Byzantine  half  of  this  century.     In  Constantinople  St.  Sophia  is 

churches.  ^\^q  most  magnificent  monument.     Traces  of  two  other 

churches  are  still  seen  in  this  capital.  Some  of  the  original  portions 
of  St.  George  in  Thessalonica,  the  modern  Salonica,  survive,  with  some 
of  the  richest  mosaics  of  the  century.'  St.  Catharine,  on  Mount  Sinai, 
must  also  be  referred  to  this  century.  A  few  other  churches  of 
this  period  which  retain  some  parts  of  their  original  structure  are 
found  scattered  over  the  old  empire,  both  east  and  west.  Numerous 
sites  furnish  individual  objects  of  great  interest.  In  Syria,  Asia 
Minor,  Greece,  Hungary,  Egypt,  Numidia,  Cyrene,  Carthage,  Spain, 
and  southern  France  explorations  are  yielding  rich  results  which 
happily  illustrate  the  stage  of  art  advancement  and  the  condition 
of  religious  and  ecclesiastical  thought  of  the  early  Christian 
centuries. 

The  archaeological  societies  of  Germany  and  Great  Britain  have 
been  most  diligent  and  zealous  iii  the  discovery  and  description  of 
much  that  has  enriched  the  materials  for  writing  the  histoiy  of  the 
christianization  of  the  original  dwellers  in  those  lands.  Especially 
along  the  borders  of  the  Rhine  and  its  immediate  tributaries  these 
archaeological  researches  have  been  abundantly  rewarded,  while 
in  England,  Wales,  Scotland,  and  Ireland  unexpected  treasures  have 
been  discovered.' 

Some  beautifully  illuminated  manuscripts  from  the  sixth  century 
have  also  been  preserved,  which  show  the  complete  subjection  of  art 
to  ecclesiastical  service,  especially  in  the  Greek  Church.  A 
regular  series  of  illustrations  of  the  Book  of  Genesis,^  in  ten  plates, 
is  found  in  a  manuscript  preserved  in  Vienna.  Also  in  the  Codex 
SyriacKS,  now  in  the  Laurentian  library  of  Florence,  are  plates  from 

'  Texiere  &  Piillan:  Byzantine  Architeciwe.  Plates  xxx,  xxxi,  xxxii,  xxxiii,  xxxiv, 
XXXV,  and  pp.  136-141.  These  authors  also  lio'd  that  St.  Sophia  of  Tliessaloiiica 
also   belongs   to  this  centnry. 

■^Invalnable  materials  have  been  collected  in  the  art  journals  of  Germany,  as  the 
Zeitschrift  filr  christl.  Archceologie  und  Kuast,  the  Orr/an  filr  christl.  Kimst,  the  Chris- 
liche  KunstUatt,  etc.,  and  in  the  proceedintrs  of  tlie  local  art  and  archieologfcal 
societies.  The  Christian  inscriptions  found  iu  the  British  Islands  have  been  col 
lected  and  edited  by  Hnebner:  InscripUones  Britanuiae  Christiance.  Berlin  and 
London,  1876. 

^v.  Garrucci:  Op.  cit.,  vol.  iii.  These  have  been  described  by  Daniel  de  Nessel,  v. 
also  d'Agincourt:  t.  ii,  pp.  49,  50,  and  plate  xix. 


CIIKISTIAX  ART  MONUMENTS.  41 

tlio  sixth  oi'iitury,'  in  wliii-li  tlio  lilV  of  Christ  and  tlio  events  of  the 
Chmvli  to  the  <hiy  of  Pentecost  are  pictured.  In  the  Codex  Vdti- 
canufi  are  eleven  plates  devoted  to  Old  Testament  scenes.  A  series 
of  paintin<,'s  illustratinjjj  the  book  of  Josliua"  aiid  thirty-six 
pictnres,  in  ujold  and  colors,  of  ecclesiastical  vessels,  etc.,  are  in  the 
N'atican  library. 

The  number  of  art  momiments  belonging  to  the  iirst  six  cen- 
turies of  the  Christian  era  is  very  great.  They  furnisli  illustrations 
of  nearly  every  brancli  of  Christian  art,  and  bec(nne  the  silent 
and  unconscious  witnesses  to  the  life,  the  belief,  and  the  social  con- 
dition of  the  early  Church.  Many  have  been  arrangeil  in  museums 
for  purposes  of  convenient  study,  and  the  zeal  of  investigators  seems 
never  to  abate.  While  it  is  very  diHicult  to  give  these  numuments 
a  classification  according  to  chronological  order,  and  different  ar- 
chicologists  differ  widely  in  opinion  with  regard  to  their  age,  they 
must,  nevertheless,  be  regarded  as  iuvaluable  auxiliaries  to  the  com- 
plete understanding  of  the  history  of  tlie  Christian  Church.^ 

'Some  refer  tliin  manuscript  to  tlic  fourth  century,  v.  (rAsineourt:  t.  ii,  pp.  52, 
5.3,  pl;vlc  xxvii.     Others  ns-iigu  it  lo  a  later  thito  than  tlio  sixlli  century. 

'^  d'Agincourt:  t.  ii,  pp.  53.  54,  plate  xxxviii.     Garrncci :   Op.  cit.,  vol.  iii. 

These  interesting  manuscripts  are  more  fully  described  under  chapter  iv. 

••An  immense  amount  of  materials  has  been  accumulated  in  the  traTisactions  of 
learned  societies,  and  in  the  juiuMials  that  are  especially  devoted  lo  Christian  ar- 
ch;colo;/J^  Probably  the  foremost  am'>ng  the  latter  are  the  BnUddno  Arcluwhijia  a-is- 
liano  of  Rome,  which  has  been  the  special  organ  of  de  Rossi  and  his  learned  and  en- 
thusiastic associates,  and  the  Revut  Archoeologiqiie,  which  has  been  conducted  with 
marked  ability  for  many  years. 


4:2  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  RELATIONS  OF   CHRTSTIANITY  TO  ART  DURING   THE   FIRST  SIX 

CENTURIES. 

It  has  been  common  with  one  class  of  writers  to  represent  the  early- 
Christian  Church  as  indifferent  or  even  hostile  to  the  fine  arts.  By 
some  the  teaching  of  the  Christian  fathers  has  been  declared  antag- 
onistic to  art;  by  others  this  view  has  been  controverted.'  Much  of 
Christianity  ^^^^  conti'ariety  of  opinion  is  plainly  attributable  to  a 
not  hostile  to  failure  to  notice  the  varying  condition  and  the  ever 
^'^  ■  shifting  environment  of  the  Church  of  the  first  three 

centuries.  Three  questions  need  to  be  considered:  I.  The  Jewish 
Three  chief  oi'igin  of  the  first  Christian  converts,  and  the  peculiarity 
questions.  q£   ^j^g  Semitic  imagination,     2,  The  diverse  opinions 

held  by  the  Jews  and  the  Greeks  with  respect  to  the  nature  and  rev- 
elation of  God,  3,  The  growing  influence  of  Christianity  through 
the  conversion  of  cultivated  and  Avealthy  pagans,  and  its  final 
adoption  as  the  state  religion, 

I,  Christ  and  his  first  apostles  were  Jews,  For  nearly  a  gen- 
eration after  the  ascension  many  of  the  adherents  to  the  new  faith 
were  of  Jewish  origin,  felt  the  obligation  of  the  Jewish  law,  and 
loved  the  Jewish  ritual.     In  their  earlier  history  the 

"First   Christ" 

ians  of  Jewish  Hebrews  had  been  a  pastoral  people.  Prior  to  the  time 
orifrin.  ^£  ^^^  kings  their  intercourse  with  other  nations  had 

been  very  limited.  These  circumstances  were  unfavorable  to  art 
origination  and  culture.  After  their  return  from  the  Babylonian 
captivity,  the  custom  of  carefully  refraining  from  intermarriage  with 
the  surrounding  peoples  made  their  isolation  still  more  complete, 
Jewish  exciu-  Fi"om  this  time  Judaism  assumed  an  exclusiveness  be- 
siveness.  fore  entirely  unknown.     While  a  nominal  dependency 

of  Persia,  the  Jews  had  been  content  to  purchase  peace  and  quietude 
by  prompt  payment  of  tribute  money.  Their  influence  seemed  so  in- 
significant that  the  Jews  of  Palestine  were  scarcely  thought  worthy  of 
mention  by  the  Greek  historians  of  Alexander's  time.  Those  who  had 
been  transported  to  the  newly  founded  African  metropolis  furnish  a 
partial  exception  to  this  exclusiveness;  nevertheless  their  attempt  to 
harmonize  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  with  the  cui-rent  Greek  thought 

'  Dorner:  Lelire  von  cler  Person  Christi,  i.  s.  290,  note. 


RELATIONS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  TO  ART.  43 

au-akenod  in  the  niin.ls  of  tlio  Jows  .,f   Palestine  a  hatred  scarcely 
less   hitter  than  was  felt   toward    the  .Samaritans  them- 
selves.   '•  The  foundincr  of  the  Syro-Grecian  kin-dom  by    SmTJew: 
Si'leiieus  and  the  estahlishment  of  the  eapitol  at  Antioeh    ^^  ^**'^'*'- 
I>rou<irlit  Judea  into  the  unfortunate  situation  of  a  weak  province, 
I'laced  between  two  .rreat  eontlietinir  monarehies."  •     From  this  time 
theeon.liticm  of  the  Jewish  people  became  deplorable  in  the  extreme 
It  was  one  continuous  stru^^crle  for  e.vistence  from  without,  a  state 
of   fierce   contentions   and   rivalries  within.     Even   the   patriotism 
ot  the  3Iaeeabean  pnnces  proved  only  the  brillia.it  flicker  of  an  ex- 
l>.ring  national  life.     True,  the  Jews  were  no  insignificant  factor  in 
the  society  and  business  of  many  of  the  cities  of  the  empire      In 
Alexandria  and  in  Rome  a  separate  quarter  was  assigned  to  them." 
1  lelleni/.mg  mfiuences  had,  indeed,  been  marked  and  powerful      Nev- 
ertheless, they  remained  essentially  isolated  in  religion  and  in  social 
customs;'  while  the  partial  syncretism  of  thought  and  style  which 
sometimes  resulted  must  be  regarded  as  unfavorable  to 
a  healthy  art  <levelopment.     From  the   time  of  their    IZZ^X 
return  from  Babylon  to  the  days  of  Christ,  therefore     a""' culture, 
their  conditions,  social,  financial,  commercial,   aiul  religious,   were 
least  favorable  to  the  successful  cultivation  of  the  fine  arts. 

^^  hile  the  second  commandment  evidently  acted  as  a  check  to 
the  encouragement  of  painting  and  sculpture,  its  prohibition  of  art 
representation  cannot  be  regarded  as  absolute.^  It  must  ai)i.lv 
mainly  to  images  which  tempt  to  idolatry.  The  sub-  The  second 
sequent  history  of  the  Hebrews  and  their  divinely  ("o'nniandment 
instituted  ritual  justify  this  opinion.  The  injunction  t'o  o7lfr"""'"' 
Moses  "to  destroy  the  altars  of  the  people,  to  break  their  ima^res 
^  Milman :   Ilistory  oj  the  Jews.     4th  edition,  London,  180(5,  vol.  i,  pp  450  A'A 

xvii   li,  l:"xviit'r5  "''  '  ""'  ''"'•^■"'■'  '''   '''■'"■'"^'  ''■  *^«^^P''"-^'   ^1"'^^- 

2to  A^n'Z.  n-t*  7*,^^':"  ""'  ""'""  "■  ""'"^''^^  ^^^^-^amentlicke  Zeit^eschichi., 
For  the  opi.^r.phic  evidence  of  the  constitution  of  the  Jewish  society  at  Rome  v 
bchurer  s  vah.ab.c  n.onograph,  Die  Ge^neindeverMsuug  der  Juden  in  Horn.      Leipzig, 

J  nl  ""''■'■  ^"'1'^''  ^  "'^'"'""'  "'•''*  "'^  P'-"'>i^'itio"  expressed  i„  onr  verse  [Kxod. 
XX.  4]  has  exerted  a  retarding  inHuonce  upon  the  pn,,.res.s  and  devdopn,ent  of  the 
plaue  arts  amonj,  the  Hebrevv.s,  as  a  hke  interdiction  in  the  Koran  has  produced 
a  s.mdar  eireot  among  the  Arab  tribes;  for  plastic  art.  in  its  beginning,  equally 
sUuds  .n  .he  serv.co  of  religion,  and  advances  by  the  stimulus  it  nflords.  B.'t  it  is 
a    ujcomprol.ens.blem>sb.ke   if  it  is   beheved  that  plastic  arts  in  general,  sculpture 


44  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

and  cut  down  tlieir  groves"  (Exod.  xxiv,  13),  and  the  sweeping  pro- 
hibition, "Thou  shalt  make  thee  no  molten  gods"  (ver.  17),  are 
coupled  with  the  reason,  "  For  thou  shalt  worship  no  other  god, 
for  the  Lord  whose  name  is  Jealous  is  a  jealous  God"  (ver.  14).  It 
was,  therefore,  "  images  of  gods  "  and  not  every  species  of  art  repre- 
sentation whose  making  was  here  forbidden.  The  preparation  of  the 
tabernacle  and  of  its  furniture  were  of  divine  appointment  and  after 
a  divinely  given  pattern  (Exod.  xxv,  9).  The  artificers  of  the  work, 
Bezalel  and  Oholiab,  were  called  and  inspired  of  God  (Exod.  xxxv, 
30,  31,  and  xxxvi,  1).  This  M^as  the  prevalent  opinion  among  the 
Jews  in  the  time  of  Christ  (Heb.  viii,  5).  Yet  on  the  furniture 
A  heavenly  of  the  tabernacle  were  representations  of  vegetable 
pattern  for  tbe    f^i-ms,  as  the  almond-shaped  bowls  of  the  candlesticks 

tabernacle  fur-  '  i 

niture.  (Exod.  XXV,  33),  and  the  pomegranates  and  bells  of  gold 

on  the  hem  of  the  priest's  ephod  (Exod.  xxviii,  33,  34);  also  of 
animal  forms,  as  the  golden  cherubim  (Exod.  xxv,  18-20),  and 
the  embroidered  cherubs  upon  the  particolored  veil  dividing  "  be- 
tween the  holy  place  and  the  most  holy  "  (Exod.  xxvi,  31-33). 

Four  and  a  half  centuries  later,  when  the  government  had  taken 
on  the  form  of  an  hereditary  monarchy,  David  essayed  to  build  a 
resting-place  for  the  ark  of  God.  The  scriptural  account  conveys 
the  impression  that  this  temple,  built  by  Solomon,  was  after  a  pat- 
tern revealed  by  God  to  David  (1  Chron.  xxviii,  6,  10,  12,  19,  and 
2  Chron.  vi,  10;  per  contra,  1  Kings  v,  6;  2  Chron.  ii,  3,  7;  1  Kings 
vi,  2;  2  Chron.  vi,  2).  The  connection  of  the  choice  of  the  site 
The  temple  with  the  terrible  punishment  of  the  sin  of  taking  the 
site.  census  of  Israel  gave  to  this  temple  a  most  solemn  in- 

terest. This  threshing-floor  of  the  fallen  Jebusite  king,  where  first 
was  given  the  vision  of  the  coming  pestilence,  became  the  center  of 
the  national  worship  for  more  than  a  thousand  years,  and  to-day  is 
held  in  equal  veneration  by  the  conquering  sons  of  Ishmael.  The 
temple  hereon  erected  was  far  more  than  an  architectural  display. 
It  supplied  the  framework  of  the  history  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah. 
It  was  the  center  of  the  whole  religious  life  of  Israel.'  Slight  as 
is  our  knowledge  of  the  details,  it  is  plain  that  "its  general  arrange- 
ments were  taken  from  those  of  the  tabernacle."''  Such  was  the 
Jewish  opinion  to  a  very  late  pei'iod  of  their  national  histoiy.  Its 
form  and  size  Avere  similar  to  those  of  the  tabernacle.'  It  is  certain 
that  the  introduction  of  vegetable  and  animal  forms  into  the  structure 
and  furniture  of  the  temple  of  Solomon  was  still  more  free  than  in 

'  Stanley:  Hist,  of  the  Jewish  Church,  2d  series,  p.  150. 

^  Ewald  :  Hist,  of  Israel,  vol.  iii,  p,  247. 

^  Ferg'iissou :  v.  article  "Temple,"  in  Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bihle. 


RELATIONS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  TO  ART.  45 

the  ease  of  the  tuboriiack-.  l)i'si(U's  the  i^ohU'ii  ( luTiiltiin  were  now 
foiuid  the  twelve  oxen  or  hulls  of  brass,  su]i]iortiiiL(  the  VoReUible  and 
-rent  hra/.i-n  laver,  while  the  lesser  lavers  rested  ""i""^' f'^rms. 
upon  forms  of  eherul)s,  lions,  and  hulls.  In  addition  to  almonds 
and  pomei^ranates  lilies  are  now  found,  or,  as  some  understand 
the  text,  the  <;reat  laver  itself  was  in  the  form  of  a  Mower  of  the 
lily. 

These  arraiiLicnients  ])laiidy  show  that  the  second  connnainliiieiit 
coulil  not  have  been  sweepiiiLj  in  its  denunciation  of  the  arts  of  foi-m, 
or  else  there  is  in  both  the  tabernacle  and  temple  a  like  wide  <h'part- 
ure  from  the  spirit  of  the  law.  The  latter  alternative  opinion  can 
hardly  comport  with  the  manifest  claims  of  each  structure  to  a 
divine  ori«;in.  While  we  must,  therefore,  doubt  the  exclusiveness 
of  the  i)rohibition  expressed  in  the  second  commandment  with 
reference  to  the  use  of  art  forms  in  the  sacred  edifices  and  ritual 
of  the  Jews,'  there  can  be  as  little  doubt  that  this  law  greatly 
discouraged  the  cultivation  of  the  arts  of  form.  Where-  The  command- 
ever  religion,  which  is  the  chief  inspiration  and  patron    ™*''i'     never- 

*  •  •  ■  t  be  less  &   hill" 

of  high  art,  is  hostile  or  indifferent,  the  cultivation  of    derance  to  art 
art  must   languish   and  the   character   of   its  products    patronage. 
l)ecoine  iiidiffi-rent. 

AVe  nnist,  however,  find  the  solution  of  the  slender  ])roducts  of 
this  i)eo}»le  in  sculpture,  painting,  and  architecture  chietly  in  the 
peculiar  character  of  the  Semitic  imagination.  This  Thepepuiiaritv 
has  been  noticed  by  students  of  general  art  history,  as  or  the  Semitic 
well  as  by  writers  on  Ileltrew  poetry  and  music."  imagination. 

This  people  was  not  wanting  in  imagination  or  in  art  suscejtti- 
bility.  Few  came  nigher  to  the  heart  of  nature,  none  were  more 
sensitive  to  her  subtler  beauties.'  But  the  Semitic  imagination  was 
wild  and   restless;   it  was  strong,  daring,  and  impetuous.     It  had  a 

'  "  Kvon  the  principle  of  tlie  second  commandment,  that  Jeliovali  is  not  to  be 
worshipped  l)y  imajjc*,  wliich  is  often  appealed  to  as  containing  tiie  most  character- 
istic pecnliariiy  of  .Mosaiam,  cannot,  in  tlie  light  of  history,  be  viewed  as  having  had 
80  fundamental  a  jdace  in  the  religion  of  early  Israel.  Tlie  state  worship  of  the 
golden  calves  led  to  no  quarrel  between  Klisha  and  the  dynasty  of  Jelui ;  and  this 
one  fact  is  sufficient  to  show  that,  even  in  a  time  of  notable  revival,  the  living  power 
of  the  religion  was  not  felt  to  lie  in  the  principle  that  Jehovah  cannot  be  represented 
by  images." — W.  Robertson  Smith,  The  Prophets  of  Israel,  pp.  f)2,  63. 

*  Hotlio:  Geschichte  d.  ch.  McUcreA.   Stuttgart,  1867.  Jien  Absch.,  Ite  cap.,  ss.  24.  s*'^. 

Schnaase:  Geschichte  d.  bildenden  A'ttn-sfe,  2te  Anfl.  Duascldorf,  1866-78.  Bd.  i, 
:Mo  Bd.  cap.  3,  ss.  232,  seq. 

Bp.  Lowth:   Socred  Poetry  of  the  Tlehrewa.     London,  1847.     Lect.  13.  et  al. 

»Comp.  Psa.  viii,  .3,  4;  xix,  1.  4,  5;  civ,  1,  2,  24;  I.sa.  xl,  22;  Hos.  v,  7  ;  Sirach 
xliii,  1,  9,  n,  12  ;  Matt,  vi,  28,  29;  1  Cor.  xv,  41,  etc. 


46  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

direct  and  manifest  influence  upon  the  logical  faculty.'  It  gave 
tone  and  hue  to  much  of  their  sacred  litei'ature.  This  inquietude 
causes  every  figurative  representation  that  flits  before  the  mind  to 
Effect  of  its  ^e  quickly  supplanted  by  another.  Either  the  first  is 
impetuosity.  inadequate  for  the  metaphorical  purpose,  and  the 
second  is  summoned  to  complete  it;  or  through  the  manifoldness  of 
its  appearance  it  brings  to  mind  yet  something  else  that  is  closely 
related  to  the  subject  in  hand,  which  thus  becomes  blended  with 
the  first  picture  of  the  fancy,  only  to  obscure  and  weaken  the 
sharpness  of  its  outline.^  Hebrew  poetry  furnishes  numerous 
illustrations  of  this  principle,  and  the  writings  of  the  Prophets  con- 
firm it.'  Take  the  passage  in  1  Kings  xiv,  15,  as  an  example  of 
Examples  from  the  restlessness  and  impetuosity  of  the  Hebrew  imag- 
scripture.  ination.     Israel  is  here  represented  as  a  person  who  is 

to  receive  chastisement  at  the  hand  of  the  Lord.  Its  infliction 
causes  him  to  reel,  which  effort  suggests  the  slender  reed  shaken  by 
the  resistless  blast.  This  new  object  to  which  the  attention  is 
directed  is  now  the  recipient  of  a  further  action — the  rooting  out 
of  the  land — thus  calling  up  the  promised  inheritance.  The 
further  effect  of  the  chastisement  is  not  only  the  removal  to 
another  place,  but  the  scattering  beyond  the  river,  and  the  dis- 
solution of  this  personified  Israel  into  its  individual  members.* 
The  picture  of  the  blessings  of  Christ's  kingdom  as  given  in  Isa. 
xxxii,  2,  is  another  example  of  the  same  restlessness  of  fancy.  The 
primal  notion  of  safety  and  nourishment  is  plain  and  simple;  but 
the  imagination  rushes  from  "  a  hiding-place  from  the  wind  and  a 
covert  from  the  storm  "  to  "  rivers  of  waters  in  a  dry  place,"  and 
thence  to  "  a  great  rock  in  a  weary  land."  Here  is  unity  of  thought, 
but  we  attempt  in  vain  to  reproduce  by  arts  that  appeal  to  the  e^^e  tlie 
diverse  objects  here  presented.  Of  Isa.  xiv,  4,  27,  an  enthusiastic 
admirer  and  commentator  of  the  Hebrew  poetry  has  written,  "  How 
forcible  is  this  imagery,  how  diversified,  how  sublime  !  How  ele- 
vated the  diction,  the  figures,  the  sentiments  !  The  Jewish  nation, 
the  cedars  of  Lebanon,  tlie  ghosts  of  the  departed  kings,  the  Baby- 
lonish monarch,  the  travelers  who  find  the  corpse,  and,  last  of  all, 

'  e.  g.,  the  curious  and  repeated  involutions  of  tlie  argument  in  the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans  ;  tlius  greatly  adding  to  the  difficulties  of  its  exegesis.  This  was  noticed  hy 
Irenseus  {Adv.  Haer.,  iii,  7,  §  2)  who  attributes  tlie  irregularities  of  Paul's  style  to 
the  impetuosity  of  the  i^pirit  within  him. 

"Schnaase:  Op.  cit.,  Bd.  i,  s.  236. 

^v.  1  Kings  xiv,  15;  Psa.  xviii;  Isa.  xiv,  4,  27;  xxxii,  2;  xxxviii,  11,  14,  and 
numerous  other  passages. 

*  V.  Schnaase:   Op.  cit.,  ibid. 


RELATIONS  OF  ClIKISTIANITY  TO  ART.  47 

Jkiiovaii  hiinsc'lf,  are  the  characters  that  su|>i)ort  this  lyric  <lrania."' 
While  the  imagery  is  poetic,  it  is  incapable  of  representation  by 
painting  or  sciilj)ture.  This  restless  inipetnosity  of  imagination  is 
found  not  only  in  warnings  and  pro[)hecies  of  destruction,  but  in 
depicting  peaceful  scenes,  holy  triumphs,  pastoral  simplicity,  and 
even  in  historic  narration. 

It  is  a  well  accepted  principle  of  formative  art  that  it  reipiires  a 
measure  of  fixedness  and  repose.  Tliis  limits  the  im-  Acccptwi  art 
agination  to  a  single  and  well  defined  subject.  A  paint-  I'liiRipie. 
ing  implies  limitation  in  time  and  place  ;  a  statue  is  the  crystalliza- 
tion of  one  leading  thought  ;  high  architecture  obeys  the  laws  of 
symmetry  and  proportion.  These  arts  demand  unity,  sharpness 
of  outline,  and  obedience  to  well  settled  principles  of  execution. 
We  have  only  to  refer  to  the  above-mentioned  products  of  the 
Jewish  imagination,  or  recall  some  of  the  invocations  to  praise,  or 
the  description  of  God's  majestic  ways  in  nature,  as  found  in  the 
Book  of  Job,  the  Psalms,  or  the  Projthets,  to  be  convinced  tliat  the 
Semitic  imagination  was  too  restlessly  nervous,  or  too  daring  in  its 
flights,  to  obey  the  canons  imposed  on  sculptui'c,  painting,  and  archi- 
tecture. 

Like  results  are  reached  from  the  study  of  the  Solomonic  temple 
and  the    sculptured    and    pictorial    forms  which    were    rnnnrmatfon 
admitted  into  the  ornamentation  of  its  furniture.     The    '?'"'  '"''^•"p'*'^ 

.      .  of  the    fonna- 

outline  of  this   sacred   building  was    that  of    a  mere    uvearts. 
box,  destitute  of  artistic  pro])ortions  or  elegance.'     The   beautiful 
symmetry,  the  harmony  of  color,  and  the  perfection  of  details,  met 
in  the  Greek  temple  of  the  golden  age,  are  in  marked  contrast  with 
the  baldness  of  form  and  the  barbaric  s])lendor  of  Solomon's  tem- 
ple.    Even  more  striking  is  the  difTereiu-e  between  the    xhe  Jewish 
few  artistic  forms  which  were  allowed  in  the  one  and    t«mpie, 
those  adorning  the  temple  of  a  Zeus  or  of  an  Athene.     The  figures 

'  Bp.  Lowth :   Spirit  of  Hebrew  Poetry,  Lcct.  1 3. 

*  Dean  Milinan  seems  to  convoy  an  erroneous  impression  of  the  architcctnral  pecu- 
liarities of  Solomon's  temple  when  he  says,  "  Yet  in  some  respects,  if  tlie  measure- 
ments are  correct,  the  temple  must  rather  have  resembled  the  form  of  a  simple  flnthic 
church."' — IILst  of  the  Jew.s,  Book  vii.  It  is  difficult  to  trace  any  likeness  in  these 
two  widely  separated  and  very  diverse  styles  of  architecture.  Indeed,  we  could 
hardly  find  a  stronjrer  contrast  than  exists  between  Solomon's  temple  and  a  Gothic 
church.  More  correct  is  his  stiitcmont.  p.  311:  "The  temple  itself  was  rather  a 
monument  of  the  wealth  than  of  the  architectural  skill  and  science  of  the  people." 
Dean  Stanley's  estimate  is  certainly  justified  by  the  best  resvdts  of  modern  investi- 
gation: "  The  outside  view  must,  if  we  can  trust  the  numbers,  have  been,  according 
to  modern  notions,  strangely  out  of  proportion." — The  Jewish  Church,  London,  1875, 
vol.  i,  p.  174. 


48  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

of  the  cherubim  which  overshadowed  the  mercy-seat  were  of  olive- 
Examples  of  wood,  overlaid  with  gold  (1  Kings  vi,  23-28).  These 
sculpture.  figures  were  colossal,  but  were  wanting  in  symmetry, 

while  their  lack  of  adjustment  to  the  containing  space  manifested 
an  indifference  to  artistic  harmony.  In  the  descriptions  of  the 
seraphim  in  the  vision  of  Isaiah  (Isa.  vi),  and  of  the  cherubim  in 
the  vision  of  Ezekiel  (Ezek.  xli),  all  is  wild  and  involved.  In 
these  forms  is  noticed  an  absence  of  unity  and  proportion,  an 
impatience  of  boundary  and  definition.  They  transcend  the  limits 
of  the  human,  and  are  allied  to  the  mysterious  and  the  supernatural. 

This  idiosyncrasy,  so  unfavorable  to  arts  which  appeal  to  the  eye, 
is  not  incompatible  with  high  excellence  in  poetry  and  music.  Nev- 
GreekandHe-  ertheless,  a  like  diversity  may  be  traced  in  the  poetry 
brew  poetry  of  the  Je ws  and  of  the  Greeks.  This  is  manifest  from  a 
contras  e  .  careful  comparison  of  passages  from  the  Hebrew  bards 
with  those  taken  from  Homer,  where  like  objects  are  described,  or 
like  poetic  images  are  involved.  Homer  treats  each  element  of  the 
figure  consecutively  and  exhaustively;  the  Hebrew  bard  flits  from 
point  to  point  in  rapid  succession.  Homer  gives  many  elements  of 
one  view;  the  Hebrew  i^resents  single  elements  of  many  views.' 

2.  The  relations  of  the  divine  to  the  human  as  conceived  by  the 
Semitic  mind  Avere  very  different  from  those  recognized  by  the 
Hellenic  peoples.  The  monotheism  of  the  Hebrews  was  peculiar. 
The  Hebrew  Their  Jehovah  was  not  merely  the  one  living  and 
monotheism.  ^j.^^p  q^^^^  |-,^^^  j-^g  ^jjs  at  the  same  time  the  illimitable 
and  unfathomable  Mystery,  the  Unapproachable,  whom  no  form 
can  contain,  no  symbol  may  adequately  represent.  The  assurance 
given  to  Moses,  "  Thou  canst  not  see  my  face,  for  no  man  shall  see 
me  and  live  "  (Exod.  xxxiii,  20),  inspired  in  the  worshiper  a  pervad- 
ing awe.  The  infinity  of  the  attributes  of  One  whom  "  the  heaven 
and  the  heaven  of  heavens  cannot  contain"  (2  Chron.  ii,  18),  "the 

1  Of  the  Hebrew  lyric  poetrj',  as  an  exhibition  ot"  the  Hebrew  imagination,  Lotze 
says: 

"Here  the  mind  dwells  upon  its  communion  with  God,  and  extols  with  all  the 
power  of  the  most  passionate  expression,  as  proof  of  divine  omnipotence,  every  deep- 
Lotze's  opin-  felt  individual  feature  of  cosmic  beauty.  For  among  the  divine  attri- 
ion.  butes  it  is  certainly  omnipotence  which,  above  all,  is  felt,  and  gives 

a  coloring  to  testhetic  imagination;  we  do,  indeed,  meet  with  innumerable  pictures 
of  nature  whicli,  taken  separately,  have  often  that  inimitable  beauty  and  charm 
which  civilization,  entangled  by  a  thousand  unessential  accessories  of  thought,  finds 
it  so  difficult  to  attain;  but  these  pictures  are  not  utilized  for  the  development  of  a 
progressive  course  of  thought,  but  merely  juxtaposed  as  though  to  magnify  from  dif- 
ferent but  corresponding  sides  the  omnipresent  influence  of  that  divine  activity  which 
tliey  depict."     v.  Microcosmus,  translation,  New  York,  1885,  vol.  ii,  p.  403. 


RELATIONS  OF  CIIIIISTIANITY  TO  ART.  49 

Khip;  eternal,  immortal,  invi.sihle,  the  only  wise  Go«l  "  (1  Tim.  i,  17), 
made  the  fitting  rei)resentati()n  of  Jehovah  through  lonii  or  symhol 
inconceivable  and  si'lf-eontradietory.  Of  all  the  Oriental  jx-oplee 
the  Jews  most  abhorred  the  degradation  of  Deity  to  the  i»laiie  of 
naturi".  In  their  conception  the  forces  of  nature  were  only  the 
agents  and  instruments  of  God  which  he  used  to  uccomplish  his 
will.  These  views  of  God  and  nature  tended  to  drive  the  Jew 
back  upon  liim.self,  and  to  encourage  the  study  and  development 
of  a  subjective  life.  Lacking,  therefore,  a  religious  sanction  and 
encouragement,  art  among  the  Jews  could  have  but  a  partial  devel- 
opment, since  all  history  and  philosophy  are  accordant 
in  teaching  that  art  has  achieved  its  grandest  tri-  represenutive 
uniphs  when  inspired  by  the  ti'uths  of  religion,  while  """ 
religion  has  found  in  art  its  closest  handmaid  and  successful  inter- 
preter. 

How  dilferent  was  the  thought  of  pagan  Greece  and  Rome  I 
While  in  their  early  history  both  these  peoples  were  eminently  re- 
ligious, their  conceptions  of  the  divine  were  nevertheless  in- 
distinct and  shifting.  The  most  devout  Greeks  could  The  (in-ek  my- 
affirm  without  public  offence  that  Ilesiod  and  Homer  tboioRy. 
were  the  authors  of  their  mythology.  Their  opinion  of  the  deities 
was  fixed  neither  by  law  nor  by  the  authority  of  a  divinely  insti- 
tuted ])riesthood.  The  priests  were  not  a  favoured  class,  l)ut  were 
generally  chosen  from  year  to  year  to  minister  to  the  people  and 
communicate  the  will  of  the  gods.  Nature  was  not  merely  an  instru- 
ment by  which  the  one  infinite  Ruler  accomplishes  his  purposes,  ])Ut 
was  apportioned  to  a  multitude  of  divinities  whose  domain  was 
limited  and  defined.  Natural  forces  were  personified,  and  these 
personifications  were  the  products  of  the  popular  fancy,  or  were  tra- 
ditions which  were  invested  with,  no  suprenu'  authority.  It  has  l)een 
said  that  the  Greeks  idealized  nature.  In  comparison  with  the  low 
materialistic  tendencies  of  many  Oriental  peoples  this  claim  is  fairly 
just.  Certainly  their  religion  was  for  the  most  part  bright  and 
cheerful.  It  turned  toward  the  outward.  The  deep  subjective  I'le- 
ment  of  the  Hebrew  faith  was  feeble  in  both  the  heathen  Greek  and 
Roman.     While   the    earlier  Greek  religion  had  been    „  ,       „.      , 

•^  Extornallty  of 

characterized  by  freedom  of  thought,  and   the   Roman,    tiu-  hciitiien 

on  the  contrary,  was  to  the  last  degree  j)rescribed,  these  '^""'f''^"''- 
religions  nevertheless  agree  in  the  common  quality  of  externality. 
Paul's  masterly  summary  was  descrii)tive  of  all  j)agan  systems  alike; 
"They  worshipjied  and  served  the  creature  more  than  the  Creator" 
(Rom.  i,  25).  To  the  (ireek  there  was  no  holy  (iod;  all  divinities 
were  alike  subject  to  the  weakness  of  change,  and  to  the  swav  of 
4 


50  ARCHEOLOGY  OP  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

passion.  "Instead  of  holiness,  beauty  took  the  supreme  place."' 
Loyalty  to  the  family  and  to  the  state  was  to  the  Roman  the  high- 
est ideal  of  piety.  To  represent  their  gods  in  beautiful  and  per- 
fected forms  seemed  appropriate  to  peoples  whose  conceptions  of 
deity  shifted  with  their  own  varying  history.  Hence  their  relation 
Results  of  to  the  formative  arts  must  have  been  widely  different 
these  differ-    fj.^jjj^  ^i^^^  ^f  ^j-^g  Hebrews.    While  to  the  Jew  the  divine 

eaces    to    art 

culture.  worship  and  the  house  of  worship  must  be  only  sym- 

bolic of  the  mysterious  power  and  presence  of  Jehovah ;  while,  there- 
fore, proportions  and  outlines  need  not  be  subject  to  strict  law  or 
definition,  but  might  defy  the  principles  which  govern  mere  finite 
existence  ;  the  worship,  the  statues,  and  the  temjiles  of  the  Greeks 
had  a  clearness  and  a  distinctness  which  were  entirely  consonant 
with  the  nature  of  gods  who  were  merely  a  projection  of  finite 
thought,  and  the  embodiment  of  what  was  best  and  highest  in 
humanity.  By  a  method  of  limitation  and  degradation  of  their  di- 
vinities to  an  image  or  statue,  the  Greeks  used  the  arts  of  form 
as  didactic  means  of  a  religious  education.  Thus  as  minister  and 
•illustrator  of  religion  formative  art  among  the  Greeks  found  its 
richest  themes  and  its  highest  inspiration,  while  among  the  Hebrews 
its  isolation  from  religious  thought  and  religious  service  resulted  in 
an  imperfect  development  and  a  languishing  life. 

We  have  a  most  conspicuous  illustration  and  proof  of  this  Jewish 
indifference  to  the  arts  of  painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture  in  the 
person  of  St.  Paul.  Born  in  Tarsus,  the  seat  of  advanced  Greek 
St.  Paul  an  ii-  culture,  where  objects  of  exquisite  taste  adorned  the 
iiustration    of    markets   and   public   squares,  he   must    have   enioved 

Semitic   indif-  •         /•  i  t         i-      i        j<  • 

ference  to  the  abundant  opportunity  for  the  study  oi  the  formative 
One  arts.  arts  of  the  period.    Yet,  in  the  account  of  his  mission- 

ary visit  to  Athens  is  found  no  single  expression  of  friendly 
interest  in  the  matchless  works  with  which  that  noted  city  still 
abounded,  not  one  intimation  of  aesthetic  pleasure  awakened  by 
their  study.''     Rather  did  he  see  in  these  richest  and  grandest  pro- 

'  Uhlhorn  :   Cmiflid  of  Christianity  ivith  Heathenism.     Translation,  revised  edition 

1879.  P.  33. 

^"  Any  sense  of  the  dignity  and  beauty  of  pagan  art  was   impossible  to  one  who 

had  been  trained  in  tlie  school  of  the  rabbis.     There  was  nothing  in 

arrar  s  s  a  e-     j^j    education  (we  miglit  add,  in  his  people)  which  enabled  him  to  ad- 

mire  tiie  simple  grandeur  of  tlie  Prnpylpea,  the  severe  beauty  of  tlie 

Parthenon,  the  massive  proportions  of  the  Theseum,  the  exquisite  elegance  of  the 

Temple  of  the  Wir'gless  Victory.     From  the  nude  grace  and  sinewy  strength  of  the 

youthful  processions   portrayed  on    frieze   or   entablature,  he  would  have  turned 

away  with  something  of  impatience,  if  not  of  disgust." — Farrar:  Life  of  Si.  Paui 

Xondon,  1882.     A'ol.  i,  p.  527. 


RELATIONS  OF  CTTRTSTIANITY  TO  ART.  51 

ducts  of  the  liuman  iin:iLrinati<m,  in  statiu-s  of  matchless  heaiity,  in 
altars  of  faultless  form,  in  temples  of  ineomiiaral^le  |tro])ortioiis, 
naught  hut  the  plainest  proofs  of  a  niournful  departure  from  the 
one  true  God,  and  unmistakahle  evidenees  of  the  degradation  and 
helplessness  of  the  heathen  world. 

3,  While  the  Gospel  must  be  first  preached  at  Jerusalem,  aiul 
while  by  their  monotheistic  faith  and  Messianic  hopes  the  Jewish 
peoj)le  formed  the  proper  point  of  union  between  the  old  and  the 
new,  the  spirit  of  universalism  tauglit  by  Jesus  could  univL-rsalism 
not  be  limited  by  the  prevalent  exelusiveness.  His  was  a  °^  ^^^  Gospel. 
system  of  truth  and  salvation  for  the  race.  When  Paul  and  Barna- 
bas said,  "Lo,  we  turn  to  the  Gentiles"  (Acts  xiii,  46),  the  grandeur 
of  the  Gosi)el  mission  was  first  made  manifest.  Most  gladly  <lid  tlu- 
poor  and  the  oppressed  of  heathendom  hear  the  proclamation  of 
deliverance  from  their  spiritual  bondage. 

The  estimated  number  of  converts  to  Christianity  at  the  close  of 
the  first  century  is  500,000;  at  the  close  of  the  second  jjunji,^,^  and 
2,000,000;  at  the  close  of  the  third  7,000,000  to  10,000,-  character  of 
000.  Even  at  the  close  of  the  first  century,  probably  "'°^^'^- 
the  majority  of  Christians  had  l)een  gathered  from  heathen  ])eoples. 
The  Gentile  element  ra})idly  increased.  By  tlie  middle  of  the  second 
century  Jewish  influence  and  tendencies  had  well-nigh  disappeared. 
After  the  second  century,  with  the  exception  of  some  isolated  com- 
munities, the  Church  consisted  essentially  of  converts  who  must 
have  been  thoroughly  familiar  with  pagan  art. 

It  is  impossible  to  believe  that  families  of  high  station,  that  had 
been  entirely  favorable  to  the  patronage  of  the  fine  arts,  could,  on 
embracing  Christianity,  imme<liately  change  their  tastes  and  itractice, 
especially  since  nothing  inimical  to  the  cultivation  of  art  is  found 
in  the  teachings  of  Christ  or  in  the  writings  of  his  apostles. 

Every  chief  city  in  the  Roman  Empire  had  become  a  museum  into 
which  liad  been  gathered  the  treasures  which  the  Greeks  Powerful  art 
had  produced  during  a  long  period  of  art  activity  and  influences, 
origination.  Temples,  altars,  shrines;  vale,  grove,  and  mountain; 
public  squares,  market-i)laces,  the  halls  of  justice,  private  houses — 
contained  objects  which  familiarized  the  looker-on  with  the  thought 
that  the  divine  may  be  represented  in  visible  fornix  The  pagan 
moralists  regarded  these  images  as  most  helj)ful  means  of  instruc- 
tion, and  a  most  healthful  stimulus  of  the  faith  of  tlie  worshipper. 
Like  the  Christian  apologists  for  images  in  a  later  Art  works  re- 
century,  the  priests  of  paganism  taught  that  tlie  peoi.le  ^v  n'le\.eiX'n 
could  thus  be  brought  near  the  ]H'rson  of  the  divinity,  m-iraiists. 
While  some  of  the  more  thoughtful,  as  Seneca,  rejected  this  view, 


52  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

the  majority  taught  that  the  gods  were  truly  present  in  the  images. 
The  untutored  multitude  believed  that  their  deities  had  as  many  differ- 
ent personalities  as  there  were  representations.  Herein  the  faith 
of  the  adherents  to  the  old  religions  was  strikingly  like  that  of  the 
Christians  during  the  most  flourishing  periods  of  image  worship.' 

Thus  had  art  been  made  the  illustrator  and  teacher  of  religion. 
They  had  become  so  closely  joined  that  the  protests  of  some  of  the 
Christian  fathers  against  its  practice  and  encouragement  sounded 
Causes  of  Christ-  ^^^'^^  and  discordant  to  the  pagan  moralists.  But  the 
ian  art  encour-  accessions  to  the  Church  of  families  of  wealth  and  high 
social  position,  the  cessation  of  the  fierce  struggle  of 
heathendom  for  re-establishment,  and  the  removal  of  the  dangers  that 
threatened  the  lapse  of  Christianity  into  heathen  idolatry,  furnished 
new  conditions  for  the  cultivation  and  patronage  of  the  fine  arts. 
The  inhei'ent  love  of  the  beautiful  found  means  of  rational  gratifica- 
tion; the  new  religion  breathed  into  the  old  forms  a  quickening  spirit, 
and  originated  a  treatment  peculiarly  Christian.  The  decadence 
everywhere  observed  in  the  pagan  Avorld  from  the  blight  of  faith 
was  measurably  arrested  by  the  vital  union  of  the  true  and  the  beau- 
tiful in  Christianity.  The  changed  relations  of  the  Christian  to  the 
Jewish  Church,  the  juster  view  of  the  nature  of  God  and  his  gov- 
ernment of  the  material  universe,  and  the  recognition  of  Christianity 
as  an  important  factor  in  the  civilization  of  the  empire,  favored  the 
alliance  of  the  Church  with  art,  which  thus  received  a  truer 
inspiration.^ 

Some,  however,  who  had  been  converted  from  the  pagan  system 
Early  opposi-  were,  at  first,  scarcely  less  pronounced  against  the  use  of 
tion  to  the  arts  ^rt  forms  in  the  places  of  worship  than  the  Jewish  Christ- 
Christianser-  i^i^s  themselves.'  This  seeming  hostility  of  a  few  of  the 
vices.  Christian  fathers  was  chieflv  occasioned  by  the  corrupt- 

ing associations  of  the  prevalent  art.  As  before  remarked,  the  Christ- 
ian and  pagan  views  of  the  divine  nature  and  government  were  in 
directest  contradiction.     The  one  believed  that  each  stream,  wood, 

'  Friedlander :  Barstellung  cms  der  Sittengeschichta  Earns,  Bd.  iii,  s.  565,  ei  al. 

This  author  compares  the  heathen  belief  in  tlie  diversitj^  of  tlie  nature  of  the  gods 
with  that  of  the  Neapohtans  respecting  the  Madonna  and  her  various  art  representa- 
tions. 

^  "  Christianity  only  discourasred  art  so  long  as  art  was  the  handmaid  of  sin  :  the 
moment  this  danger  ceased,  she  inspired  and  ennobled  art." — Farrar,  Life  of  St.  Paul, 
chap,  xxvii. 

■'  Christianity  by  exalting  moral  above  physical  beauty,  the  soul  above  the  body, 
encouraged  the  development  of  ardent  and  pnssionate  men  of  genius  " — E.  Miintz: 
Les  Artistes  celebres.     Donatello. 

2  Piper:  Mythologie  der  christlichen  Kunst.     Weimar,  1847.     Bd.  i,  s.  2. 


RELATIONS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  TO  ART.  r,:} 

and  mountain  was  cjoverned  by  a  separate  divinity,  and  that  cvfry 
art  and  event  of  human  experience  from  birth  to  death  was  under 
the  direction  of  some  special  deity;  the  othi'r  reijarded  the  universe 
as  tlie  work  of  the  one  true  God,  and  this  world  as  the  theatre  for 
the  display  of  the  divine  mercy  and  glory,  and  for  the  manifestation 
of  behavior  under  tlie  divine  government.'  Through  tlie  uni- 
versal decadence  of  belief  and  the  corresponding  corruption  of 
morals,  that  whicii  liad  originally  been  inspired  by  strong  faith  in 
the  supernatural  had  become  the  minister  to  the  most  degrading 
rites  and  cerenu)nies.  Hence,  some  of  these  works  of  art  were 
at  first  doubly  repulsive  to  the  heathen  converts  themselves.  It 
was  originally  a  war  against  images  ;  subsecpiently  it  extended 
itself  by  a  law  of  association  to  all  decorative  and  art  Extent  of  this 
forms  connected  with  the  heathen  worship.  At  first  opposi'wn- 
even  objects  in  free  statuary  and  paintings  used  to  beautify  private 
houses  and  household  furniture  were  forbidden.  The  artist  whose 
skill  was  employed  in  the  production  of  these  works  was  placed 
under  the  ban  of  the  Church.  On  assuming  church  membership 
he  was,  at  times,  compelled  to  abandon  his  craft.  The  Apostolic 
Constitutions  are  very  positive  in  their  teachings  on  this  point.  A 
maker  of  images  of  the  gods  who  shall  have  become  a  Christian  must 
either  abandon  his  business  or  be  excommunicated. ^  Some  intiuen- 
tial  Christian  fathers  were  most  outspoken.  80  late  as  the  beginning 
of  the  third  century  Tertullian  argued  the  case  with  great  vehe- 
mence, lie  urges  that  while  the  Christian  artificer  Tortuiiian's 
did  not  himself  worship  these  images,  he  was  placing  tea<i)ing. 
in  the  hands  of  others  objects  Avhich  might  be  most  misleading.  One 
cannot  consistently  confess  the  one  true  God  with  the  mouth,  and 
yet  preach  polytheism  with  the  hand.  While  Christian  artisans 
tliemselves  may  not  offer  incense  to  these  images  of  the  gods,  they  are, 
nevertheless,  putting  into  their  work  their  powers  of  mind  an<l  soul, 
and  are  thus  consenting  to  derive  their  own  comfort  and  sup]>ort  from 
a  soul-destroying  idolatry.*      Clement  of  Alexambia  was  of   like 

'  "If  the  pajran  relip:ion9  had  explained  the  government  of  llio  universe  by  the 
frovcrnnieiit  of  man,  tlius  miilliplyinpr  the  realms  of  law,  each  under  a  distinct  law- 
giver, the  Christian  had  achieved  that  hi<;hest  juissihlo  frenernlization,  sublime  in  its 
simplicity, of  a  single  realm  and  one  universal  divine  government." — Holland:  Juris- 
]>ruilence,  p.  14. 

'  Apmlolic  Constitutions,  viii,  c.  32:  'Idolorum  opifex  si  accedut,  aut  desistat  aut- 
ropellatur." 

*  De  Idolatria,  c.  6:  "Quomodo  enim  renuntiavimus  diabolo  ot  angelis  ejus,  si  oos 
facimus?  .  .  .  Poles  lingua  negasse,  quod  manu  contUeris?  verbo  destmcrc,  quod 
facto  struis?  unum  Deum  praedicare,  qui  tantos  efflcis?  verum  Doum  pncdicare,  qui 
falso3  facis  ?  " 


54  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

mind.'  But  the  use  of  such  facts  to  prove  the  hostility  of  these  fathers 
to  art  per  se,  and  the  indifference  of  the  early  Church  to  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  fine  arts,  is  manifestly  misleading.  Such  conclusions 
are  denied  by  the  evidence  of  the  senses. ^ 

The  adornment  of  dress,  and  the  decoration  of  furniture,  utensils, 
and  wall-spaces  in  the  private  house,  have  generally  been  the  earliest 
product  of  the  aesthetic  faculty.  So  probably  with  the  art  of  the 
early  Christians.^  It  was  so  far  removed  from  the  associations 
Earliest  en-  of  heathen  worship  as  to  awaken  little  opposition.  This 
ordecora'tive  "^i^w  finds  confirmation  in  the  writings  of  the  early 
art.  Christian  fathers.     The  next  step  seems  to  have  been 

the  decoration  of  tombs  and  the  wall-spaces  of  crypts  in  the  cata- 
combs, which  often  served  the  double  purpose  of  sepulture  and  of 
a  place  of  assembly  for  the  celebration  of  the  sacraments.  Hence 
the  archfeologist  must  betake  himself  to  the  careful  study  of  these 
burial  monuments  to  gain  the  truest  conception  of  the  nature  and 
mission  of  early  Christian  art.^ 

Unquestionably,  the  Christian  Church  accepted  and  appropriated 
Originality  of  ^^  '^^^  ^^n  USB  many  of  the  art  forms  that  were  at 
early  Christian  hand.  To  create  an  absolutely  new  school  was,  under 
'^^'-  the  circumstances,  impossible.     The  earliest   Christian 

painting  and  sculpture  follow  the  heathen  type  ;  no  wide  departure 
is  anywhere  observable.     The  originality  of  the  Christian  artists 

'  Among  other  passages  v.  Pcedagogus,  lib.  iii 

2  An  interesting  parallel  may  be  drawn  between  the  teachings  of  the  Ciiristian 
fathers  of  the  second  and  third  centuries  and  those  of  some  of  the  great  reformers 
of  the  sixteenth.  The  early  apologists  clearly  discerned  the  threat  to  the  puriiy  of 
Ciiristian  life  and  doctrine  coming  from  the  indiscriminate  use  of  heathen  art ; 
Luther,  Zwinglius,  Beza.  and  Calvin  would  exclude  images  from  churclies,  not 
because  they  did  not  love  art,  but  because  these  objects  were  misleading  the  simple 
worshippers,  v.  Griineisen:  De  Protestantismo  artibus  liand  ivfesto.  Tubingai,  1839. 
Also  an  essay,  Catholicism  and  Protestantism  as  Patrons  of  Christian  Art,  in  the 
Methodist  Quarterly  Review,  January,  1877. 

*  What  modification  of  opinion  might  be  necessary  were  the  countless  objects 
that  have  been  lost  to  be  recovered,  it  is  impossible  to  say.  The  materials  are 
often  very  meagre,  and  sometimes  the  archasologist  must  be  guided  by  analogical 
evidence. 

■*  "  Probably  religious  representations  were  transferred  from  private  houses  to 
churches  at  the  end  of  the  third  century,  for  the  Church  of  Elvira,  A.  D.  305,  protested 
against  this  use  of  images  in  the  churches." — Neander:  Church  Hist.,  Torrey's  trans., 
vol.  ii,  p.  508.  Tliis  opinion  of  Neander  needs  very  important  qualification.  It  seems 
to  be  founded  upon  documentary  rather  tlian  upon  moiuimental  evidence.  Willi  the 
latter  he  interested  himself  very  sliglitly.  Indeed,  nearly  every  great  work  on  church 
history  in  this  century — for  example,  Neander,  Giesslcr,  Niedner,  Baur,  Kurtz,  etc. — 
is  strangely  silent  on  the  monuments.  Schafif,  in  his  last  edition,  forms  a  striking 
and  pleasant  exception. 


RELATIONS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ''O  ART. 


55 


consisted  c-ssi'iitiallyin  pivssin.ix  into  the  service  of  the  new  faith 
what  before  had  ministered  to  the  reli.u:ions  of  patranisin.  A  new 
spirit  was  infused  int..  the  ohl  body,  not  immediately  to  modify 
and  transform  it,  but  to  teaeh  new  and  saviii«,'  truths.  The 
early  employment  of  svnd)olism  indicates  the  chariness  symho  1 1  sm 
of  the  Church  in  the  use  of  free  statuary  and  painting.  um.M.^«  ^  ^'e 
The  authority  of  Scripture  was  invoked.  The  Fathers  „f  ciiruua.i 
assumed  tliat  to  represent  to  tlie  eye  what  the  "rt. 
Scriptures  teach  by  word-symbol  was  not  idolatrous.  Jesus 
spoke  of  himself  and  of  Ids  savintr  offices  under  the  synd>ol  ot  a 
vine  ;  he  called  himself  the  Good  Shepherd,  and  Ids  followers  the 
sheep.  The  finally  saved  were  the  sheep  placed  on  his  ri^ht  hand 
in  paradise  ;  the  tinallv  impenitent  were  the  goats  which  were  to  be 
banislu'd  from  his  presc-nce  foi-r,er.  Thus  the  cycle  of  Christian 
symbolism  which  became  so  elfective  in  teachin-  was  greatly  en- 
larged,  and  aided  to  introduce  the  arts  of  form  into  the  service  ot 

the  Church.  •  ,    ,  • 

It  is,  therefore,  scarcely  philosophical  or  in  accord  with  historic 
facts  to  attribute  the  symbolic  character  of  the  pre-Constantme  art 
to  merelv  outward  circunislances,  as  fear  of  persecution,  or  an  aversion 
to  exposing  to  profane  eyes  the  mysteries  of  the  Christian  religion. 
The  transition  from  the  symbolic  to  tiie  literal  representation  was 
rather  in  obedience  to  a  fundamental  law  of  art  devel-  Transition 
oi.meiit.  The  deep  spiritual  life  ot  the  C  hurch  must  ^^  ^^^^^^^  ^ep- 
precede  the  outward  expression.  The  decadence  of  resentatian. 
religious  sentiment  in  the  pagan  world  had  caused  a  like  ileca- 
dence  in  all  forms  of  representative  art,  whether  poetry,  music, 
paintim^s  sculpture,  or  architecture.  The  higher  spiritual  life  of 
the  Christian  Church  must  supply  the  necessary  conditions  ..f  a 
completer  art  which  would  be  developed  whenever  tlu'  outwar.l 
circumstances  might  favor.' 

The  history  of  the  first  three  centuries  clearly  shows  that  just  as 
the  heathen  philosophical  thought  was  used  by  the  CMiurch  fathers 
to  «dve  concise  expression  to  Christian  doctrine,  and  Th«  church 
the  Roman  state  furnished  the  type  for  an  ecclesiastical  ^^.„,j^  „.^  ^t 
hierarchy,  just  so  were  the  forms  of  pagan  art  and  its  hand, 
principle's  of  expression  ])ressed  into  the  service  of  the  triumphant 
religion.'     This   appropriation    went    so    far   as    fr<|euently  to   use 

'  Pipor:  Mythohjie  dei  ch.  KunsL  Bd.  i,  sa.  .').  6. 

"^   V  similar  coniril.iition  of  heithen  ihou'.'ht  is  aoen  in  llio  Romnn  puiUls. 

"  The  constitution  of  those  iruii-ls.  and  the  kind  of  life  developed  within  them, 
have  been  of  the  greatest  import:mco  in  the  history  of  Christian  charity  and  its  de- 
velopment.    CerUinly  it  was  the  case  that  tliese  guilds  laid  down  the  recognised 


56  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

heathen  symbols  for  Christian  purposes.  Confining  himself  at  first 
to  the  simple  but  significant  symbolism  of  the  biblical  cycle,  the 
artist  afterward  employed  any  heathen  emblem  which  had  conveyed 
an  analogous  truth.  It  must  be  supposed  that  this  practice  in  some 
form  was  quite  general  in  the  Christian  Church.  But  the  remains 
of  this  earliest  art  industry  are  limited  to  a  very  few  centres.  Only 
in  Rome  is  the  cycle  at  all  complete.  These  Christian  symbols 
are  often  found  associated  with  burial  monuments.  So  long  as 
places  of  sepulture  were  under  the  special  protection  of  law  we  may 
suppose  that  there  was  no  necessit}^  for  concealment.  The  chapels 
erected  over  the  graves  of  Christians  eminent  for  piety  or  for  the 
services  they  had  rendered  were  adorned  with  works  which  have 
unfortunately  almost  entirely  disappeared.  But  when,  by  the  edict 
Decoration  of  ^^  Valerian  (A.  D.  257),  assemblies  in  these  burial 
burial  monu-  cliapels  were  prohibited,  and  fierce  persecutions  were 
^^'^  ^'  practised,   the    Christians    were    compelled    to    betake 

themselves  to  places  of  concealment  for  worship  and  for  the  cele- 
bration of  the  sacraments.  Thus  originated  some  of  the  most  inter- 
esting portions  of  the  catacombs  which  have  been  so  rich  a  mine  for 
the  Christian  archoeologist.  The  preservation  of  these  treasuries  of 
Christian  art  seems  almost  providential.  They  remain  as  samples 
of  the  work  of  the  artists  of  the  early  Christian  centuries. 

What  added  helps  might  have  been  furnished  for  the  elucidation 
of  Christian  art  in  the  first  six  centuries,  had  not  the  works  out- 
side the  catacombs  so  generally  perished,  can  only  be  conjectured. 
The  catacombs  are  for  the  study  of  Christian  art  what  the  dis- 
coveries at  Pompeii  are  for  heathen  ;  they  furnish  invaluable 
information  relative  to  the  art  susceptibilities  and  spirit  of  their 
time.  The  Roman  catacombs  furnish  the  only  examples  of  Christ- 
ian paintings  of  an  earlier  date  than  near  the  close  of  the  fourth 
century. 

Of  the  nearly  sixty  catacombs  which  have  been  already  exca- 
The  Roman  vated,  those  of  SS.  Calisto,  Priscilla,  Domitilla,  Prietes- 
catacoinbs.  tato,  Sebastiano,  and  Aguese  are  richest.  Their  narrow 
and  often  winding  passages  are  skirted  on  either  side  by  rows 
of  loculi  or  recesses  for  receiving  the  dead.  On  the  faces  of  slabs 
of  stone  which  close  the  loculi  was  sculptured,  sometimes  painted, 
sometimes  scratched  in  the  soft  mortar,  a  sj^mbol  or  epitaph 
to  reveal  the  belief  of  the  departed,  or  to  indicate  the  triumph  of 
Christian  faith.     At  the  place  of  intersection  these  passages  Avere 

forms  in  accordance  with  which,  when  once  the  power  of  true  love  began  to  stir  the 
Cliristian  communities,  their  cliarit}'  was  to  l>e  exercised." — Uhlhorn:  Chriatian 
Charily  in  the  Ancient  Churchy  p.  27.     New  York:  1883. 


RELATIONS  OF  CIIKISTIANITY  TO  ART. 


57 


frequontlv  widcK-.l,  and  thoir  height  increased  W  lorm  chaiuhcrs 
wh?elx  n-ere  sonietinu-s  the  burial  phtce  of  martyrsof  peOuhar  sancUty 
Upon  the  wall-spaces  and  ceilings  are  found  the  ].air.tings  whicli 
most  clearly  reveal  the  artistic  taste  of  the  Christians  pnor  to 
the  fourth  century.  In  the  oldest  catacombs  is  noticed  pgcoral've  art 
a  tendency  to  use  the  arts  of  mere  decoration.  In  u^jm.  c^ua- 
spirit  and  execution  the  paintings  quite  closely  re- 
semble those  found  on  heathen  monuments  of  the  same  age.  1  he 
motive  is  not  essentially  different.  Birds,  flowers,  genu,  etc.,  are 
represented  in  the  most  easy  and  natural  style  of  drawing,  and  m  a 
spirit  worthy  of  the  best  periods  of  pagan  art. 

Some  of  the  vaulted  ceilings  of  the  cemetery  of  Santa  Domitilia  at 


Fig.  l.-CelllnR  decoration  from  Santa  Domittlla.  Rome.    Probably  from  second  centur>-. 
Rome  are  believed  to  l)elong  to  the  first  half  of  the  secon.l  cen- 
tury.   On  one  portion  of   this  ceiling-sui-face  (Fig.  1)   the  vine  is 


58 


^j^CH^rJLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


treated  in  the  mp^^  unconventional  manner,  with  leaves,  fruit,  and 
the  genii  of  the^^i^^y^.rd.  There  seems  to  be  no  attempt  at  geomet- 
rical handling?  but  a  sj)irit  of  naturalism  inspires  the  whole  work.' 

A  little  iiiter  in  the  century  the  principle  of  geometrical  division 
and  bal<incing  seems  to  supplant  in  a  measure  this  free  handling.  A 
very  striking  example  is  met  in  the  vaulted  ceiling  of  the  cemetery 
oi   !San  Pmetestato,  in  Home  (Fig.  2).    In  the  lower  section  a  reap- 


Fig.  2. — Ceiling  decoration  from  San  PrEetestato,  Rome.  Last  lialf  of  the  second  century, 
ing  scene  is  depicted  in  a  style  equal  to  the  best  contemporary  pagan 
art.  Above  is  a  beautiful  and  very  lifelike  sketch  of  vine  and  leaf  work 
in  the  midst  of  which  l)irds  are  sporting,  while  above  all  the  laurel 
branch  seems  to  be  introduced.  On  the  other  sides  of  this  room  in 
the  lower  zone  are  children  who  are  picking  roses,  a  vintage  scene, 
in  Avhich  the  gathering,  carrying,  and  treading  of  the  grapes  are  most 
vigorously  represented,  and  men  who  are  harvesting  olives.  Tlie 
whole  artistic  design  seems  to  be  merely  decorative.*  A  class  of 
writers  would  see  in  all  these  a  symbolic  teaching,  but  this  is  man- 
ifestly pushing  the  principle  of  symbolism  to  an  imwarranted 
extreme. 


1  Roller:    Calacomhs  de  Itomc,  PI.  xii,  No.  3.  Kraus :    Jinnia  Sotterranta,  ss.  77.  78. 

2  V.  Roller:    Catacomhs  di  Rome,  t.  i,  cliap.  xiv.     Northcote  &  Brownlow:  Roma 
Sotterranea,  vol.  i,  p.  138.     Kraus:  Roma  Sotterranea,  s.  S3. 


RELATIONS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  TO  ART.  50 

In  tlic  midst  of  utlicr  tigures  occasionally  apitcar  what  must  be 
rc\i(arded  as  distinctively  Christian  symbols.  These  depart  so  witlely 
from  tJK'  i)revaU'nt  teachint;  as  to  suirujest  a  dirtVrent  origin  and  in- 
spiration. This  commingling  of  subjects  and  motives  was  a  most 
natural,  and  we  may  say  necessary,  result  of  the  situation.  The 
beautiful  spirit  of  purity,  gentleness,  brotherly  kindness,  fidelity  to 
principle,  the  (piietness  and  love  of  the  family  life,  and  the  firm  at- 
tachment to  the  society  of  the  believers,  as  expressed  in  the  cele- 
bration of  the  love-feasts  and  eucharist,  could  continue  oidy  so  long 
as  Christianity  held  itself  aloof  from  the  life  and  duties  of  the 
state.  So  soon,  however,  as  its  adherents  went  from  obscurity 
to  mingle  in  public  aiTairs,  they  necessarily  encountered  the  power 
and  resistance  of  heathen  customs  and  laws.  Christian  doctrine 
could  no  longer  remain  untouched  l)y  heathen  philos-  roiiiitiiii:.'iiiip 
ophy,  nor  its  lite  be  umntluenced  by  the  prevailing  ^Lii^ji^,,  ^.,^,. 
fashions.  No  less  could  its  art  be  developed  apart  from  immis. 
])agan  motives.  Hence  the  commingling  of  pagan  and  Christian 
elements  in  some  of  the  best  examjjles  of  Christian  art  during  the 
fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  centuries.  Xevertheless,  in  the  strange  and 
almost  un]>aralleled  syncretism  of  nationalities,  beliefs,  philosophies, 
rites,  and  ceremonies  then  prevalent  in  Rome,  it  is  noteworthy 
to  how  slight  a  degree  the  earlier  Christian  art  was  influenced. 
Only  by  comparison  of  the  subjects,  the  symbols,  and  the  execution 
of  the  art  of  the  catacombs  with  contemporary  works  of  Koine 
can  a  just  conception  of  the  restraining  and  modifying  power  of 
Christianity  be  gained.'  That  early  Christian  art  should  be 
of  the  highest  order  of  excellence  is  not  to  be  antici-  vet  chrisiiun 
pated.     Christianity  made   its  advent  at  a  time  when   *•"'   riHaineii 

r  •'  .  •  an  exceptiKiial 

art  was  in  a  condition  of  decadence  which  marked  all    purity. 

its   forms,    poetry,    music,    painting,    sculpture,    and    architecture. 

'  "  The  artist  has  long  chcrislicd  a  secret  grudge  against  morality.  The  pnidory 
of  virtue  is  his  great  hindcrancc.  Hu  believes  that  it  is  our  morality  that  prevents 
us  from  rivalling  the  arts  of  ancient  Greece.  He  finds  that  the  individual  artist 
seems  corrupted  and  spoiled  for  his  business  if  he  allows  morality  to  get  too  mucli 
control  of  him.  Tlie  great  masters  lie  notices  show  a  certain  indifference,  a  certain 
superiority,  to  it ;  often  they  audaciously  defy  it.  Tiio  virtuous  artists  are  mostly 
to  be  looked  for  in  the  second  class,  into  whicli,  moreover,  it  is  doubtful  wheilicr 
they  have  not  been  admitted  by  favor.  Hence  he  becomes  most  seriously  and  uu- 
afllciedly  skeptical  about  the  unapproaciiable  sovereignty  of  iho  law  of  Duty." 
Supcniatunil  Jieligion,  vol.  i,  p.  120.  Does  tlie  learned  autiior  forget  that  Greek  art 
perished  witii  its  dying  religiousness?  Poetry  decays  in  the  period  of  a  decadence 
of  faitii.  Ciiristiaiiiiy  used  the  Greek  to  produce  a  better  art,  for  example,  music, 
and  originated  some  of  the  grandest  and  most  imposing  forms,  for  example,  Gothic 
architecture. 


60  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

Hence  it  must  be  erroneous  to  regard  Christian  art   as   either   a 

sudden  leap  into  a  better  and  purer  form,  or  a  sudden  decline  from 

classic  excellence.     Rather  must   it  be  regarded  as  a  progressive 

development.' 

The  mythology  of  the  ancient  world  influenced  Christian  art  as 

The  mythoiog-   ^ell   as  Christian   literature  and  doctrine.     It  is  found 

ic  element  in      .  ,  ,  .  .  .  ,  ,        . 

early  cbristian  either    as    an  historic    representation,    thus    having    a 

^rt.  typical     or    religious    significance,    or     it    introduced 

powers  of  nature  under  a  symbolic  form,  and  then  had  a  purely 
Three  condi-  artistic  purpose.^  Sometimes  these  were  united.  As  an 
tions.  instance   of   the   latter   may  be    mentioned    the   ivory 

tablet  from  the  fourth  century,  known  as  the  Barberini  Diptych. 
It  was  probably  prepared  in  A.D.  357,  to  perpetuate  the  triumph  of 
Barberini  Constantine.     In  the  upper  part  of  this  tablet  is  a  bust 

Diptych.  of  Christ,  in  the  act  of  benediction,  while  on  the  other 

parts  are  various  mythological  representations.  A  like  commingling 
of  motives  is  seen  on  the  noted  sarcophagus  of  Junius  Bassus 
(Plate  I),  who,  as  Prefect  of  Rome,  died  shortly  after  his  baptism, 
sarcophagusof  ^^  -A.  D.  359.  The  main  panels  are  occupied  with  de- 
junius  Bassus.  lineatioiis  of  characters  and  events  from  both  the  Old 
and  the  New  Testaments — the  translation  of  Elijah,  the  offering  of 
Isaac,  the  Hebrew  children  in  the  fiery  furnace,  and  scenes  from 
the  life  of  Christ.  But  in  the  angles  and  niches  are  found  heathen 
mythological  representations  which  seem  to  have  veiy  little  connection 
with  the  main  subjects,  and  must,  therefore,  be  regarded  as  having 
been  introduced  more  for  artistic  effect  than  for  religious  teaching. 
Greek  manu-  Of  like  character  is  the  noted  Greek  manuscript  of  the 
script.  book  of  Jf^hua,  now  in  the  Vatican  Museum.     It  con- 

sists of  fifteen  sheets  of  parchment,  nearly  thirty  feet  long  and  about 
one  foot  wide,  on  which  the  chief  events  of  the  first  ten  chapters  of 
Joshua  are  represented.  Opinions  differ  as  to  the  age  of  this  parch- 
ment ;  yet  it  seems  hardly  possible  that  it  can  be  later  than  the  eighth 
century,  while  some  of  the  most  competent  critics^  regard  it  as 
among  the  very  earliest  of  Christian  monuments.  In  the  person- 
ification of  rivers,  cities,  mountains,  etc.,  the  ornamentation  of  this 
parchment  is  in  the  peculiar  spirit  of  pagan  art. 

The  influence  of  heathen  symbols  and  thought  is  apparent  on  the 

*  Piper:  Mythologie  der  rh.  Kunst,  Bd.  i,  s.  7. 

2  Piper:   Op.  cit,  Bd.  i,  s  18. 

^  V.  Rumohr:  Italienische  Forschtmgen,  Th.  i,  p.  166.  v.  d'Agincourt:  Plates 
xxviii,  xxix,  xxx.  D'Agincourt  places  it  in  tlie  seventh  or  eiglith  century.  In  this, 
as  in  other  monuments,  restorations  of  a  later  date  are  suspected.  This  is  one 
reason  of  the  diversity  of  opinion  respecting  its  age. 


RELATIONS  OF  CIIKISTIAXITV  To  ART.  Gl 

coins  of  tlic  Koinaii  cinjKTors  wliocniltract'dCliristiaiiity.  The  coins 
prepared  l>y  C'oiistaiitinc  in  coninicinoration  of  liis  victory  Roman  impe- 
over  Licinius  contain  the  Labariim,  wliicli,  witii  the  ""'"' *^*J''>8. 
nionofjrani  of  Christ,  rests  upon  a  th"a<4<)M.  The  cities  of  Constan- 
tinople and  Rome  are  represented  un<U'r  the  synib(jl  of  the  ^ocMess 
of  Fortune,  aiid  tlie  statues  of  the  Christian  emperors  are  sometimes 
associated  with  tlie  li^odcU^ss  of  Victory. 

Not  less  noteworthy  is  the  coramini;lin;j^  of  Christian  and  panan 
tlioiiii'lit  and  motive  in  tlie  case  of  private  Christian  l)urial  moini- 
nu'uts.  (Tcnii  of  tlie  seasons,  Cupid  and  Psyche,  as  well  as  <;enii  of 
a  festive  nature,  are  here  found  to  typify  tlic  joy  and  fruition  of  the 
dei)arted.' 

Closely  connected  with  these  are  representations  in  which   mytli- 

oloixical  subiects  are  used  as  types  of  hiMical  persons 

*  Tyi)es. 

and   events.     If   the    tree   of   the  kiiowled<;e  of   good 

and  evil  is  associated  with  the  serpent  in  like  manner  as,  in  the 
lieathen  myth,  the  (^ardeti  of  the  IIes])erides  is  jj^uanU^d  l)y  the 
dra<;on,or  if  the  translation  of  Elijah  su<j^,<ijests  the  ascending  sun  god, 
this  resemblance  is  merely  outward.  Yet  it  may  be  very  easy  to 
transfer  the  one  to  the  other,  and  thus  commingle  pagan  and 
Christian  ideas."  So,  likewise,  may  the  ram-beai'ing  Mercury  be 
mistaken  for  a  figure  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  because  of  a  seeming 
lik  ncss,  while  all  paralU'lisms  in  oihce  or  nature  may  be  wanting 
(v.  Figs.  47,  4S<). 

Careful  distinction  must  be  ma<Ie  between  monuments  which  con- 
tain representations  closely  resembling  each  other  in  mere  outward 
form  while  there  is  no  likeness  in  thought,  from  those   j)|(jeren(-«  be- 
which  agree  in  motive,  and  hence  may  have  been  trans-   tween  out  ward 
ferrt'd  from  ])agan  associations  to  be  used  in   Christian   nnrt"rpn""like- 
instniction.     It   is    likeM'ise   important    to   discriminate    nessuf 
between  lieatlien  inscriptions  and  syml>ols  on  monuments 
in  situ  from  those   that  may  be   found   on  the  walls  of   clnirches,  on 
slabs    which  close  the  locull  in  the  catacombs,  or  on    Heathen  mate- 
marldes  afterward  used  in  the  construction  of  church   rials  m  Christ- 
furniture  or  of  the  tombs  of  eminent  Christians.     It  is 
well   known  that  in  many  instances  the  materials  used   in  Christian 
structures  were  gathered  from   the  ruins  of  ancient  pagan  temples 
and  shrines.*     Hence,  by  failure  to  erase  the  symbol  or  inscription, 

'  Respecting  the  reference  of  those  fisrurcs  to  the  cnteffory  of  Hymbol  or  orna- 
mentation there  is  wide  difference  of  opinicii  among  the  nrchaiologists. 

"  V.   Piper:    Op.  cit,  Bd.  i,  p.  39. 

'  This  snme  commingling  of  diverse  matoriids  is  noticed  in  buildings  of  ilie  Middle 
Ages.    Among  many  examples  iu  tlie  Norlli  may  be  mentioned  the  walls  of  the  close 


63  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

there  seems  at  times  an  incoherent  commingling  of  pagan  and 
Christian  elements. 

Millin'  has  given  an  account  of  a  beautiful  sarcophagus  of  Fla- 
vius  Memorius,  who  lived  under  Maximian  or  Constantine.  It  was 
discovered  at  Aries,  and  is  now  in  the  museum  of  Marseilles.  In 
this  the  appropriation  of  heathen  art  work  to  a  Christian  burial 
monument  is  evident.  The  work  is  of  pagan  origin;  moreover, 
its  high  order  of  artistic  excellence  points  to  a  very  early  date; 
yet  the  inscription,  which  was  manifestly  an  after  thought,  is 
Christian  in  sentiment.  Also  Platner'^  has  described  a  sarcoph- 
agus in  the  cloister  of  Santa  Agnese  in  Rome.  On  either  end 
is  the  favorite  representation  of  Cupid  and  Psyche  ;  below,  the 
Heathen  sub-  ocean  is  symbolized  by  the  reed  and  the  water  urn,  and 
JTan°m?nu-  ^^^  earth  by  the  horn  of  plenty.  Above,  in  the  middle 
ments.  of  the  monument,  is  a  bust  in  relief  held  by  two  cupids. 

This  bust  likeness  is  clearly  a  Christian  work  of  later  origin,  and 
represents  St.  Agnes,  whose  remains  this  sarcophagus  formerly 
preserved. 

This  curious  commingling  of  elements  is  also  noticed  in  early 

^.     .         Christian  churches.     Sometimes  the  columns  separating 

Christian  the  main  from  the  side  naves  are  of  different  orders  of 

^^^  ^^'  architecture,  of  different  diameters,  and  someti'.nes  of 
different  materials.  Gathered  from  the  decaying  or  vorsaken 
heathen  temples,  these  were  incorporated  into  Christian  edifices 
either  on  account  of  the  poverty  of  the  Church,  or  to  indicate  her 
greater  triumph.  The  churches  San  Niccolo  in  Careers,  Santa 
Maria  in  Trastevere,  and  Santa  Maria  in  Cosmedin,  at  Rome,  are 
instructive  examples  of  this  practice.  Santa  Maria  in  Tra«.tevere,  a 
three-naved  church,  has  twenty-two  granite  columns  of  different 
heights  and  diameters,  on  whose  capitals  can  still  be  seen  sculptures 
of  Jupiter,  Juno,  and  other  heathen  deities.  Santa  Maria  Cosmedin 
occupied  the  site  of  a  temple  which  stood  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Circus  Maximus.  Built  into  the  walls  are  still  preserved  eight 
beautifully  fluted  columns  of  the  Roman  style,  whose  capit&ls  can 
be  seen  in  the  loft  above  the  vestibule.  Eighteen  columns  oi  \ery 
ancient  origin  support  the  middle  nave  in  the  interior.^ 

of  Salisbury  Cathedral,  England,  which  contaui  many  sculptured  stones  taken  from 
otlier  structures.  Also  in  filling  in  window  and  door  passages  in  the  Oath-edral  of 
Wincliester  a  like  practice  is  noticed. 

'  Voyage  dans  le  midi  de  la  France,  t.  iii,  pp.  151-156;  PI.  Ivi,  figp.ireg^  2,  3,  4. 
quoted  by  Piper,  Op.  cit,  i,  s.  45. 

2  Beshcreibung  Boms,  iii,  2,  s.  450.     Piper:  Op.  al,  i,  47- 

^Forster:  Mitiel-u.  Unteritalien,  ss.  264-73. 


RELATIONS  OP  CIIIUSTIAXITY  TO  ART.  03 

A  like  syiicivtisiii  of  ]i;iL,r;ui  mid  C'hristiiiii  subjects  is  found  on 
gems,  and  diurch  ftiriiituiv,  as  chairs,  ambos,  baptismal  fonts, 
otc* 

It  was  one  purpose  of  tlie  early  apolot^ists  to  trace  the  relations 
of  the  pagan  religion  to  the  Christian  along  the  line  propiiwii's ana 
of  prophecies  and  {(reparation.  In  their  controversies  prepuraUon. 
with  lieathen  opponents  tliey  repeatedly  insisted  that  many  of  tin- 
elements  of  the  po])ular  mythology  were  only  echoes  of  an  original 
revelation  ;  that  the  beautiful  myths  to  which  the  people  clung  so 
fondly  were  perversions  of  an  earlier  truth;  that  these  often  pointed 
to  the  time  of  deliverance  which  had  now  been  consummated  l)y 
their  Lord  Christ.  It  might  not  be  unreasonable  to  expect  that 
these  agreements  in  motive  might  give  rise  to  similar  art  repre- 
sentations. While  some  modern  interjireters  profess  to  see  evi- 
dences of  mythological  im])ort  in  works  of  Christian  art  where 
such  likeness  is  very  feeble,'  there  are,  nevertheless,  many  monu- 
ments in  which  such  parallelisms  of  use,  or  relation,  or  sentiment 
are  clearly  traceable.  The  translation  of  Elijah,  as  sculj)turcd 
on  a  Christian  sarcophagus  of  tlie  fiftli  century,  contains  a  heathen 
element  in  that  the  Jordan  is  represented  as  a  river  god.  Translation  of 
In  this  there  is  also  a  likeness  to  the  pagan  representa-  Elijah, 
tion  of  the  sun  god,  Apollo,  who  leads  in  the  day  in  his  Haminu: 
chariot,  while  the  ocean  is  symbolized  by  a  river  god,  and  tlie  earth 
by  the  horn  of  plenty.  Still  more  striking  is  the  resemblance  of 
Christ  as  the  Good  Shepherd  and  Mercury  as  the  Ram-bearer 
(v.  Figs.  47,  48).  That  the  central  idea  is  of  Christian  origin 
appears  from  the  teaching  of  Christ  himself,  "I  am  The  Good 
the  Good  Shepherd."     Again  he  savs,  "  When  he  hath  fhi^''^'"-",  ""'» 

*  '^  »     '  the  Raiii-I)(>ar- 

found  it  (the  lost  sheep)  he  layeth  it  on  his  shonlders  inp  Mercury, 
rejoicing "  (Luke  xv,  5).  But  that  the  stvle  of  the  art  re])re- 
sentation  may  have  been  suggested  by  the  pagan  subject  is  highly 
probable.  It  is  not  always  easy  to  discriminate  between  the 
heathen  and  the  Christian  origin  of  monuments  which  bear  this 
SN-mbol.  A  scientific  treatment  demands  that  all  monuments  bear- 
ing this  figure  must  not,  for  that  reason,  be  reckoned  of  Christian 
origin. 

Again,  both  the  gods  and  the  heroes  of  paganism  furnish  types 
for  Christian  art,  not  on  account  of  resemblance  in  nature,  but  of 

'  For  intorcstinj?  cxiimplos  v.  Texier  and  Piillan  :  Bijzanline  Architecture,  London, 
1SG4,  especially  ihe  chapter  "Pasran  Temples  Convorled  into  Chnrclie<>.'" 

*  y.  Piper:  Op.  cit,  i.  ss.  66-77,  wjierc  nn  obscure  parallel  is  traced  between  the 
representation  of  the  fall  by  thf  sorppiit.  the  npplo.  and  onr  first  parents,  and  ibo 
dragon  watching  the  tree  and  fruit  in  the  Garden  of  the  Hesperides. 


64  AKCH^OLOGY  OF  CimiSTIAN  ART. 

likeness  in  office.  The  introduction  of  Orpheus  into  Christian 
frescos  furnishes  an  illustration  (v.  Fig.  27).  Frequent  refer- 
Orpheus  and  ©nce  is  made  to  this  mythical  hero  in  the  apologetic 
Christ.  writings  of  the  Christian  fathers.     With  some  he  sug- 

gests Christ  by  contrariety  rather  than  by  likeness.  Clement  of 
Alexandria'  claims  that  Orpheus  and  others  of  his  class  were  arch- 
deceivers,  who,  under  the  pretence  of  teaching  music  and  song, 
corrupted  the  manners  of  the  people,  and  led  them  under  the 
bondage  of  idolatry  ;  while  Christ  came  to  break  the  enslaving 
yoke  which  the  demons  have  imposed  upon  the  race.  Christ 
alone  has  tamed  man,  the  wildest  beast  ;  the  bird,  the  most  incon- 
stant ;  the  reptile,  the  most  treacherous  ;  the  lion,  the  most  pas- 
sionate; the  swine,  the  most  greedy  of  enjoyment;  the  wolf,  the  most 
rapacious  ;  and  the  stones  and  clods,  the  most  insensate.  He  has 
awakened  the  seeds  of  holiness  and  virtue  in  those  who  believe  on 
him,  and  through  heavenly  song  has  changed  these  wild  beasts  into 
civilized  men. 

Eusebius''  more  usually  speaks  of  Orpheus  as  a  type  of  Christ,  and 
sometimes  as  his  forerunner.  This  view  came  from  ascribing  to  this 
Orpheus  a  type  mythical  bard  the  authorship  of  the  Orphic  verses  which 
of  Christ.  were  by  many  regarded  as  containing  a  heathen  prophecy 

of  the  true  Messiah.  Again,  he  compares  the  influence  of  the  Tltraeian 
singer  to  that  of  Christ.  As  Orpheus  by  the  sweet  strains  of  his 
lyre  tamed  the  wild  beasts  of  the  forest,  and  even  caused  the  trees 
to  move,  so  has  the  all-harmonizing  Word  of  God,  when  it  became 
flesh,  healed  the  wild  passions  of  men  through  the  medicine  of 
heavenly  doctrine.  At  times  Orpheus  is  made  the  type  of  Christ 
Orpheus  an  ^y  contrasting  the  different  realms  in  which  his  power 
antetype.  ^^s  exercised,  as  when  it  is  said  that  Avhat  Orpheus  has 

wrought  in  the  physical  and  irrational  world  has  been  completed 
by  Christ  in  the  spiritual,  and  what  Orpheus  did  by  sorcer^^  was 
done  by  Christ  through  divine  power  and  truth. 

Occasional  references  to  the  labors  of  Hercules  are  met  in  early 

Christian  monuments.     The  parallelism  seems  to  be  drawn  betAveen 

the  power  of  Hercules  and  that   of   Christ   as    dcliv- 
Il6rcul6s* 

erers  of  men  from  the  thraldom  of  evil.     Also  Apollo 

and  Jupiter   find  occasional   mention    in   connection    Avith    Christ. 

Another   curious    example   of   the   use   of   heathen    subjects  upon 

^  Cohort,  ad  Genks,  c.  i,  avdpeg  tiveq  ohx  avSpeg,  etc.  "  Certain  so-called  men,  not 
men,  but  deceivers,  who  under  tlie  pretext  of  music  corrnpl'.^d  tlie  life  of  the  people," 
etc. 

"^  Oral,  de  laud.  Constan.,  c.  14.  Orpheum  quandam  omnia  bestiarum  genera  cautu 
deliuiisse,  etc. 


RELATIONS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  TO  ART. 


65 


Christian  sarc(.|(li:iori   is  tli.it  of    I'lyssi's  ami    tlic   Siictis.     A  slal> 
(Fi,!^.  -i)    I'ouiiil  in  till'  crvjit  of  8aiita  Lucina  seuin.s  t-iitiivly  pai^aii 
in  its  subject  with  tlie  t'-xct-ption  of  the  involved  inscrip-   uiysses  ana 
tion  at  the  left,  which  has  been  deciphered  TVKAMO,   ^'J'-*  '^"«"»- 
and  is  believed  by  some  to  be  an  obscured  cross.    Tills  heathen  fable 


Fig.  3.— Ulysses  mid  the  Sirens.    From  the  erypt  of  Santa  Lucina,  Rome. 

is,  nevertlieless,  alluded  to  by  the  early  Christian  writers,  and  is 
made  to  serve  a  happy  purpose  in  the  enforcement  of  Christian 
tidelity  and  self-denial." 

These  references  to  the  jtat^an  mytholo^jy  are  only  what  mii;ht  be 
regarded  as  antecedently  probable  from  the  intimate  ac(piaintance  of 
the  Christian  fathers  with  the  pagan  systems,  and  from  the  attem|)t 
to  show  that  in  each  religion  was  an  element  of  truth  which  the  other 
should  respect.  More  especially  after  Christianity  became  the  state 
religion  many  admixtures  of  heathen  and  Christian  motives  are  met. 
According  to  a  law  of  spiritual  life  and  growth,  the  cessation  of 
persecution  and  opposition  brought  laxity  of  morals  and  a  decay  of 
pure  faith.  JNIultitudes  of  men  and  women  now  formally  ])rofessed 
Christianity,  while  little  change  was  effected  in  belief  or  life.  The 
influence  of  classical  literature,  the  contact  with  pagan  influences  ad- 
customs,  and  the  ai)propriation  of  pagan  symbols,  now  vfrse  to  purity 
gave  little  offence  to  these  nominal  Christians  ;  while  «' ''^"■'^p- 
the  increasing  splendor  of  the  church  ritual  and  the  growing 
wealth  of  the  clergy  diverted  the  attention  from  the  severity  of 
discipline  and  the  purity  of  doctrine. 

Thus  was  the  prevalent  thought  modified  by  intercourse  with  the 
pagan  world.  Art  standards  were  likewise  changed.  The  mingling 
of  heathen  with  Christian  belief  brought  with  it  an  easy  acceptance 
of  what  was  before  regarded  as  dan<;erouslv  contami-  .  „ 
nating.  It  cannot,  however,  be  supposed  that  all  monu-  upfMi  art  rep- 
ments  thus  transferred  from  pagan  to  Christian  u.ses  '^^"'*"o°- 
were  known  to  be  of  a  character  to  mislead.  Their  heathen  ori<;in 
and  spirit  may  not  have  been  understood,  or  they  may  have  been 
used  allegorically  by  the  Christian  teachers. 

'  Philosophumena,  vii,  i.     Clement  Alex. :   Cohort  ad  Gent.,  c.  12. 


66 


ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART, 


Many  of   the  mythological  subjects  were  only  for   purposes  of 
decoration — as  the  heads  of  satyrs,  tragic  masks,  etc.  (Fig.  4).     Of 
like  import  and  design  must  we  regard  the  occasional  introduction  of 
J  dolphins  (Fig.  5),  sea  monsters,  etc.     It  is 
not  easy  to  discover  in   these   any  sym- 
bolical significance,  and  the  attempts  to 
so  interpret  them  have  usually  involved 
violations  of  the  true  principles  of  sym- 
bolism.    Where,  however,  the  figure   of 
Apollo,   associated    with    the   cross,   ap- 
pears   upon    the    coins    of    Constantino, 
Some  decora-  ^^^^  must  regard  Apollo  as  a 
live  or  typical,   symbol  of   Christ ;   or   when 
the   figure    of  Mars    appears    in  connec- 
tion with  the  sacred  monogram,  it  must 
be    considered   as   an    allegorical    repre- 
sentation of  the  Saviour. 
Fig.  4.-A  Christian  sarcophagus     A   Statue   of   Victory   was    set   up    in 
with  tragic  masijs.  the  senate  chamber  b}^  Augustus.     Each 

senator  on  entering  the  hall  offered  to  it  wine  and  incense. 
This  statue  Avas  the  occasion  of  a  most  persistent  struggle 
statue  of  Vic-  between  the  defenders  of  the  pagan  religion  and 
tory.  the  Christian  bishops.'     The   result   was    favorable  to 

the  Christian    party.^     Nevertheless,  the   figure  of  Victory  is  not 


Fig.  5.— From  a  Christian  sarcophagus.    Decorated  with  dolphins. 

infrequently  associated  on  Christian  monuments  with  the  cross  or 
with  the  sacred  monogram.  In  a  few  instances  it  is 
connected  with  a  bust  of  Christ  on  ivory  diptychs,  and 

on  coins  during  the  Constantinian  and  post-Constantinian  period. 

A  fine  example  of  this  is  found  on  a  gold  coin  of  Constantine  the 


On  coins. 


'  For  a  fuller  statement,  v.  cluip.  viii. 

"^  V.  Ambrose:  Ejyist.  xviii.     Tliis  is  addressed  to  the  Emperor  Yalentiuiau    iu 
answer  to  the  appeal  of  Symmachus. 


RELATIONS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  TO  ART. 


67 


Great,    where  Victory   holds    in     lu-r    h:ui<ls    trophies   and   a  pahu 
branch,  while  the  inscription, 

VICTORIA  CONSTANTINI  AUG., 
encloses  a  field  in  which  appears  the  monogram  of  Christ.  A 
bronze  coin  of  Constantino  bears  a  representation  of  the  emperor 
holdinL!^  in  his  riijht  hand  the  labarum  with  the  sacred  monogram, 
while  he  is  crowned  by  a  Victory,  and  HOC  SKiNO  VICTOR  KRIS 
is  the  inscription.'  This  syncretism  is  very  strikingly  exhibited  on 
some  coins  of  Constantius.  In  Fig.  6  the  bust  of  the  emperor 
is  on  tlie  obverse,  and  on  the  re- 
verse his  full  length  tigure  is  seen 
on  llie  ship  of  state,  holding  in 
one  hanil  the  stanihird  on  which  is 
the  ■^,  while  upon  the  other  hand 
perches  the  phenix,  the  symbol  of 

rejuvenation  of   tlie   government  rip.  o.-coinof  constantius-shir^Ttii.'  min- 
under  Constantino  and  his  sons.  sUnnot  heathen  and  christian  emblems. 

This  is  further  illustrated  by  the  usual  inscription  FEL.  TEMP. 
REPARATIO,  and  by  a  Victory  who  is  guiding  the  state  to  its 
glorious  destination. 

A  century  and  a  quarter  later  we  find  on  a  coin  of  Majorian  the 
imperial  ensign  crowned  with  the  cross  (Fig.  7)  ;  this  is  held  by 
the  emperor  in  one  hand,  while  on  the 
other  perclies  the  figure  of  Victory. 
He  is  here  represented  as  treading  the 
dragon  under  foot,  a  not  unusual  man- 
ner of  indicating  the  triumph  of  the 
government  over  foes,  and  over  the 
discordant  elements  of  society.  On  the 
obverse  is  the  bust  of  the  emperor,  and 
the  shield  is  inscribed  with  the  ^.  On  coins  of  the  Graeco-Roman 
empire  the  figure  of  Victory  appears  associated  with  Christian 
symbols  from  the  time  of  Constantine  to  that  of  Ileraclius  I.  The 
same  commingling  of  i)agan  and  Christian  elements  likewise  ap- 
pears on  the  coins  of  the  Arian  barbarian  kings,  on  those  of  the 
Prankish,  the  West  Gothic,  and  Longobard  princes,  and  continued 
thus  associated  with  Christian  emblems  until  the  ninth  century. 

We  might  antecedently  expect  that  mythological  subjects  of  an 

amatory  character  would  find  little  favor  with  the  early  Christians. 

The  positive  teachings  of   their  religion,  the  jierils  often  attoTnliiiLr 

its   profession,  and   the   general    disrepute  in  which  its  carh-  adlicr- 

'  Piper:  Op.  cU.,  i,  s.  177. 


—A  coin   of    Majorian,    nfth 
century. 


G8 


ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


ents  were  held,  gave  a  seriousness  to  life  little  favorable  to  the 
Lack  of  ama-  cultivation  of  the  more  delicate  sentiments.  Moreovei', 
tory  represen-  Venus  and  Amor  stood  as  the  personifications  of  a  pas- 
tations.  gj^^  whose   canker  was  eating  out  the  moral  life  of  the 

Roman  world.  With  that  vice  which  was  the  peculiar  bcsetment  of 
the  converts  from  paganism,  and  against  which  Paul  speaks  so 
strongly  in  his  Corinthian  letters,  the  Christian  Church  could  make 
no  compromise.  The  suggestions  made  by  figures  of  Venus  and 
Cupid  Avere  peculiarly  repugnant.  Hence  early  Christian  poetry 
furnishes  scarcely  an  example  of  a  nuptial  song,  nor  until  a  com- 
paratively late  date  do  the  monuments  contain  any  reference  to  the 
erotic  deities.  They  were  but  sparingly  introduced,  and  in  most 
instances  the  genuineness  of  the  monuments  upon  which  these 
figures  appear  has  been  gravely  questioned. 

Scarcely  less  aversion  was  felt  to  Bacchic  scenes.  The  higher  sig- 
Paucity  of  nificance  of  the  Bacchic  myth  is  occasionally  recognized 
Bacchic  scenes-  q^  sarcophagi  of  unquestioned  Christian  origin,  but 
the  paucity  of  these  monuments  plainly  indicates  the  opinion  of  the 
Church  respecting  their  influence. 

Somewhat  difi^erent,  however,  was  the  feeling  with  regard  to  the 
myth  of  Amor  and  Psyche.  In  this  was  veiled  a  deep  spiritual 
Amor  and  iniport.  The  fundamental  thoughts  were  the  wanderings 
Psyche.  of  the  soul  in  this  life  as  in  a  vale  of  death,  its  trial  and 

purification,  and  the  reunion  of  the  spiritualized  wanderer  Avith 
eternal  love  in  the  life  to  come.     The  association  of  this  heathen 


Fig.  8.— Amor  and  Psyche.    From  Santa  Domitilla. 
fal)le  with  scriptural  scenes  on  burial  monuments  of  acknowledged 
Christian  origin'  (Fig.  8)  indicates  a  likeness  of  opinion  of  pagan- 

'  This  scene  has  been  variously  interpreted  by  the  arclifeolojrists.     Some  claim 
that  it  is  merely  decorative,  depicting  a  pleasing  garden  or  autumn  scene. 


RELATIONS  OF  CHUISTIAMTY  TO  ART. 


69 


•rd, 


ism  and  of  Christianity  with  respect  to  tlic  si^^nilieancc'  of  prcjha- 
tioii  and  ihe  rewards  of  a  future  state.  This  is  suggested  in 
Fig.  n,  whieli  is  from  the  fnejinciit  i>r  ,1  s;ii<<>]ihagus,  in  relief 
seuljjture,  found  in  tlie  ceme- 
tery of  San  Calisto,  and  now 
))reserved  in  tlie  Lateran  Mu- 
seum at  Rome.  Amor  and 
Psyche  are  here  in  imme- 
diate association  with  the 
Good  Shepherd.  There  can 
be  little  doubt  but  that  the 
deeper  significance  of  this 
myth  is  here  intended  ;  pos- 
sibly there  is  the  further  sug- 
gestion that  the  sojourner 
here  can  be  successful  in  his 
attempt  at  ])uritication  and 
ri'storati(tn  to  the  bosom  of    ,  ,  , 

Eternal    Love    only   by  the  f^fi"  caiisto,  Home, 

merit  and  the  protection  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  who,  when  he  hath 
found  the  straying  one,  layeth  it  upon  his  shoulders  and  bringeth  it 
back  to  the  fold. 

In  the  severe  criticisms  to  which  the  heatlien  systems  were  sub- 
jected by  the  early  Christian  fathers,  comparisons  are  fri'(|ui'iitly 
instituted  between  the  ])agan  teachings  and  the  sacred  Scriptures 
relative  to  the  agencies  that  may  be  employed  in  the  a<lministration 
of  the  government  of  the  world.  Both  pagans  and  Christians  alike 
believed  in  a  realm  of  supernatural  intelligences  by  which  human 
affairs  are  influenced.  In  the  heathen  system  the  inferior  gods  and 
genii  lield  a  ])lace  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  the  angelic  Guardian 
hierarchy  in  the  Christian  scheme.  As  in  classical  mythol-  ""P'^'^- 
ogy  to  each  human  being  was  assigned  a  particular  genius,  representa- 
tive partly  of  the  ideal  man  and  ])artly  of  the  ])eculiar  gifts  and 
powers  of  the  individual,  so  iji  the  writings  of  tlie  Christian 
fathers  the  doctrine  of  guardian  angels  was  developed  and  taught. 
These  ])oints  of  contact  in  the  two  systi-ms  may  furnisli 
one  reason  for  the  commingling  on  Christian  monuments 
of  heathen  genii  with  Scripture  characters  and  scenes.  The  earlier 
view  of  the  fathers  that  the  heathen  genii  were  evil  sjtirits,  mes- 
sengers of  temptation  to  the  human  soul,  was  afterward  modified, 
and  the  peculiar  ofTeiice  given  by  the  rei)resentation  of  genii  was  so 
far  diminished  that  from  the  fourth  to  the  sixth  centuries  many 
examples  of  these,  nude  or  draped,  are  seen  upon  the  Clnistian  burial 


Genii. 


ro 


ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


The  phenix. 


monuments  {v.  Fig.  10).  Just  how  far  these  figures  of  genii 
were  for  purposes  of  mere  ornament,  or  may  have  had  a  religious 
or  dogmatic  significance,  has  divided  the  opin- 
ions of  the  ablest  archaeologists.'  To  draw  the 
line  between  the  genii  monuments  which  plainly 
represent  heathen  ideas  and  those  whereon  the 
figures  express  the  Christian  belief  in  angels  is 
not  an  easy  task. 

Besides  that  of  Orpheus,  to  which  reference 
has  already  been  made,  other   heathen  myths 
were  widely   appropriated    by   the    Christian 
fathers  in  the  exposition  of  the  Scriptures,  and 
in  the  illustration  of  doctrine.     Among  these 
the  phenix  played  an  important  role.    The  later 
version  of  this  fable  was  most  com- 
monly used  by  the  Christian  apol- 
ogist, and  its  representation  is  met  with  on  Chris- 
tian monuments.    Artemidorus  says  that  when  it 
is  about  to  die  the  phenix  comes  from  itnknown 
parts  to   Egypt,  and  builds  a  funeral  pile  of 
frankincense  and  myrrh.    From  its  ashes  comes 
■^r=^ivs_r3\i    ^     ,_     a  worm,  from  which  arises  another  phenix  that 
ttV  ,  iJw41  S'    then  leaves  Egypt  to   return  to  its  unknown 

home.  Thus  in  this  fabled  creature  the  two 
ideas  of  immortality  and  perpetual  rejuvenation 
were  united.  On  the  coins  and  other  monu- 
ments of  the  empire  since  the  time  of  Hadrian 
this  figure  is  the  symbol  of  the  returning  golden 
age,-  of  the  apotheosis  and  immortality  of  the 

'  Gronsset:  Etude  sur  VHistoire  des  Sarcophages  Chretiens, 
Paris,  ]885,  8vo,  lias  given  a  catalogue  and  description  of 
one  hundred  and  ninetj'-five  Christian  sarcophagi  found  in 
Rome  outside  of  the  collection  in  the  Lateran  Museum. 
On  man}'  of  tliese  is  noticed  the  commingling  of  Christian 
and  pagan  motives.  Indeed,  in  many  instances  the  Christ- 
ian character  of  the  sarcophagus  is  de'ermined  solely  by  its 
inscription,  while  the  art  and  the  decorations  are  in  no  way 
to  be  distinguished  from  the  heathen  sarcophagi  of  tlie 
same  period.  Vintage  scenes,  genii  of  tiie  seasons,  Cupids  nude  or  draped.  Hercules 
with  lion's  skin  (No.  5),  genii  holding  the  inverted  torch  (the  pagan  symbol  of  death) 
etc.,  appear  especially  on  those  sarcopliagi  that  are  believed  to  belong  to  the  third 
century.  See  also  Matz  und  v.  Duhu :  Antike  Bildwerke  in  Rom,  and  Garrucci  : 
Storia  delV  Art  cristiana. 
«  V.  Fig.  6. 


RELATIONS  OF  CnUISTlANlTV  TO  ART.  71 

ruk-rs,  and  of  tlio  otcnial  duration  of  tin*  R  )ii»;ui  Ljovcniincnt.  Tlic 
faMi'  had  also  found  its  way  into  .Icwisli  liti-ratuiv.  Occasionally 
tlie  Christian  fathci-s  tlu'rchy  illustrated  the  story  of  the  creation, 
but  usually  it  was  »|Uot('<l  in  defence  of  I  Ik-  jn-culiarly  Christian 
doctrine  of  the  resurrection.  In  the  tiist  century  (lenient  of  lionie 
uses  this  arLrunient.  It  is  also  found  in  the  Apostuli-  (Jonstitn- 
tions,  in  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  and  in  Kpiphanius.  The  Latin 
fathers  were  e(|ually  ready  to  use  this  fable,  'rcrtullian  ai<,Mied 
from  the  lesser  value  of  tlie  phenix  to  the  i;reater  value  of  mankind; 
that  if  the  former  thus  rises  from  its  own  ashes  to  a  new  and  youth- 
ful viji^or  it  cannot  be  unreasonable  to  expect  that  (iod  will  caic 
for  those  whom  he  created  in  his  own  ima^c.  In  liki-  manner 
arsTued  Ambrose,  Augustine,  ami  Rutinus.  Ambrosi'  <juoted  the 
rising  of  the  })henix  as  aiialagous  to  the  supernatural  a  syiniK.i  of 
begetting  of  Christ  without  father,  arul  Rutinus  referred  uie  rMunec- 
to  the  renewing  of  the  ])lu'iii\  and  it.s  producing  itself 
from  itself  as  a  sufHcient  answer  to  the  lieathen  who  ridicideil  the 
story  of  the  birth  of  Christ  from  a  virgin.' 

The  artistic  representation  of  tliis  fable  is  sometimes  met  on  the 
coins  of  Christian  cmp'jrors  and  on  other  Christian  monuments. 
It  is  associated  with  tlie  palm-tree  or  the  palm  branch  on  sarcoph- 
agi ])lainly  of  Christian  origin,  in  mural  painting.s,  and  in  Church 
mosaics  (Fig.  42)  of  later  origin.  In  nearly  all  these  examples  the 
same  ruling  thought  is  recognised;  namely,  the  resurrection  fiom 
the  dead  and  life  beyond  the  grave." 

'J'hese  few  examples,  cliosen  from  a  wide  cycle,  illustrate  the 
intimate  connection  of  heathen  and  Christian  thought,  and  the 
correspoiuling  influence  upon  C^hristian  art  as  seen  in  surviving- 
monuments. 

'  Antbrose:  Psa.  cxviii,  serm.  19.  c.  11.  Rnlimis:  Comment,  in  Symb.  Apost.,  c.  11, 
quoted  hy  Piper:  MijUi.  d.  rhrint.  Kumt,  lid.  i,  .s  455. 
*  Miiuter:  Sinnbildvr,  etc.,  Heft,  i,  ss.  94-1)7. 


TO  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIA.N  ART. 


CHAPTER  III. 

SYMBOLISM  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 
§  1.  Oeneral  Principles. 

A  SYMBOL  is  the  outward  sign  of  a  concept  or  idea.  It  is  the 
visible,  sensuous  veil  of  that  which  is  unseen  and  sjiiritual.^     It  is 

^  „  .,.  used  not  for  its  own  sake,  but  to  brinar  to  mind  some- 

Defluition.  '  », 

thing  not  sensuously  present  as  though  it  were  j^resent. 
Originally  it  was  more  specially  limited  to  the  cycle  of  I'eligious 
thought,  and  served  for  the  illustration   of  divine-human  relations." 

All  sensuous  things  to  which  a  higher  meaning,  aside  from  the 
natural  significance,  is  attributed,  are  symbols.^  All  religions  are 
measurably  symbolic  in  character.  The  expression  of  spiritual 
truths  and  abstract  notions  by  analogous  phenomena  in  the  physical 
world  has  been  common  to  all  peoples  and  religions.  To  commu- 
nicate these  conceptions  to  others,  and  fix  them  by  the  laws  of 
association,  it  is  necessary  to  give  to  them  formal  expression. 
Hence  the  successful  teaching  of  the  doctrines  of  a  religion  must  in 
some  sense  involve  symbolism.* 

This  was  the  favorite  method  employed  by  Christ  to  initiate  the 
u  db  ch  ■  t  fli-f^ciples  into  the  deej^er  mysteries  of  his  kingdom.^ 
and  his  apos-  The  writings  of  the  apostles  and  of  the  early  Christian 
*'®^'  fathers  abound  in  symbolic  expressions  which  were  de- 

signed to  arrest  the  attention  of  those  whom  they  addressed,  and 
more  powerfully  to  impress  the  lessons  which  the}^  Avould  teach. 
Also  practised  Wliat  was  thus  practised  in  language  became  likewise 
i°art.  common  in  art  representation.     To  guard  the  heathen 

converts  on  the  one  hand  against  idolatry,  and  on  the  other  against 

'  Bahr:   Symholik  dis  jnosaitchen  Cull  us.  Bd.  i,  s.  15. 

^  Creuzer:   Sijmhdlik  u.  Mythologie,  Bd.  i,  ss.  H2-42. 

^  Durscli :    Der  symbnlisclie  Gliaracter  tier  christlichen  Rdigion  u.  Kunst,  s.  8. 

••  Hence  the  use  of  the  word  symhol  to  express  the  formulated  belief  of  a  religious 
party. 

5  "His  example  was  helpful  in  givinp;  direction  to  tlie  thong-ht  of  the  believers  of 
the  early  centiu'ies.  To  a  groat  degree  symboli.sm  was  found  in  the  mysteries  of  all 
ancient  religions.  It  also  supplied  a  secret  password  whereby  commimication 
became  more  free  than  otherwise  were  possible.  The  intellectual  mysticism  of  that 
age  also  greatly  contributed  to  the  same  end."  Roller:  Les  Catacombe-s  de  Rome,  vol. 
i,  p.  38. 


SY.MH;)LISM  OF  CIIKISTIAX  ART.  73 

tlie  ])ornicious  efTi't-ts  of  the  Docctic-  licivsy,  early  Christian  ait  Ik-- 
took  itself  to  syiiibolisiii,  by  wliosc  aid  the  deeper  truths  and  my , 
terie.s  of  the  relinioii  eoiild  he  more  effeetually  imi)ressed  upon  the 
masses  of  the  jteople.  Thus  in  art  as  well  as  in  lan<rua,y;e  the 
symbol  was  the  means  of  revi-alini;  the  higher  spiritual  reality.' 
Herein  Christian  art  resembled  the  later  Roman,  whieh  seldom 
represente(I  objeets  literally,  but  emjiloyed  visible  foi'ins  to  express 
abstract  notions.  '■ 

Since  art  symbols  address  the  beholder  in  a  lanu:uaij:e  peculiar  to 
themselves,  the  relation  between  the  idea  and  its  symbol  symbols  not 
must  not  be  merely  fortuitous  or  arbitrary,  but  must  be  arbitrary, 
such  that  the  one  su<:^t;ests  tlie  other  ;  and  while  the  connection 
may  not  bo  independently  discoverable  by  all,  it  will  be  imme- 
diately recotjnised  when  explained.  The  outward  form  must  be 
developed  from  the  inner  spirit,  Avhose  expression  and  symbol 
it  is.^" 

Tiikewise  the  interpretation  of  art  symbolism  recjuires  ijood 
judynuMit  and  caution,  lest  unworthy  and  misleading  conclusions 
be  accepted,  and  the  symbolism  of  early  Christian  caution  \n 
art  thus  become  a  wild  maze  of  contradiction  and  interpretation. 
absurdity.  Its  interpretation  should  not  be  arbitrary  or  whim- 
sical, nor  should  it  become  a  stage  for  the  disj)lay  of  baseless 
fancies.  Symbols  appeal  to  the  sober  reason  rather  than  to 
the  aesthetic  feeling  or  to  the  imagination.  Hence  all  the  aids  of 
history  and  of  literature,  as  well  as  of  art,  must  be  brought  to  their 
correct  interpretation.  A  single  historical  refi-rence,  contemporary 
with  the  sytnbol  to  be  ex[)lained,  is  often  of  greater  value  than 
all  the  ingenious  speculations  of  learned  critics.  Familiarity  with 
the  cycle  of  the  thought  of  an  age  and   with  its  tendencies  and 

'"  Litrlit  becomes  the  symbol  of  intellectual  clearness ;  the  mnrky  and  beclouded 
atmosphere,  of  a  troubled  spirit;  water,  of  bodily  ])uritication  and  spiritual  ref;ener- 
ation;  tlie  circle,  or  the  serpent  lioldiuf;  its  tail  in  its  month,  of  elernal  duration;  the 
tree,  as  it  puts  fortli  its  verdure,  decays,  and  blooms  again,  of  the  ehanurinp  seasons; 
the  engendering  bull  and  ram,  of  generative  and  creative  power;  tlie  cow  or  the 
matron  with  many  breasts,  of  the  all-nourisliing  power  of  nature;  the  butterfly, 
bursting  forth  from  the  entombed  chrysalis,  of  the  resurrociion."  v.  Carricre :  Die 
Kunxt  in  Zusommenhnng  mil  der  ChcUurgesrhichte,  Bd.  i,  ss.  70-72. 

*  Kngler:    Geschichte  der  MaUrei. 

'Jacob:  Die  Kuruit  in  Dienate  der  Kirche,  ss.  Ifi,  17.  v.  Ileinrich  Otto:  Kunst- 
arch'i'jlogie  des  deufschen  Mitttlallers,  4te  A\ifl.,  1868,  s.  i,  etc.  "Art  is  the  appro- 
priate representation  of  an  idea  in  sensuous  form.  To  completelyrepresent  Christian 
ideas  under  sensuous  forms  is  absolutely  unattainable :  hence  the  symbolic  character 
of  all  Christian  art  and  tiic  necessity  of  faith  as  a  condition  of  its  true  understanding 
and  interpretation." 


74  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

spirit  is  needful  for  correctly  interpreting  its  art  symbolism.  The 
work  is  greatly  aided  when  a  considerable  number  of  references  to 
the  symbol  can  be  found  in  the  contemporary  literature.  It  is, 
therefore,  a  canon  of  interpretation  that  the  literary  references 
be  carefully  considered.  By  comparing  the  works  of  Christian 
symbolism  with  each  other,  with  those  of  the  contemporary 
Canons  of  in-  heathen  art,  and  both  of  these  with  the  holy  Scriptures, 
terpretation.  the  writings  of  the  Christian  fathers,  and  with  the 
related  inscriptions  and  literature  of  the  times,  most  satisfactory 
results  will  be  reached.  Hence  a  second  canon  of  interpretation  is 
that  the  sense  must  be  accepted  which  best  accords  with  these 
results  of  comparative  study.' 

Happily,  in  many  instances  the  coincidences  are  so  numerous  and 
important  that  the  interpretation  is  clearly  manifest  ;  in  others 
it  may  be  doubtful ;  while  in  still  others  opinions  of  the  significance 
of  the  symbol  may  be  absolutely  contradictory.  For  the  interests 
of  both  art  and  religion,  in  these  latter  cases  it  is  wise  to  suspend 
judgment  until  further  discoveries,  rather  than  to  press  doubtful 
monuments  and  interpretations  into  the  service  of  any  preconceived 
theory. 

Christian  archaeologists  may  be  divided  into  schools  according  to 
their  opinions  of  the  originality  of  early  Christian  art,  and  of  the 
design  of  the  various  works  which  are  found  in  the  Christian  cata- 
combs and  elsewhere. 

One  school  holds  that  the  art  works  of  the  catacombs  were  jyre- 
pared  under  the  direction  of  ecclesiastics  for  the  ])urpose  of  incul- 
cating a  definite  system  of  Christian  doctrine.  They  are,  therefore, 
to  be  regarded  as  strictly  of  a  symbolic  character,  whose  signifi- 
cance was  understood  by  the  initiated  of  the  Christian  Church,  but 
was  veiled  from  profane  eyes.  According  to  this  theory  the  clergy 
were  the  real  artists,  while  they  who  executed  the  works  were  mere 
artisans  who  had  no  part  in  their  origination.  Even  where  the 
presence  of  purely  decorative  elements  is  undeniable,  and  these 
have  plainly  been  derived  from  classic  art,  little  inquiry  is  made 
respecting  the  probable  influence  of  the  heathen  cycle  of  thought 
upon  the  Christian,  but  the  symbolic  and  dogmatic  character  of 
these  monuments  is  strenuously  maintained.  This  class  of  writers 
is  entirely  consistent  ;  for  if  the  purely  symbolic  character  of  the 
remains  is  conceded,  their  dogmatic  purpose  must  follow,  since  it  is 
hardly  conceivable  that  the  Christian  artificers  could  have  had  the 
abilit}''  or  the  purpose  to  work  out  a  consistent  cycle  of  Christian 
symbolism.  If,  therefore,  it  is  maintained  that  the  origin  of  these 
■  Kraus:  lioma  SoUerranea,  ss.  20O,  201. 


SYMBOLISM  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART.  75 

works  iiuist  hv  1(11111(1  in  a  (U-siiv  l()  tcacli  llie  (luctriiic-.s  of  the 
('liiucli  to  tlic  initiated — that  they  were  a  sort  of  biblia pauperum — 
thi'ii  must  tlit'ir  symbolic  character  bo  coiic(m1(m1.' 

Tlu'  position  of  a  second  school  is  well  detine(l  l»y  llasi'iiclevei': 
" 'nie  art  work  f(»iind  on  and  in  Christian  burial  monuments  is  es- 
sentially decorative,  not  s^-mbolic.  But  whatever  of  a  symbolic  char- 
acter is  connected  with  them  first  orij^inated  from  an  association  of 
figures  which  were  already  widely  known  and  used  with  Christian 
ideas.  These  fiu;ures  created  the  symbolism,  but  the  i)uri>ose  to  use 
a  symbolism  did  not  originate  the  figures." '  It  is  as  unhistorical  to 
sunder  the  connection  of  the  symbolism  of  the  early  Christian  burial 
monuments  from  that  of  the  contemporary  heathen  monuments  as 
to  sunder  the  whole  cycle  of  Christian  art,  the  entire  Christian 
civilization,  and  even  the  very  origin  of  Christianity  itself  from 
its  connection  with  the  intellectual,  aesthetic,  and  moral  develoj)- 
ment  of  the  non-Christian  world. ^  This  principle,  emiuejitly  just 
in  itself,  has,  however,  insensibly  blinded  the  eyes  of  its  defenders 
to  certain  historical  facts,  or,  at  least,  has  led  them  to  underrate 
their  value.  There  has  resulted  a  general  denial  of  the  originality 
of  Christian  art  works,  and  a  dei)reciati()n  of  the  biblical  cycle 
of  events  as  the  source  of  much  of  the  early  Christian  synd)olism. 
This  school  has  erred  by  its  lacks,  as  has  the  former  by  its 
excesses. 

As  in  most  other  controverted  questions,  sound  criticism  sug- 
gests the  ha])py  via  media.  The  more  moderate  school  recognises 
the  influence  of  contemporary  heathen  tliought,  and  yet  does  not 
disregard  the  powerful  influence  of  the  biblical  history,  nor  deny  to 
the  early  Church  a  measure  of  symbolic  art  origination.^ 

'  To  this  school  belong  cie  Rossi  and  most  of  those  who  have  made  his  Roma 
Sotterranea  the  source  and  tbimdation  of  tlieir  investigations.  Wliile  a  most  admir- 
able scientific  spirit  has  cliaraclerizcd  the  great  master,  de  Rossi,  others  have  pushed 
their  theory  to  tlie  wildest  extremes,  and  have  endeavored  to  use  this  symbolism 
not  only  for  apologetic,  but  even  partisan,  purposes.  Tliis  is  conspicuous  in  the 
works  of  Garrucci,  especially  in  his  last  and  greatest  work,  Storia  deW  arte  o'istiana, 
Prato,  1873,  et  seq.  G  vols.  See  also  Marligny  :  Dktionnaire  des  Anliquites  chretiennes, 
2d  ed.   Paris,  1877. 

'  Der  lUtchrvitliche  Graherschmuclc,  Bramisdnveig,  1886,  s.  2(50. 

'  To  this  school  belong  Raoul-Rociielte,  Parker,  and  others. 

*  In  this  class  of  writers  may  be  placed  Pipor,  who  has  done  so  much  to 
emphasize  the  influence  of  the  classical  mythology  u])on  early  Christian  art,  yet 
has  given  the  Church  due  credit  for  symbolic  origination.  Also  Victor  Schultzc, 
who  has  assailed  the  extreme  claims  of  the  first  school,  yet  may  not  liave  been 
consistent  in  all  his  interpretations,  belongs  to  this  more  moderate  school.  Roller 
has  aimed  at  the  same  results,  but  is  sometimes  lacking  in  unity,  and  seems  at  times 
confused. 


76  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

§  2.   Christ. 

No  authentic  portrait  of  Christ  has  been  preserved  to  our  time. 
Whether  such  ever  existed  is  a  matter  of  serious  question.^  The 
No  portrait  of  circumstances  of  his  earthly  ministry  were  entirely 
Christ  extant,  unfavorable  to  his  jjortraiture.  Neither  the  social 
rank  of  his  family,  the  character  of  his  first  disciples,  the  re- 
ception which  his  doctrine  met,  nor  the  spirit  of  the  religion 
which  he  founded,  would  warrant  the  presumption  that  "any  au- 
thentic likeness  of  Christ  could  ever  have  been  produced.  Indeed, 
all  literal  representation  of  its  Founder  seems  to  have  been 
avoided  by  the  Church  of  the  first  three  centuries.  His  person, 
life,  and  office  were  concealed  under  symbols  which  were  especially 
valued  by  those  whom  persecution  and  a  common  interest  united  by 
still  firmer  ties  of  friendship,  and  whose  significance  was  understood 
only  by  the  initiated. 

Among  the  earliest  and  most  frequent!}^  recurring  symbols  is  the 
lamb.     It  is  found  on  mosaics,  is  associated  with    in- 

The  lamb.  .      .  ,        •    ,  n     •         n  •      i     -, 

scriptions  on  burial  monuments,  and  is  chiseled  on 
sarcophagi,  or  painted  on  walls  of  the  catacombs.  Both  the  char- 
acter and  M'Ork  of  Christ  are  shadowed  forth  under  this  form. 
The  mention  of  it  is  so  frequent,  both  in  Scripture  and  in  the 
writings  of  the  early  Christian  fathers,  that  there  can  be  no  doubt 
as  to  its  reference  and  significance.  Such  passages  as  Isa.  liii,  7  ; 
John  i,  29  ;  1  Pet.  i,  19  ;  Rev.  v,  6,  8,  12  ;  Rev.  xiii,  8,  and  many 
others  are  decisive.  Moreover,  the  representation  of  the  lamb  in 
connection  with  the  cross,  with  the  A  Q,  or  with  the  monogram  of 
Christ,  ^j  further  confirms  these  references.  It  is  found  upon  sar- 
cophagi of  marble,  and  in  the  mosaics  which  adorn  the  triumphal 
arches  and  apses  of  the  ancient  churches.  Sometimes  the  lamb 
stands  upon  the  summit  of  a  hill  from  which  issue  four  streams, 
at  whose  base  a  number  of  sheep  are  found.^  This  seems  to  have 
reference  to  Psa.  ii,  6,  and  to  Ezek.  xliii,  12,  where  the  king  is 
in  his  holy  hill,  and  Avhere  "upon  the  top  of  the  mountain  the 

1  The  traditions  of  tlie  painting  of  portraits  of  tlie  Savionr  by  St.  Luke  are  of  late 
origin,  and  wholly  lack  foundation.  Evagrius  of  the  sixth  centur}^,  the  last  contin- 
uator  of  Eusebins's  historj^  is  the  first  who  mentions  tlie  portrait  of  Christ  which 
the  Saviour  is  said  to  have  sent  to  Abgar,  prince  of  Edessa.  While  the  tradition  is 
much  older  than  the  sixth  century,  it  is  entirely  untrustworthy.  The  legend  of  St. 
Veronica  is  of  still  later  origin.  Also  the  statue  of  Christ,  which  was  set  up  at 
CcBsarea  Philippi,  was  described  b)'  Eusebius  from  a  mere  local  tradition.  Of  no 
greater  value  is  the  description  of  Christ's  personal  appearance  attributed  to  Len- 
tulus,  a  reputed  contemporarj'-  of  Pontius  Pilate,  in  his  letter  to  the  Roman  Senate. 

^  V.  Fig.  42.     lu  the  lower  zone  of  this  mosaic  this  scene  is  depicted. 


SYMBOLISM    OF    CHRISTIAN    ART.  77 

wIioU'  limit  tliereof  r<mn<l  about  .shall  be  most  holy,"  or  to  Kov. 
vii,  17,  where  the  "Lamb  which  is  in  the  mitlst  of  the  throne  shall 
I'eed  them,  antl-  shall  lead  them  unto  liviiiLC  fountains  of  water," 
The  stivams  are  usually  interpreted  as  either  the  four  rivers  which 
llow  iVom  paradise,  or  as  the  four  evangelists,  and  the  sheej)  as 
the  members  of  Christ's  Church.  This  symbol,  with  a  variety 
of  accompaniments,  continue<l  in  the  Church  until  its  further  use 
was  forbidden  by  the  Trullan  Council  at  Constantinople,  A.  I). 
092.  The  prohibition  seems  to  have  been  occasioned  by  pr„hii)it«d  in 
the  mystical,  extravagant,  and  misleading  role  which  "'« '•■'**'• 
it  then  })layed.  The  Western  Church,  however,  di<I  not  acce])t  the 
decision,  and  the  lamb  continued  to  be  used  in  ecclesiastical  art 
until  the  reign  of  Charlemagne,  and  in  comiection  with  continued  use 
the  crucifix  (as  in  the  Agmis  Dei)  long  remaine<l  an  '"  "'i' ^^ •-'st. 
object  of  reverence  in  the  Latin  Church. 

Of  frt'(|uent  recurrence  on  ChrLstian  monuments,  and  of  even 
deei)er  svmbolic  and  dogmatic  significance,  is  the  fish. 
It  IS  among  the  earliest  art  tonus,  and  pertains  to  the 
period  of  church  liistory  which  causes  it  to  be  among  the  most 
interesting  and  important  objects  in  the  whole  range  of  Christian 
symbolism.  It  can  be  studied  on  inoiiume-nts  that  bear  the  simple 
word  'IxOig,  and  on  those  whicli  have  its  pictorial  representation. 
The  interpretation  of  the  symbol  is  determined  by  its  age,  its  asso- 
ciations, and  the  testimony  of  the  early  fathers.  De  Rossi  has  di- 
vided the  Christian  inscrij)tiojis  at  Rome  prior  to  the  seventh  century 
into  two  general  classes,  namelv:    1.  The  sublei'ranean,   ^ 

c>  ...  Two  classes  of 

which  are  the  oldest.    2.  Those  wliicli  are  found  in  church   christian     in- 

burial  places  above  the  surface,  especially  in  and  near  ^'"p"^'"-- 

basilicas.     The  latter  cla.ss  belongs  for  the  most  jiart  to  the  jiost- 

Constantine  period.     At   the    time   of   Constantine  the   catacombs 

were  generally  used  for  Christian  burial.    IJetween  the  years  A.  D.  .338 

and  A.  D.  364  two  tliirds  of  all   interments  were  still   ,  . 

Interment     In 

made  in  them.     From  A.  T).  304  to  A.  D.  300  the  num-  the  ratacombs 

bers  buried  in  the  catacombs  and  elsewhere  were  about  "''^"*'- 

equal.     On  account  of  the  restoration  of  the  catacombs  bj"- the  zeal 

of  Pope  Damasus,  from  A.  D.  370  to  A.  1).  371  burial  therein  again 

became  almost  universal.     From  A.  D.  373  to  A.  D.  400   The     ichihus 

onlv  about  one  third  were  there  buried;  wliile  with  the   ""n""'""^; 

'  pre-  Constan- 

year  A.   D.  4lo  these   ))laces  of  interment  ceased  to  be   tine, 
used.     Of  the  monuments  found  at  Rome,  which  bear  this  symbol, 
very  few    (jirobably  none  at    all)   belong  to   the  second  class,  and, 
therefore,  cannot  be  regarded  as  of  a  later  origin  than  the  begiiuiing 
of  the  fifth  century.    'J'he  symbolical  /cA^/ti^v  is  associated  with  none 


78  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAX  ART. 

of  the  hundreds  of  inscriptions  found  upon  the  extra-catacombal 
monuments  in  and  near  the  basilicas  of  Rome.' 

From  the  great  difference  in  the  number'*  of  monuments  bearing 
an  exact  date  before  and  after  the  time  of  Constantine,  from  the 
form  of  the  letters,  and  from  the  character  of  the  associated  inscrip- 
De  Rossi's  tious  and  paintings,  de  Rossi  concludes  that  most  of  the 
conclusion.  Jchthus  raonnments  belong  to  a  time  either  before  or  dur- 
ing the  rei^n  of  this  emperor.  The  figure  is  met  on  monuments  of 
the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries,  but  it  had  then  lost  the  dogmatic  sig- 
nificance which  was  attached  to  it  during  the  third  and  fourth 
centuries,  and  is  used  rather  for  ornamental  than  symbolical  pur- 
poses. From  a  variety  of  considerations  it  is  believed  that  its 
peculiar  and  general  use  fell  in  the  period  when  the  persecuted 
Church  Avas  compelled  to  express  its  faith  under  forms  and  symbols 
which  were  unmeaning  to  their  enemies,  yet  were  well  understood 
bv  the  initiated  who  were  participants  in  the  holy  sacraments. 

But  what  truth  is  conveyed  under  this  strange  symbol?  The 
itssignifl-  discovery  by  de  Rossi,  in  1865,  of  anew  part  of  the 
cance.  cemeterv  of  Santa  Domitilla  at  Rome  was  further  con- 

firmatory of  the  opinion  before  held  by  many  archaeologists. 
Throuo-h  a  vestibule  of  severest  classic  style  the  visitor  passes  along 
a  broad  entrance,  somewhat  inclined,  from  which  small  chambers 
and  side  passages  extend  to  the  right  and  left.  The  ceilings  con- 
tain paintino-s  which,  from  their  simplicity  and  naturalness,  point  to 
an  origin  prior  to  the  time  of  Roman  art  decadence.  De  Rossi  has 
Cemetery  of  "ot  hesitated  to  place  the  frescos  of  this  part  of  the 
Domitilla.  cemeterv  in  the  time  of  Domitilla,  that  is,  at  the  close 

of  the  first  century,  or,  at  latest,  in  the  first  part  of  the  second. 
On  the  walls  of  this  portion  of  the  catacomb  are  found  the  mutilated 
remains  of  a  fresco,  represented  by  Fig.  11,  to  which  careful  atten- 
tion should  be  directed.  We  notice  two  persons  sitting  upon  a 
The  important  couch  ;  before  them  is  a  table  of  the  ordinary  Roman 
fresco.  t^^pe,  upon  which  lie  three  loaves  of  bread  and  a  fish. 

A  person,  apparently  a  servant,  is  standing  near  by.  The  repre- 
sentation plainly  suggests  to  every  one  a  meal.  It  corresponds 
quite  closely  with  similar  scenes  depicted  on  the  graves  of  heathen 

'  The  seeming  exceptions  to  this  statement  appear  to  have  belonged  originally  to 
the  catacombs,  and  to  have  been  removed  to  churches  for  purposes  of  ornament  or 
on  account  of  their  peculiar  sanctity. 

■■"  Of  the  pre-Constantine  period  only  about  thirty  dated  inscriptions  from  Kome 
have  been  preserved,  wliile  of  the  post-Constantine  prior  to  tlie  seventh  century 
more  than  thirteen  hundred  survive.  But  none  of  the  inscriptions  after  the  fourth 
century  bear  the  symbol  of  the  fish. 


SYMBOLISM  OV  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


79 


families,  IJiit  tin-  fish  is  not  of  ricfjiu-nt  occurrciicc  <iii  luni- 
Christian  burial  iiKHimnciits.  In  siicli  casi's  it  is  tlio  symbol  of 
extrcMiie  luxury  which  cauK'  to  bo  associated  only  with  royalty  or 
the  favored  few.  The  conclusion  reached  is  that  the  two  sittinj^ 
figures  represent  two  persons  who  were  buried  in  this  catacomb,  ;;nd 


Fip.  1 1  .—Supposed  eucharistlc  scene.    Fresco  from  the  oldest  part  of  Santa  Domitllla,  Rome. 

that  before  us  is  a  scene  from  their  every-day  life.  The  fish  on  the 
burial  monuments  of  the  Christians  cannot  comport  with  tlu'  idea 
of  luxury  ;  hence,  we  must  interpret  it  in  accordance  with  the 
oi)inion  which  the  Christian  fathers  had  long  entertained,  namely, 
that  this  must  be  the  symbol  of  Christ.  'Irjoovg  Xqioto^  Qeov  Tiog 
lu)TTJp  is  the  confession  of  faith  whose  initial  letters  form  this  word 
which  is  so  frequently  met,  and  whose  pictorial  representation  is 
seen  in  the  case  before  us.  The  meal  here  celebrated  must  be 
regarded  as  having  a  eucharistic  significance  ;  the  table  The  conclusion 
of  the  householder  becomes  the  table  of  the  Lord,  and  romiud. 
the  j)roper  priestly  character  of  each  private  Christian  is  here 
asserted.  Herein  is  fulfilled  the  prophecy  (Isa.  Ixi,  6)  of  the  old 
dispensation  as  it  was  witnessed  and  afiirmed  by  the  apostles  of  the 
new'  (1  Pet.  ii,  5,  9).     The  growth  of  the  literature  suggests  a  like 

'  Only  by  cnrefully  distinguishing  the  God  of  the   priesthood  from  the  God  of 

prophecy,  in  ancient  Judaism;  and  by  clearly  discriminating  between  Chrisiianity 

as  it  was  founded  by  Jesus  and  is  contJiined  in  the  New  Testament,    ,  ^  , 

„  ,_,,,/,.  ,.  m        ii-  1  ^       .  .      .^  .1    Juoalsm    and 

irom  the  Cluirch  of  ilio  tunes  of  Tcrtullian  and  Cvpnan,  can  the  full    Chrlsilanl- 

forcc  of  this  argument  bo  felt.     In  the  new  kingdom  of  licavcn  saccr-    ty  compan-d  In 

dotahsm  was  absohitclv  ignored  by  Jesns  and  by  his  aposllcs.     It  is    hlstnrlral     de- 

...  •,.",'  ,.     ,    ,  -r      .     ■.,  r         .         velopiiu-nt. 

as  little  recogniS'.Hl  by  tho  apostolic  fathers,  Justin  Martyr.  Ignatius, 

and  Polycarp.  Till  the  beginning  of  the  third  century  Christianity  corresponded  lx)th 
in  idea  and  spirit  to  the  Judaism  of  prophecy — the  entire  sanctified  people  consti- 
tuting a  holy  priesthood  unto  God.  After  the  beginning  of  tlie  third  century  the 
idea  and  form  of  sacerdotal  Judaism  which  afterward  characterized  llio  Latin  Church 
were  revived. 


80  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIA.N  ART. 

result.  Prior  to  the  fourth  century  this  explanation  of  the  symbol 
The  literary  is  infrequent,  and  then  is  mentioned  in  very  obscure 
conflrmation.  terms  ;  but  toward  the  end  of  the  fourth  and  at 
the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  many  undoubted  references 
to  it  are  met  in  the  writings  of  the  Christian  fathers.'  These 
remove  all  doubt  of  the  interpretation  and  dogmatic  significance  of 
the  symbol.  The  'IXOTS  is  plainly  Christ.  No  other  explanation 
is  suggested  by  these  writers.  It  is  met  in  the  eighth  book  of 
the  Sibylline  oracles  (ver,  217-250).  The  unknown  author  of 
The  Sibylline  tbis  remarkable  acrostic  has  by  some  been  assigned 
prophecy.  ^o  the  end  of  the  second  century  or  to  the  beginning 

of  the  third. ^  It  has  been  conjectured  that  he  derived  the 
sentiment  of  the  prophecy,  ,as  well  as  the  suggestion  of  its 
acrostic  form,  from  the  creed  then  accepted,  and  from  the  initial 
letters  of  this  'IXeT2  which  was  in  common  use  by  the  perse- 
cuted Church.'  This  article  of  faith,  so  fundamental  and  yet 
so  much  a  subject  of  derision  and  stumbling  on  the  part  of  the 
heathen  world,  was  concealed  under  a 
word  whose  pictorial  representation  after- 
ward played  an  important  role  in  the  sym- 
bolism of  the  Church.  Whenever  this 
word  or  the  figure  of  the  fish  should  be 
seen,  whether  rudely  scratched  in  the 
fresh  mortar  upon  the  stones  that  closed      rig.  is.-xhe  nsh  associated  witi. 

^  other  Christian   symbols.  From  an 

the  graves  in  the  catacombs,  or  more  early  christian  sarcophagus, 
elaborately  chiseled  in  figure  in  connec- 
tion with  other  symbols  and  inscriptions  (u.  Fig.  12),*  or  engraved 
upon  gems  in  signet  rings,  or  for  purposes  of  ornament,  in  all  alike 
was  recognised  this  precious  doctrine  of  their  faith  : 
concuision.  j^  '^^ovg,  Jesus  ;  X,  XQiarog,  Christ  ;  9,  Qeod,  of  God  ; 
T,  'Tiog,  Son  ;  2wr??p,  Saviour— Jesus  Christ,  Son  of  God 
Saviour. 

1  Becker :  Die  Darstellung  Jesic  Christi  unter  dem  Bilde  des  Fisches.  Breslan, 
1866.  Pitra:  Spicilegium  Soksmense,  vol.  iii,  under  the  article  'IXdvg,  where 
very  full  references  to  the  Christian  fathers  are  given. 

2  This  collection  of  writings  evidently  contains  an  admixture  of  Jewish,  pagan, 
and  Ciiristiau  thought.  The  subjects  referred  to,  as  the  golden  age.  the  future  for- 
tunes of  the  imperial  city,  the  coming  of  a  Saviour,  etc.,  show  a  diverse  authorship. 
For  hterature  of  the  subject  v.  Schiirer  :  Die  neuetest.  Zdtgeschichte,  s.  513. 

3  Becker:   Op.  cit,  s.  14. 

*  V.  Becker:  Op.  cit,  No.  71,  ss.  62-64.  While  the  inscription  on  the  monument 
points  to  a  heathen  origin,  Becker  and  de  Rossi  have  shown  that  it  belongs  to  the 
highest  Christian  antiquity.  The  association  of  the  fish  with  other  symbols  of  man- 
ifestly Christian  character  go  far  to  fix  its  reference  and  signification. 


SYMBOLISM  OF  (MlitlSTIAN  AKT. 


81 


Other  mural  paintings  I'nim  ilic  catacDiiihs  at  Koiiu'  ami  c'lst",vlu're 
foiiliriii  till' correct iicss  of  tlii>  iiitt'r|)ietat ion.  Some  of  tlieiii  bear 
iiiimistakahle  evidence  of  the  eiicharisti<-  character  of  the  feast,  in 
which  the  fish  is  the  central  figure.' 

Among  the  most  instructive  is  the  series  of  frescos  from  the 
Cataeomi)  of  San  Calisto — tliat  portion  called  the  "  C]iamV)er  of  the 
Sacraments"  (Fig.  i;3).    On   the  left  of  the  central  scene  "we  see 


^^:i  ^f 


rf^:^^w«L 


m^^^>^^' 


Tig.  13.— Fresco  from  the  "  Chamber  of  the  Sacraments,"  San  Calisto.    Suggesting  the  tucha- 

ristic  meal. 

the  three-legged  table  having  on  it  bread  and  fish,  with  a  woman 
standing  on  one  side  of  it  in  the  attitude  of  prayer ;  and  a  man 
on  the  other,  clad  only  in  the  pallli/ni,  extending  his  hands, 
and  es])ecially  his  right  hand,  toward  the  table  in  such  a  way  as  to 
force  upon  every  Christian  intelligence  the  idea  of  the  act  of 
consecration.""  In  the  cential  gi'ou]>  are  seen  seven  men  sitting  at 
a  table  with  bread  and  fish,  and  before  them  are  eight  baskets  of 
loaves.  To  the  right  is  tlie  rejjresentation  of  the  sacrifice  of  Isaac, 
while  on  the  extreme  right  and  left  of  the  ])icture  are  fossons  with 
arm  extended,  and  the  pickaxe  in  usual  form  resting  u]!on  the 
shoulder.  Some  have  suggested  that  the  figure  at  the  left,  with 
hands  extended  in  prayer,  symbolizes  the  Church,  whii-h  is  rejire- 
scnted  as  the  Bride  of  Christ  (Eph.  v,  24;  Rev.  xxi,  2  and  0)  ;  but 
it  is  better  to  regard  it  as  one  who  is  giving  thanks  in  the  celebra- 
tion of  the  eucharist. 


'  lie  Rossi:  Roma  SnfO'iranen,  vol.  ii,  Tnv.  xv,  No.  2;  Tav.  xvi,  No.  1  ;  Tav.  xviii, 
Xo.  5.  Becker:  Darstellung,  etc.,  .ss.  101,  lO:!.  110,  IIG,  etc.  Northcote  and 
Brownlow:  Plates  16  and  17;  also  vol.  ii,  pp.  71,  sq.  Kraus:  Roma  Sotterranea, 
Taf.  viii.     Roller:    Catacombes  de  Rome,  vol.  i,  cliap.  19. 

*  Norllicote  and  Brownlow :   Ojh  cit.,  vol.  ii,  p.  86. 
6 


82 


AECH.^OLOGY  OF  CHmSTIAX  ART. 


'^ 


Fig.  14  represtnts  a  very  remarkable  fresco  from  a  Christian  cat- 
acomb discovered  in  Alexandiia,  Egj^pt, 
It  is  found  directly  over  the  altar  in  one 
of  the  chapels,  and  has  been  referred  to 
the  first  half  of  the  fourth  century.  The 
details  of  this  mutilated  fresco  merit  care- 
ful study,  both  on  account  of  its  location 
and  the  interpretation  which  accompanies 
it.'  In  the  middle  is  Christ,  whose  head 
is  encircled  with  the  nimbus,  and  whose 
name  is  clearly  indicated  by  the  letters 
IC,  XC.  Peter,  nErPOC  is  on  his  right, 
and  AndrcAv,  ANAPEAC,  on  his  left, 
bearing  a  plate  Avith  two  fishes.  Baskets 
containing  loaves  are  on  the  ground  on 
either  side.  Further  toward  the  right  of 
Christ  appear  the  legends  (TA)  HAIAIA, 

-  servants,  and  HAFIA  MAPIA,  Holy  Mary. 
The  mutilated  condition  of  the  fresco  in 
this  jjai't  gives  uncertainty  to  the  inter- 
pretation, but  it  has  been  suggested  that 
it  may  represent  the  first  miracle,  at  the 
marriage  in  Cana.  At  the  extreme  left 
of  our  Lord  persons  seem  to  be  seated  at 
a  meal,  while  above  is  the  significant  le- 
gend, TAG  EYAOriAC  TOY  XY  ECei- 
ONTEC — "  Eating    the    benedictions    of 

;     Christ." 

In  1  Cor.  X,  16,  the  same  word,  evXoyia(;, 

\     is  used  by  Paul  in  speaking  of  the  com- 

!     munion  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ. 

I  "  The  cup  of  blessing  (evXoyiag),  Avhich 
we  bless,  is  it  not  the  communion  of  the 

[  blood  of  Christ  ? "  Compare  also  Matt. 
"j^yi  *■  xvi,  36,  where  the  word  used  to  describe 
the  giving  of  tlianks  in  the  multiplication 
of  loaves,  evxO'Qiorriaag,  is  the  same  as  that 
used  in  Matt,  xxvi,  27,  to  consecrate  the 
wine  of  the  holy  sacrament ;  while  in 
Matt,  xxvi,  26,  a  derivative  from  the  same 


'  V.  We«clier   and  de   Rossi : 
crist.     18G5,  pp.  57  sq.,  73  sq. 


in  BuUett.  di  Arch. 


SYMBOLISM  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART.  83 

word  foun.l  in  the  k--c'n(l  of  tliis  Iri'sco  is  used  to  consecrate'  tl.c 
bread  "And  as  they  were  eatin-,  Jt-sus  took  bread,  and  blessed 
(kvXoyrioa^)  it,"  etc.  The  word  used  in  Mark  vi,  41,  to  bless  the 
loaves  and  fishes  is  found  in  Mark  xiv,  2i>,  to  describe  the  con- 
secration of  the  bread  in  the  eucharist.  From  such  comparisons 
of  Scripture,  and  from  the  teaehin-s  of  the  Christian  fathers, 
especially  of  St.  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  the  conclusion  seems  almost 
inevitable  that  in  this  fresco  the  eucharistic  meal  is  represents, 
and  that   the  true  'Ixdv^  is  Christ,  upon   whom  the  soul   feeds  by 

faith.' 

That  the  cross    was   widely  known   in  pre-Christian  times   has 
been  most  clearly  shown  by  independent  investiijators.*  The  cross  and 
It  is  met  in  a  variety  of   forms'    on   both  continents,   '^'""'^'fl^- 
through  wide  extents  of  territory  and  reachin,-  through  long  perio.ls 
of  time.     The  interpretations  of  this  symV)ol  have  been   j^c^risiian. 
almost  numberless.     Indeed,  its  origin  and  significance 
are  often  matters  of  question.     But  the  Christian  cross  can  have  no 
doubtful   import.     It    was   ever  the  emblem  of   blessing   through 
suffering  and  sacrifice,  or  of  a  triumphing  faith,  and  the  Church 
has    cherished  it    as    among  her    most    precious    and    suggestive 
symbols.     For  this  she  had  the  warrant  and  sanction  of  the  sacred 
Scriptures.     It  was  the  magic  form  that  played  an  important  role 
in  the  exeo-esis  of  the  Christian  fathers.*     To  them  this   Among  the 
sacred   symbol   appeared    in   all    nature,    in   the    great  c^Jj;^"^'''" 
circles  of  the   heavens,  in  the  fiying  bird,  in  the  shii) 
speeding  under  full  sail,  in  the  arms  outstretched  in  prayer,  in  the 

•  V  Kraug  :  Roma  Sotferranea,  ss.  216,  217.  Important  confirmatory  evidence  is 
supplied  by  the  inscriptions,  notably  the  ichthns  inscription  of  Autnn,  France.  Tina 
has  occasioned  an  extended  literature,  v.  Le  Blant:  Inscript.  chret.  de  la  GatU. 
torn,  i ;  for  literature  v.  Pilras  Spicileginm  Solesm.,  vol.  i.  ^^    ,       ,   d 

»  r.  Stockbauer,  Inman,  ZGckler,  llaslam,  Lipsi.is.  Zestermann,  the  Edinhurgh  Re- 
view, for  1870.  etc.     The  literature  is  very  extensive. 

3  Speaking  of  a  temple  in  Lorillard  City,  Central  America,  M.  Dess,r(5  Charnay  says  : 
-The  roof  of  the  edifice  is  sli^^htly  oblique,  as  in  tl,o  buildinjrs  of  Palenque.  There 
is  a  grand  frieze,  richlv  decorated,  the  ornnmcnUition  consisting  of  large  human 
figures,  these  accompanied  with  arabesques  or  hieroglypl,s.  The  temple  had  then 
five  portals,  with  lintels  and  jambs  of  sculptured  stone.  Here  we  find  bas-rehefs  of 
remarkable  bcautv,  and  I  have  made  casts  of  one  of  them,  which  exhibits  two  human 
figures  of  tl.e  Palen.iue  type,  each  holding  in  the  hand  a  regxdar  LaHn  cross  with 
flowered  arms:'     v.  North  American  lierieiv,  No.  308. 

*  However  extravasnnt  and  even  puerile  in  the  light  of  modem  criticism  may  r.p- 
pcar  the  exegesis  of  some  of  the  Cl.ristian  fathers,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  their 
work  was  inspired  by  a  deep,  pervading  love  of  the  crucified  One,  and  by  a  des.re  to 
enter  into  the  mysteries  of  his  expiatory  sufferings,  v.  Zockler  :  Das  Kreutz  C  hristx, 
8.  134. 


84  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

branches  of  trees,  and  in  a  multitude  of  forms  in  the  vegetable  and 
animal  world.  The  demons  could  not  withstand  its  power,  the 
followers  of  the  crucified  One  were  safe  under  its  protection.' 

In  the  pre-Constantine  period  the  sign  of  the  cross  seems  to  have 
been  in  quite  general  recognition  by  private  Christians.  Tertullian's 
well-known  words  clearly  show  this.  "  Wherever  we  go,  or  what- 
sign  of  the  ever  we  attempt,  in  all  coming  in  or  going  out,  at 
*'™*^'  putting  on  our  shoes,  at  the  baths,  at  table,  at  the  time 

of  candle  lighting,  at  bed-time,  in  sitting  down  to  rest ;  whatever 
conversation  employs  us,  we  press  the  forehead  with  the  sign  of  the 
cross."  ^  Doubtless  there  is  noticed  on  the  part  of  the  disciples  of 
the  crucified  One  a  desire  to  conceal  this  symbol,  which  in  the 
minds  of  the  heathen  was  associated  with  every  thing  humiliating 
and  disgraceful.  In  the  earlier  inscriptions  and  monuments,  there- 
fore, it  is  generally  associated  with  the  monogram  of  Christ.  In 
such  cases  it  symbolized  the  person  of  Christ,  all  that  he  was  in  him- 
self, and  all  that  he  had  done  for  the  world.  There  is,  however, 
early  noticed  an  attempt  to  use  the  cross  independently  of  the 
-^  monogram.  In  such  case  it  often  appears  under  a  form  well 
known  to  other  than  Christian  peoples,  namely,  the  so-called  swas- 
tika {v.  Fig.  15,  lower  foi'm),  many  examples  of  which  are  found 
Pre-Constan-  on  monuments  very  widely  separated  in  time  and  place. 
tine  cross.  While  their  chronology  is  somewhat  uncertain,  it  seems 
that  under  this  somewhat  obscure  form  the  Christians  of  the  pre- 
Constantine  period  chiefly  represented  the  death  and  ex- 
piatory work  of  the  Saviour."  But  the  claim  that  there- 
fore this  doctrine  was  derived  from  the  Indian  religions 
lacks  firm  support.  Much  confusion  of  thouglit  has  ob- 
tained, and  much  misleading  assertion  has  l)een  indulged 
by  writers  who  would  deny  to  Christianity  all  originality, 
and  would  trace  its  leading  doctrines  to  the  Indian  or 
Its  doctrine  Magian  systems.  While  an  eminently  Budd- 
not  of  Indian  histic  symbol,  even  the  sioastika  seems  to  other  Christ- 
have  lacked  sacredness,  and  had  little  sug-  ^^^  symbols, 
gestion  of  religious  doctrine.*     To  regard  the  symbolism  of  these 

'  Prudentius:  Cathemerince — Hymnus  ante  somnum.  "Crux  pellit  omue  crimen," 
etc. 

'■*  De  corona  Militis,\\\.     "  Ad  omnen  progressiim  atque  promotum,"  etc. 

^  This  is  a  question  on  which  the  archiieologists  are  still  divided.  Some  claim  that 
the  opinion  that  any  form  of  the  cross  was  used  by  the  Cliristian  Church  prior  to 
the  introduction  of  the  ^  lacks  substantial  foundation. 

■*  E.  Thomas :  Ancient  Indian  Weights,  p.  58.  "  Paniui  described  it  as  a  mark  of 
cattle." 


SV.MBULIS.M  OF  LlllilSTlAN  AKT.  85 

religions  as  tlic  suggestive  source  of  tlie  symbols  found  on  Christian 
monuments  of  the  West,  from  the  second  to  the  eighth  century,  is 
shown  to  be  entirely  unwarranted  as  the  Imlian  paleograiihy  arid 
inscriptions  are  more  carefully  studied,  'riif  Indian  iiiscrijitions  are 
found  to  be  of  no  high  antiquity,*  and  are,  therefore,  of  little  avail 
in  a  (|uestion  of  this  nature.  Rather  the  indebtedness  of  Buddhism 
to  Christianity  for  the  doctrine  of  a  genuine  'J'rinity  seems  now  to 
be  established  beyond  reasonable  question,"  while  the  claims  of  the 
priority  and  great  anticpiity  of  the  Zoroastrian  or  Maydyasan  tenets, 
resend>Iing  the  Christian  teachings,  have  been  proved  to  lack  firm 
foun(hition.'' 

The  monogram  of   the  name   of  Christ  appears  f re-   The  monofrram 
quently  uj)on  early  Christian  remains.    It  is  found  upon  "^  uhnst. 
burial  monuments,  ancient   lann)s,  ghisa   vessels,  gems,  and    coins 

'"There  is  not,  however,  a  Soutli  Indian  inscription  which  can  be  accepted  as 
genuine  witli  a  date  before  tiie  fiftli  century  of  the  Cliristian  era,  though  one  or  two 
(without  dates)  exist  whicii  may  be  safelj'  attributed  to  tiie  fourtii  century  A.  D." 
A.  C.  BurncU:  Elements  of  Smdh  Indian  Paleographij  froniUie  Fourth  to  tfie  Seventeenth 
Century  A.  D.,  2d  ed.,  London,  1878,  p.  12. 

*"We  have  been  entertained  occasionally  by  being  told  how  our  Christian 
religion  owes  sucii  and  such  of  its  leading  elements  of  faith  to  Buddhist,  Hrahrnan- 
ical,  or  Zoroastrian  teachings,  but  the  progress  of  knowledge  now  enables  us  to  turn 
the  tables,  and  to  prove  that  our  antagonists  were  the  real  borrowers.  The  Bud- 
dhists have  been  credited  with  priorit}'  over  our  conception  of  the  Triuiiy,  but  the 
earliest  documents  of  their  creed,  dating  in  2a0  B.  C,  or  nearly  three  ccutnrios  after 
Nirvana  of  Buddha,  neitlier  suggest  nor  foresliailow  any  such  combination  ;  thougli 
we  can  well  conceive  how  easily  tlieir  missionaries  may  have  caught  the  infection  of 
the  Aryan  devotion  to  threes.  .  .  .  Tlie  Bralimans,  in  their  turn,  iis  has  lately  been  dis- 
covered, appropriated  without  limit  or  scruple,  but  of  course  without  acknowledg- 
ment, the  ideas  and  the  very  expressions  contained  in  the  New  Testament.  .  .  .  Sonie 
suspicion  might  possibly  have  been  thrown  upon  liie  originality  of  our  received 
versions;  but  the  question  of  derivation  has  been  compreliensively  examined  and 
determined  in  our  favor  by  Dr.  F.  Lorinser,  whose  verdict  had  already  been  facilitated 
by  the  researches  of  other  eminent  Orientalists.  BurncU:  Op.  cit.,  pp.  27,  28. 
.  .  .  We  can  no  longer  doubt,  therefore,  the  possibility  of  the  hypothesis  that  the 
composer  of  the  Biiagovad-Gila  .  .  .  used  Cliristian  ideas  and  expressions,  and 
transferred  sayings  of  Christ,  related  in  the  Gospel.-*,  to  Krishna." — Indian  Antiquary. 
October,  1873.  See  also  among  otiiers,  Lorin.scr:  Dhaijorad-Gitu,  Breslau,  1869, 
Weber:  Inilische  Studien,  \,  s.  400.  Lassen:  fudlsche  Alterthunisknnde,  i,  0215;  iii, 
398.  Wheeler:  History  of  India,  i,  407.  Kiienon;  Ililibryt  L'ctuns,  1882,  jip. 
223-236. 

*  Among  others  who  have  est,ablished  this  stiitcment  may  be  mentioned  Wcsler- 
gaard,  Breal,  and  Oppert.  The  indebtedness  of  the  Kast  to  the  Greeks  for  astro- 
nomical principles  has  been  shown  by  Biot  :  Journnl  das  Savants,  April,  1859; 
and  Iloltzman :    Ufier  den  Ursprung  des  indischen  Thierkreises. 

The  earnest  comparative  studies  of  the  Indian  scholars  are  yielding  rich  results, 
and  correcting  many  errors  into  which  some  earlier  writers  have  fallen. 


ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


16).  The  form  of  this  monogram  is  various — sometimes  very 
simple,  at  other  times  richly  adorned  with 
wreaths,  palm  branches,  and  gems  {c.  Fig.  17). 
It  is  not  well  settled  at  what  time  it  iirst  ap- 
pears, but  it  seems  probable  that  it  was  used 
before  its  adoption  by  Constantine  I.  as  a  sign 
upon  the  shields  and  standards  of  his  army.' 
While  the  genuineness  of  some  monuments  cited  in  confirmation  of 
^  this  opinion  may  be  questioned,  still  little  doubt  can 

^C    >^        reasonably  be  entertained  respecting  its  use  during  the 

Fii 


Fig.  16.— Monogram  on  coin 
of  Aathemius,  A.D.  467. 


third  century. 


18   represents  the    earliest  known 


Fig.  18.— Monogram  of  Christ  on  an  arcosolium  of  San  Calisto,  Rome. 

example  in  the  Catacomb  of  San  Calisto.  This  mono- 
gram has  been  most  noted  fi'om  the  fact  that  it  largely 
displaced  the  eagle  on  the  standards  of  Rome  {v.  Figs. 
6  and  7).  Like  many  other  events  in  the  life  and  reign 
of  Constantine  the  Great,  the  cause  and  circumstances 
of  its  adoption  are  variously  explained.  Whether  through 
a  miraculous  appearance  of  Christ,  or  a  dream,  or  a  vision 
near  sunset,  or  through   some  other  raeans,^  the  fact  of 


'".  '  V.  Luchvig  Jeep :  Zur  Geschkhte  ConstanUns  des  Grossen. 

P  SjM  f ,  ^  Among  the  defenders  of  the  miraculous  appearance  of  Christ  to 

'^  Constantine  are  the  older  historians,  and  Guericke,  Dollinger,  Alzog, 

\/'  and  J.   H.  Newman,  among  modern  writers.     For  an  optical  illusion 

*,/\  or    natural  phenomenon,  with  which  may   have   been   connected  a 

I  prophetic   dream,    argue   Augusti,    Schroeckh,    Mosheim,    Neander, 

»  I     «  Gieseler,  Xiedner,  Sehaff,  Stanley,   Heinichen,  Koelling,   Mozley,  and 

i  others.     Arnold.    Tliomasius,     Lardner,     Gibbon,    Waddington.    and 

others  regard  it  either  as  a  fable   or  a  pious  fraud.     This  last  view  seems  to  be 

the  least  consistent  with  the  autliorities,  with   ihe  character  of   Constantine,  and 

with  the  events  concededly  flowing  from  this  circumstance. 


SYMBOLISM  OF  ClIIilSTlAN  AKT. 


87 


the  clioiri'  of  lliis  syiiibul  cannot  he  doubted,  siiiee  from  this  time  it 
jtlays  a  most  important  part  on  the  coins  of  the  empire,  and  on  the 
nionumcnts  of  the  C'luireh. 

It  has  bei-n  iiiiiviTsally  conceded  that  these  are  the  initial  K-tters 
of  the  name  of  Christ,'  and  that  the  nionoLcrani  is  jiriind  facie 
evi(K'nce  ()f  the  Christian  character  of  tlie  monuments  on  which 
it  appears.  Otlier  meanings  must  be  shown  by  positive  j)roof. 
Tliere  is  no  sutticient  evidence  that  tl»e  Christians  derivi-d  tliis 
from  tlie  crux  ansata  wliicli  was  <piite  common  amoni,^  tlie 
Egyptians. 

Aftt-r  the  wide  use  of  tlie  ^  upon  the  shields  and  staiuhirds 
of  the  army  and  upon  the  coins  of  the  empire,  tlie  Church 
attached  to  it  a  new  and  deeper  significance.  Hence-  u^  j^t^r  sIr- 
forth  the  eoiKpiering,  all-prevailing  Name  was  prom-  niu«i"<^«. 
inent  in  their  thought.  Fig.  19  sliows  the  -^  associated  with 
palm  branches  and  the  celebrated 
motto,  IN  SIGNO.  The  transition  from 
the  thought  of  humiliation  and  suffer- 
ing to  that  of  authority  and  ])ower 
was  but  natural.  The  art  of  th  • 
Ciiurch  reveals  this  change.  The  mon- 
ogram a})pears  surrounded  witli  gar- 
lands (Fig.  20),  ami  in  jdaces  of  honor 
and  dominion.  Now  is  noticed  the  be- 
ginning of  that  opinion  respecting  the  person  and  otticc  of  Christ 
which  afterward  clothed  him  with  the  attributes 
of  the  severe  and  awe-inspiring  Judge,  and  later 
furnished  the  conditions  of  the  ra)»id  growth  of 
]\Iario]atry. 

The  tratlition   of   the   finding   of   the  true  cross   l)y 

Y\K.  -M.—  vhG  Helena,  the  motlier  of  Constantine,  rests  ^^  ,  .  , 
monogi-dtn      of  '  r  i     •  i  i        ^'^''  ''"'■"'"''  "' 

Christ  encircled  <"'    cven   less  secure   foundation  than   tlic   timiiinr  the 

by  a  wreath.  vision  of  the  cross  by  the  einj>eror  himself.  ""'*"''^- 
While,  however,  the  accei)tance  of  the  -^  symbol  by  the  em- 
pire was  comparatively  harmless,  and  even  contributed  to  exalt  the 
name  and  office  of  the  Saviour,  without  danger  of  idolatry,  the 
traditional  discovery  of  tlie  cross  by  Helena  i)roved  the  occasion  of 
most  hurtful  superstitions  which  fostered  tlie  worship  of  relics 
and  suggested  the  religious  pilgrimages  of  the  following  centuries. 
The  relation  of  these  pilgrimages  to  the  Crusades  has  often  been 
traced  by  historians. 

'  Tlie  upright  ^  is  llie  oldest  and  most  frequently  recurring  form  of  this 
monogram. 


Fig.  1!).— The  Constantlnlan  mono- 
Kruin,  with  palm  branches  and  the 
IcKcml,  I.\  SKi.NO. 


88  ARCHyEOLOGY   OF   CPIRISTIAN   ART. 

The  Tail  or  patibulaiy  (sometimes  called  Egyptian)  cross  is 
TheTauorpa-  found  in  the  catacomb  of  San  Calisto,  at  Rome,  prob- 
tibuiary  cross,  ably  as  early  as  the  third  century.^  In  such  cases  it 
is  not  easy  to  discover  the  primary  reference.  By  some  it  is 
regarded  as  chiefly  re})resentative  of  the  idea  prevalent  among 
the  Egyj.tians,  namely,  the  source  of  life,  and 
of  hope  of  tl'.e  world  to  come;  to  others  (Did- 
ron,  et  at.),  it  seems  to  connect  "vvith  events  of 
the  Hebrew  history,  as  the  sacrifice  of  Isaac, 
and  the  Inazcn  serpent  in  the  wilderness — 
thus  becoming  an  Old  Testament  type;  while 
still  others  insist  that  it  is  the  deliberately 
chosen  symbol  of  the  person  and  proi)itiatory 
work  of  Christ.''  Sometimes  this  form  of  the 
Fiff.2i.  — A  jeweled  cross  cross  is  met  in  the  mosaics,  richly  jeweled, 
from  Ravenna.  having    the    firmament,   thickly   strewn    with 

stars,  for  a  background,  as  in  Fig.  21,  which  is  from  SS.  Nazario  e 
Celso,  Ravenna. 

Alone,  as  well  as  frequently  associated  with  the  monogram  of  Christ 
A  0  monu-  ^^^^  Other  Christian  symbols,  the  A  £2  symbol  appears  in 
ments.  Italy  from  about  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century,  and  in 

Gaul,  in  connection  with  dated  inscriptions,  from  A.  D.  377  to  A.  D. 
547.^  This  manifestly  refers  to  Rev.  i,  8,  "I  am  Alpha  and  Omega, 
the  beginning  and  the  ending,  saith  the  Lord,  which  is  and  which  was 
and  which  is  to  come,  the  Almighty."  By  comparing  Isa.  xliv,  G,  with 
Rev.  i,  17,  28,  also  xxii,  13,  it  appears  that  these  letters  refer  to  One 
who,  being  of  like  essence  with  God,  stands  at  the  beginning  as  at 
the  end  of  all  being,  who  rules  all  develoi)ment,  who  is  the  centre 
and  goal  of  human  history,  and  who  is  Lord  of  the  Church.  AVhile 
Jesus  Christ  is  "  the  same  yesterday,  to-day,  and  forever  "  (Ileb. 
xiii,  8),  he  also  becomes  the  significant  force  in  the  beginning  of 
the  creation,  and  in  the  final  consummation  of  the  divine  purposes. 
The  monuments  upon  which  these  letters  appear  are  quite  numer- 
ous; from  their  associations  they  aid  in  the  interpretation  of  symbols 
that  were  otherwise  obscure.     Connected  with  the  monogram  en- 

'  V.  de  Ro«si :  Bnllttt.  Arch,  crist.,   1863. 

*  Tlie  cross  and  the  fish  are  found  on  early  Christian  monuments  in  Scotland. 
From  its  peculiar  association=,  the  latter  is  believed  to  have  been  an  object  of  w-or- 
ship.  V.  Forbes  Leslie  :  The  Early  Races  of  Scotland  and  their  Monuments.  Edinburgh 
2  vols.,  1876. 

3  At  Rome  from  A.  D.  .^55  or  360  to  509;  in  Gaul  from  A.  D,  377  to  547.  De 
Rossi:  Imer.  chrht.  Ro'ii..  Nos.  127,  143,  491.  Boeckh :  Insa:  Cor.  Grcec,  Nos. 
412,  55.     Le  Blunt:  Manuel  cV  F.pigr.  chret.,  p.  29. 


SY:\rnoMSM  of  ciihistian  akt. 


89 


closed  in  a  eirck'  (Fii;.  i-'i.'),  tlu'  A  il  sui^LCi'sts  the  etiTiiity  of  tin- 
piTson  thus  syiiiboli/.c'd.  When  ussoeiated  with  the 
t-P,  within  the  i((iiil;iti'ral  triangle  (Fig.  ii-^),  it 
awakens  in  some  thi-  thought  of  the  Trinity.  When 
fcnmd  on  burial  inoiumients  with  the  Constantinian  j^' 
monogram,  the  doves,  and  the  olive  branelies  (Fig,  Kijr.t;;;.— Tiie  a  i^ 
24),  the  victory  and  [»resent  fruition  of  the  departed  with  uionovriiun  in 
through  Him  who  is  the  beginning  and  tlie  end,  the  •^'"^''* 
resurri'ction  and  tlie  life,  are  signitieantly  suggested.'  The  pre- 
sumption is  strong  that  all  monunu-nls  on  which  it  is 
found  ai'e  of  Christian  oi'igin,  and  the  ri'fei'eiice  to 
the  [lerson  and  nature  of  Christ  is  un(|uestioned. 

Tlie    Church    was    not   slow   to   itilout  the  beautiful 
oKnun  and  A  12  Symbol  ot  the  Vine.     I  his  was  SO  manifestly  ^^^^^.^^^ 
in  iriauKie.  sanctioned  by  the  words  of  Christ  himself 

(I  John  XV,  18)  that  the  most  iconoclastic  spirit  could  take  no 
offence  at  its  use.  The  lessons  which 
it  conveyed  were  so  vital  and  precious 
that  its  place  among  the  wall  deco- 
rations of  the  oldest  catacombs  at 
Rome  seems  eminently  fitting.  To 
distinguish    the    symbolic    from   the 

merely  decorative  use  is  not  always  fjk.  sm.— a  ii  witii  doves  anu  muuo- 

,    ,1     .   .1  1      rn    •  i'  gram.    From  a  burial  monument, 

easy;  yet  tiiat  tlie  early  Christians  re- 
garded the  vigorous  vine,  whose  branches  were  laden  with  luscious 
fruit,  as  sj^mbolic  of  the  Saviour  and  of  the  disciples  who  abide  in 
him  cannot  once  be  doubted." 

Nor  should  too  much  stress  be  laid  upon  the  fact  that  very  similar 
scenes  are  depicted  upon  heathen  monuments,  where  ,J.^^^^  symbol 
the  manifest  reference  is  to   Bacchus  and   his   worship,    nc.-d  n..t  have 

rrt-,  .         .      .,      .^  ^  ^       .  i         !■   I      1  been  1)1  >rni\ved. 

Ihis  similarity  ot  representation  cannot  safely  he  re- 
garded as  proof  that  a  like  truth  was  designed  to  be  thus  symbol- 
ized ;  much  less  can  the  derivation  of  the  Christian  symbol  from 
the  pagan  mythology  be  lience  inferred.  So  common  was  it  among 
ancient  peoples  to  represent  life,  joy,  and  abundance  under  the 
symbol  of  the  vine  and   its   products  that   each    may  reasonably  l»e 

'  A  clnsa  of  archjBologists  denies  all  symbolical  character  to  the  circle,  the  triangle, 
the  doves,  and  tlie  olive  branches  in  tliis  class  of  monuments,  and  regards  them  as 
simply  decorative.  "Wliile  this  view  seems  at  times  the  most  natural  and  just,  in 
some  instances  it  is  difficult  to  harinonize  it  with  all  the  attendant  conditions. 

'  For  illustrations,  sec  Figures  1,  2.  whicii  are  chiefly  decorative,  yet  whoso 
association  with  numerous  religious  subjects  might  also  suggest  a  symbolic 
character. 


90  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

regarded  as  an  independent  origination,  and  its  teaching  distinc- 
tive.' 

The  beautiful  symbol  of  the  Good  Shepherd  is  among  the  earliest 
The  Good  and  most  frequent  of  the  entire  Christian  cycle.  Like 
Shepherd.  ^jjg  vine,  it  had  the  sanction  of  Christ  himself  (John  x, 
1],  19),  and  was,  therefore,  the  source  of  little  apprehension  to  the 
Christian  fathers  in  their  efforts  to  guard  the  early  Church  against 
the  idolatrous  tendencies  of  much  of  the  heathen  plastic  art. 

The  opinion  held  by  some  archaeologists,  that  Christianity  had 
no  creative  art  power,  but  borrowed  every  thing  from  the  heathen 
world,"  would  regard  this  symbol  as  immediately  suggested  by  like 
representations  on  pagan  monuments.  That  the  ram-bearing  Mer- 
cury' has  some  general  resemblance  to  the  Good  Shepherd  of  the 
Christian  cycle  has  often  been  remarked.  Also  a  satyr  beaiing  a 
goat  or  sheep  upon  his  shoulders  suggests  a  similar  office  work. 
The  frescos  of  Herculaneum,  and  some  burial  monuments,  clearly  of 
heathen  origin,  in  which  the  seasons  are  depicted,  contain  like  rep- 
resentations. Nor  need  this  be  regarded  as  at  all  surprising  when 
Heathen  coun-  it  is  remembered  what  a  prominent  place  the  sheep  and 
terpart.  tlie  shepherd  held  in  the  thought  of  ancient  peoples. 

To  each  the  shepherd's  care  for  the  flock  would  be  the  most  readily 
suggested  symbol  of  tenderest  solicitude  and  secure  protection. 
The  Hebrew  Scriptures  abound  in  references  to  the  shepherd  and 
his  flock  (Psa.  xxiii  ;  Isa.  xl;  Jer.  xxiii;  Ezek.  xxxiv,  et  al.).  To  a 
pastoral  people,  acquainted  with  the  dangers  incident  to  this  mode 
Common  to  an-  of  life,  the  thought  of  the  shepherd,  to  guide  and  defend, 
cient  peoples,  must  have  been  among  the  most  natural  and  precious. 
While,  therefore,  it  is  true  that  very  similar  representations  of 
the  relation   of   the  shepherd  to  the   sheep   are  common  to  both 

'  Some  writers  on  comparative  reli<rioii  and  comparative  mytholosry  would  erro- 
neously teach  that  because  of  great  similarity  in  llie  beliefs  or  myths  of  tA'o  different 
peoples,  therefore  the  one  must  be  a  derivation  from  the  other,  or  both  must  root  in 
some  more  ancient  belief;  whereas,  each  may  be  entirely  independent  of  the  other, 
and  maybe  indicative  of  a  like  stagre  of  spiritual  or  religious  development.  -'I 
hardly  suppose  that  the  most  ardent  huuters^after  histories  which  tell  of  the  loves  of 
the  sun  and  the  dawn  would  maintain  that  it  was  from  tlie  observation  of  the  sun 
and  the  (lawn  that  mankind  first  gained  its  idea  of  two  lovers."  Keary:  Outlines  of 
Primitive  Belief,  Preface,  x. 

■^  Very  emphatically.  Raoul-Rochette :  Discours  sur  les  types  iinilatifs  qui  constituent 
Cart  du  Christ ianisim.  Pari=,  1834.  Tableau  des  Catacomhes.  Paris,  1837.  Trois 
Memoirs  sur  les  anti.quites  chretiennes.     Paris,  1839. 

^  The  epitliet,  Kiiophorus,  was  applied  to  Hermes  from  liis  driving  away  a  pesti- 
lence from  the  town  of  TMuagra.  in  Bueotia,  by  carrying  a  ram  on  his  slinulders  round 
the  walls.  He  is  to  be  regMrded,  tliorefore,  as  tlie  guardian  against  pestilence  rather 
than  as  the  god  of  herds,     v.  C.  J.  Hemans  :  in  Academrj,  1872,  p.  147. 


SYMBOLISM  OF  CHIUSTIAX  ART.  91 

lu'iitlu'ii  ;iii(l  Cliristiaii  iiiomiiiicnts,  it  woiiM  Itc  illoLjicul  to 
iiilVr  th:it  the  licatlirii  syiiihol  was  the  original,  ami  the  Christian 
the  imitation.  It  is  niaiiit\'st  tliat  the  Christian  Ciuircli  The  ciirlstian 
used  tlie  art  forms  wliieh  were  at  liand;  iicvt-rtheless  "y"'*'"'  ""' 
it  would  1)1'  misk'adin<^  thenee  to  (••(iicliidc  that  the  rivt-d. 
motive  or  spirit  of  the  C'iiristian  monuments  was  like  to  oi 
derived  from  the  i)revalent  heatlu'ii  thought  or  mytliolo<,'y.  At 
times  the  teaehing  is  directly  contradictory  of  Christian  thoiii;ht. 
The  student  needs  only  to  be  cautioned  against  the  Neinicd  cau- 
hasty  inference  that  all  motiumental  representations  '*""• 
of  the  relation  of  the  shei»herd  to  the  sheep  are  necessarily  of 
Christian  orit^^in  and  character.  The  sound  ])rinciple  here  to  be 
observed  is  that  somctliiiiL!;  more  than  the  simple  form  is  nec- 
essary ;  that  sonu'  additional  marks  or  contirmatory  circumstances 
must  aid  in  the  classification.  Fortunately  such  evidence  coniinnatory 
is  frequently  at  hand.  The  Good  8hei)herd  monuments  evidence, 
often  bear  other  distinctive  Christian  synd)ols,  as  the  fish,  the  -^^ 
tlie  A  S2,  or  these  combined  (y,  Fiii,-.  1l*),  while  in  other  cases  the 
figure  and  the  associated  inscri))tion  are  mutually  heli)ful  in  the 
interpretation.  In  any  case,  to  the  early  Church  this  figure  of  the 
Good  Shepherd  suggested  all  those  beautiful  and  consolatory  offices 
which  Christ's  own  words  so  clearly  taught  (John  x,  11-19). 
Hence  it  is  not  a  figure  of  the  Good  Sheplierd  alone  which  is  met, 
but  this  is  sometimes  accompanied  with  the  badges  of  his  office,  the 
staff,  the  shepherd's  pipe,  etc.  (y.  Fig.  37).  While  it  is  easy  to 
become  bewihlered  by  a  wild  and  extravagant  interpretation  of 
these  various  accessories,  the  teaching  of  the  ci-ntral  figure  is  mani- 
fest to  every  looker-on.^ 

Other  symbols  of  Christ  and  his  work  are  occasionally  met  on  the 
monunu'uts,   as    ()ri)heus,   noticed    elsewhere;    the   lion,  which   was 

usually  understood  as  a    symbol   of   i)ower  and  mii;ht: 

11,-1  1  1         •*  1  P     1  •      1  •       'i  OttuT  syinhols. 

and  the  nsher,  who  takes  nito  the  net  of    his  kingdom 
the  fishes  that  are  purified  in  tlie  waters  of  baptism. 

§  2.    The  disciplca  and  the  Churrh. 
The   followi'is  of   Christ,  wliose  representations  have  here  been 
traced,  delighted  to  use  a  like  symbolism  to  e.\press  their  own  rela- 
tions  to   Him,    "  the   wav,  the  truth,  and  the  life,"    as 

II  y      ■  •       •  ■       •    1  ,  »  •  1  r    11  Tll<Ml..Ve. 

well  as  tiieir  associations  with  eacli  other  in  tlu'   fi'iiow- 

ship  of    love    and    t'aitii.      The    <love   is  among    the    most   fre(pieiit 

'  111  f'h'd^  sur  Vhistoire  des  sarcf>pho{je.s  chntivns  (Paris.  18So).  Groiisact  pivcs  more 
tlian  folly  examples  of  the  Good  Sliepliord  fouiul  on  the  one  hundred  and  ninety- 
five  sarcopliagi  in  Rome  outside  of  the  Lateran  Museum,  whicli  he  describes. 


93  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

Christian  symbols  ;  it  is  of  especial  significance  when  found  upon 
burial  monuments.  It  usually  expresses  the  innocence  and  purity 
of  the  persons  thus  commemorated.  "Harmless  as  doves"  may 
have  been  in  the  mind  of  those  who  laid  away  the  faithful  with 
the  sweet  expectation  that  their  Lord  Avould  very  soon  awaken 
them  from  their  temporary  slumber  to  enter  upon  the  fruitions 
of  his  own  kingdom.  Here,  too,  caution  is  necessary  to  distin- 
guish between  symbolism  and  simple  decoration.  Doubtless  some 
of  the  figures  of  the  dove,  and  certainly  those  of  other  birds,  are 
used  upon  Christian  monuments  as  mere  aids  to  ornamentation, 
and  as  subjects  to  complete  the  artistic  balancing  of  a  picture 
(see  Fig.  29).  When  the  dove  bears  in  the  beak  a  palm  or  olive 
branch,  it  may  justly  be  regarded  as  a  symbol  of  overcoming 
victory,  and  expectation  of  eternal  life  (Fig.  24).  Examples  of 
this  are  numerous,  and  it  is  generally  agreed  that  they  are  of  deep 
doctrinal  significance.  At  Rome,  they  do  not  appear  before  the 
last  half  of  the  third  century,  and  disappear,  for  the  most  part, 
after  the  first  quarter  of  the  sixth.  In  Gaul  this  symbol,  as  most 
others,  does  not  appear  until  nearly  a  century  later,  and  continues  a 
century  longer  than  in  Rome.' 

The  fish,  which  we  have  shown  to  be  of  deepest  import  when 

applied  to  Christ,  is  also  used  to  represent  his  disciples. 

Probably,  as  suggested  by  Tertullian,"  the  water  and 
rite  of  baptism  were  prominently  in  their  thought,  while  secondary 
reference  may  have  been  had  to  the  parable  of  the  net,  or  to  the 
command  of  Christ  to  Peter  and  Andrew — "  Follow  me  and  I  will 
make  you  fishers  of  men  "  (Matt,  iv,  18,  19). 

Corresponding  to  the  symbol  of  the  Good  Shepherd  is  that  of  the 
The  sheep  and  sheep  or  lambs,  representing  Christ's  disciples.  It  is 
lambs.  sometimes  found  on  the  mural  paintings  of  the  cata- 

combs, and  quite  frequently  on  Christian  sarcophagi  and  in  mosaics. 
They  are  sometimes  cai-ed  for  by  the  Good  Shepherd,  who  leads 
them  into  green  pastures,  sometimes  they  are  grouped  around  him 
in  the  attitude  of  earnest  attention  to  hear  the  Master's  teaching. 
In  the  mosaics  the  twelve  apostles  sometimes  appear  under  the 
symbol  of  sheep,  who  stand  six  on  either  side  of  the  Saviour  to 
"hear  his  voice"  (Fig.  42).  Occasionally  the  hart,  drinking  of 
the  living  waters,  takes  the  place  of  the  sheep  in  the  symbolic  rep- 
resentation of  the  disciples,  probably  with  reference  to  Psa.  xlii,  1. 

'  De  Rossi:  Inscript.   christ.   Rom.,  t.  i,  Nos.  10,   923,   991.     Le  Blant :  Inscript. 
chret.  de  la  Gaule,  Nos.  7,  561. 
2  de  bapt.,  c.  1. 


SYMHOMSM  OF  CIIIUSTIAX  ART.  98 

On   several  moimincnts   tiu'   (.'luircli  is  found  syinl>()li'/A'<l   hy  a  ship 

under  full  sail.     On  the  sail  sonietinu'S  aiJitears  a  second        

symbol,  as  the  dove,  whieh  seems  to  teaeh  that  in  the 
perilous  voyaije  of  life  the  ship  of  the  Church,  under  the  care  of  its 
heavenly  Pilot,  affords  the  only  secure  refuge.  Also  in  several  in- 
stances a  rude  box  represents  the  ark  of  Noah,  from  which  the  dove 
goes  forth  on  the  waste  of  waters,  or  is  returning  bearing  the  olive 
branch  in  its  beak.  This  was  a  favorite  symbol,  to  which  the 
Christian  fatliers  refer  to  teach  in  most  im]>ressive  way  the  saving 
power  of  the  Church.' 

§  3.    Other  symhols. 

Of  tlie  many  other  symbols  w'e  have   spaci' to  refer  to  but  few. 
The  anchor  is  often  found  uiion  coins  and  gems,  some- 

...  -o  ,  ..  Tlie    anchor. 

times  associated  with  the  -^^  at  other  times  in  connec- 
tion with  the  fish,  the  Good  Shepherd,  etc.  (Fig.  I-')-      I'^   primary 
reference  is  probably  to  lieb.  vi,  10,  i^O;   sometimes  the  meaning  is 
very  obscure. 

The  palm  tree  and  the  jtalm  branch  are  also  of  frecjueiit  occur- 
rence on  the  burial  monuments,  on  lamps,  on  glasses,  on  ^^^^  ^^^^^^  ^^.^^ 
"■ems,  and  in  the  mosaics.  These  were  also  common  to  and  the  palm 
pagan  monuments,  and  were  not  unfamiliar  to  the  Jews. 
In  the  use  of  this  symbol  upon  the  burial  monuments  of  Christians 
the  primary  reference  seems  to  be  to  Rev.  vii,  0,  and  jdainly  indi- 
cates that  tlie  deceased  has  triumphed  over  death  and  the  grave 
through  faith  in  Him  who  declared  himself  "  the  Resurrection  and 
the  Life"   (J..hn  xi,  2). 

Of  like  import  is  the  crown,  which  is  of  less  frecpient  occurrence. 
The  lyre  is  usually  the  symbol  of  praise  or  of  abundant  The  crown, 
rejoicing.  The  peacock  sometimes  symbolizes  immor-  {f jj^p ,n'^x,Tnd 
tality,  in  like  manner  as  does  the  phenix  the  resurrection  wtikmu. 
and  the  life  eternal.  The  seri)ent  is  also  met  on  Christian  monu- 
ments. It  may  be  connected  with  representations  of  our  first  parents 
as  a  tempter  to  sin  ;  or  with  the  brazen  serpent  in  the  wilderness  ; 
or  occasionally  it  seems  to  be  used  as  a  symbol  of  wise  sitiritual  dis- 
cernment. The  latter  is  especially  true  of  some  gems  of  the  (inostic 
sects.  We  shall  examine  in  another  connection  the  cycle  of  Old 
Testamant  scenes,  events  from  the  history  of  Moses,  Jonah,  Daniel, 
the  three  Hebrew  worthies,  etc.,  which  were  regarded  as  types  or 
prophecies  of  events  under  the  new  dis{)ensation. 

'  TcrtiiUian:  de  baplhmo,  cc.  8,  12.     Cyprian:  Episloke,  Xos.  60,  74.      Justin  Mar- 
tyr: Diulo'jm  cum  Tryphone,  c.  133. 


94  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

Occasionally  are  met  what  have  been  generally  regarded  as  cari- 
catures of  the  Christian  religion.     Their  fewness,  and 
Thecarica-  n      ■  ■,  i.  •  •         ■        ■, 

tures  of  chrtst-  the  lack  of  aid  to  their  proper  interpretation   m  the 

ian  doctrine,  contemporary  literature,  cause  uncertainty  with  respect 
to  their  significance.  Nevertheless,  the  very  paucity  of  the  monu- 
ments which  illustrate  the  feeling  of  the  pagan  world  toward  the 
new  religion  enhances  their  value ;  their  study  has,  therefore,  engaged 
the  attention  of  some  of  the  ablest  archaeologists. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  of  these  is  the  graffito  discovered  in 
1856  amid  the  ruius  of  the  palace  of  the  Coesars,  on  the  southwest 
slope  of  the  Palatine  Hill.'  It  was  one  of  many  graffiti  scratched 
upon  the  walls  of  a  number  of  rooms  that  had  been  excavated  in 
this  part  of  the  Palatine.  Becker's  conclusion  is  that  this  one 
originated  in  the  second  quarter  of  the  second  century,  through  the 
playfulness  of  some  pagan  scholar  in  the  imperial  Pedagogium. 
Fig.  25  shows  the  rudeness  of  the  drawing  and  the  barbarousness 
of  the  Greek  inscription.  The  usual  deciphering  of  the  character  is 
AAEHAMENOC  CEBETE  (aef^erni)  OEON,  and  the  translation  has 
been  suggested,  "  Alexamenus  worships  (his)  God."  Careful  com- 
parative study  has  made  it  probable  that  this  was  scratched  on  the 
wall  of  a  school-room  by  a  heathen  pupil  to  caricature  the  god 
to  whom  his  fellow  Christian  pupil  was  offering  worship.  In 
opposition  to  Becker,  Garrucci  attributes  this  work  to  the  early 
part  of  the  third  century,  for  the  reason  (among  others)  that  just 
at  this  time  the  Christians  were  charged  with  worshipping  the 
head  of  an  ass,  as  shown  by  the  answer  of  Tertullian.  In  his 
Apologeticus^  the  recognition  of  the  charge  is  clear  and  explicit, 
and  his  answer  not  less  so.  His  attempt  to  account  for  this 
misunderstanding,  from  the  heathen  mind  confounding  the  Jewish 
with  the  Christian  religion,  argues  the  prevalence  of  the  calumny, 
and  may  account  for  the  existence  of  the  caricatures.  On  the 
other  hand,  however,  it  is  very  noteworthy  that  amidst  all  the 
strange  syncretism  prevalent  in  Rome  during  the  first  three  Christ- 
ian centuries  no  account  is  left  of  the  worship  of  a  god  with  the 
head  of  an  ass,  least  of  all  of  one  who  was  crucified.  Yet  here 
is  almost  the  oldest  surviving  representation  of  the  most  sacred 
and  significant  event  in  the  life  of  Christ,  the  crucifixion,  under 
an  offensive  caricature  ;  thus  showing  that  the  description  of  the 

'  For  discussions  of  tlie  chronology,  location,  and  significance  of  this  graffito,  v. 
Garnicci:  11  Grocifisf^o  graffito  in  aisa  dei  Cesari  Roma.  1857.  Becker:  Das  Spott 
Crucifix  der  romischen  Kaiserpalaste.  Breslau,  1866.  Kraus:  Das  Spott- Crucifix  vom 
Palatin  und  ein  neuendektes  Graffito.     Freiburg,  1872. 

^  1.  i,  c,  xvi. 


SYMIJOLISM  OF  ClIKISTIAN  ART. 


95 


prophet  was  most  ai>proi»ri:iti'  :  "  lu-  liath  no  form  nor  comt'liiifss, 
and  when  we  shall  see  him  tliere  is  no  beauty  that  we  should  desire 
him  "  (Isa.  liii,  2). 


Flc  55.— Carlcatuic  of  Clirist.    A  pagan  Rranit"  probably  of  the  second  century.    Palace  of  the 

Cffisars,  Koine. 

Another    exainjile    of    the    same    style    of    earicature    is    seen  in 

Fig.  20.     This  is   the  ivpresentation  on   an  anticjue   i,'eni  which    was 

first  i)ul>lishe(l  in  the  seventeenth  eentury.     An  almost  exact  descri])- 

tion  of   it  is  found  in  Tertullian's  writings,'     It   is  a  figure  clad  in 

the  Roman  toga,  in  an  erect  position,  hut  with  the  head  of  an  ass. 

The  fore  leg  is  extended  as  in  the  attitude  of  teaching,  while  before 

it  are  two  figures,  one  standing  the  other  sitting,  in  the  posture  of 

attentive    listeners."     Tertnllian    deelares    that    tinder   this    rejire- 

'  Apologeticus,  c.  x\\ ;  ad  mitiones,  1.  i,  c.  xiv.  and  1.  ii,  c.  xi. 
'  The  genuineness  of  this  gem  has  been  questioned. 


96 


ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


sentation  was  found  the  inscription — "  Dens  Christianorum  ONO- 
K0IHTH2."  Man^^  translations  of  this  have 
been  suggested,  but  some  of  the  best  lexi- 
cographers have  preferred  "  an  ass  of  a  priest." 
A  like  mention  of  this  charge  against  the 
Christians  is  met  in  JMmucius  Felix.'  "The 
heathen  attribute  to  them  (the  Christians) 
the  folly  of  regarding  the  head  of  an  ass  a 
sacred  thing."  While  resenting  such  folly 
and  wickedness,  in  common  with  Tertullian, 
he   makes   the    charge   of   like   follv    against 


the  heathen,  who  have  incorporated  into  their 
cultus  things  equally  puerile  and  monstrous. 

Fig.--26.   From  an  antique  ^  '   .  ^  ,1       j.  ^^ 

gem.  suppo.sert  to  be  a  cari-  i  he  copy  ot  a  coin  apparently  from  the 
catureof  the  teaching  Christ,  time  of  Alexander  the  Great  (Fig.  27)  con- 
tains another  enigma  which  has  not  been  satisfactorily  solved.     The 

head  of  Alexander  on  one  side, 
and  an  ass  with  its  foal  on  the 
other,  are  the  strange  figures  here 
met.  But  the  inscription,  DN  IHY 
XPS  DEI  FILIYS,  is  still  more 
curious,  and  has  divided  the  ar- 
chi:eologists  with  respect  to  its 
reference  and  signification.^ 
This  worship  of  the  figure  of  an  ass  is  obscure  in  its  origin,  and 
the  cause  of  this  misconception  of  the  heathen  of  the  third  century, 
respecting  the  nature  of  the  Christan  religion,  is  not  well  understood. 
Nevertheless  occasional  references  to  this  animal  and  its  Avorship  are 
met  from  time  to  time  in  the  writings  of  the  Christian  fathers. 

'  Octavius,  cc.  ix  and  xxviii. 

'^  Northcote  and  Brownlow:  Roma  Sotterranea.  vol.  ii,  pp.  351,  352.  The.se 
authors  suggest  the  translation.  "  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  Son  of  God."  May  not 
this  be  another  of  the  many  e.^amples  of  the  syncretism  of  pagan  and  Christian 
thought? 


Fig.  27 


-Coin  of  Alexander  the  Great,  an  ass 
Anil  it 5  foal. 


EARLV  ClIUISriAN  rALNTINCS  AMD  MOSAICS.  97 


C'lIAPTEU  IV. 

EARLY  CHRISTIAN   PAIXTIXCS  AND   MOSAICS. 

Thk  (.'UiTu'st    (Mirislian   paintings   wliicli   have  ])wn  ])iv.sc'rve(l  to 

our  (lay  wore   found  in   the  Roman  eataconib.^^.     Their  clironology 

is    still    unsettled.       While    de    Rossi    (o.    i>.    20)    finds   „    „    ,     , 

.         ^        '  '       ,  Earliest  palnl- 

sufiieii'nt   reason    to    refer    some    of   them    lo    the  first,    inj^s    in    uie 

or  early  part  of  the  second  century,  Parker,  Momm-  '^'''''"■"'" 
sen,  and  others  {v.  p.  30,  note)  believe  tliat  they  an-  of  later 
oriiiin.  The  evidences  of  an  early  origin  l^ecome  mori'  eon- 
viiu'ing  as  the  comparative  studies  are  more  .  thorough  and  ex- 
tensive. It  seems  well  established,  however,  that  these  i)aintings 
were  ehietly  decorative.  Their  use  in  secular  relations  Q^^^^^.^  paim. 
I'ould  awaken  little  jjrejudice  in  the  minds  of  the  '"^'^  iiecora- 
C'hristian  teachers.  These  earliest  cataconibal  paint- 
ings were  evidently  designed  to  add  to  the  cheerfulness  of 
the  subterranean  rooms  whose  walls  they  adorn,  and  which  were 
often  the  places  of  assembly  for  the  Christians  in  times  of  pi-rsecu- 
tion. 

On  carefid  comparison  of  these  with  the  contemporary  frescos 
of  lieathen  origin,  a  like  artistic  s])iiit  is  .seen  to  be  simiiiirity  of 
common  to  both.  The  ceilings  in  Santa  Domitilla  heattien')a"nt- 
at  Rome,  and  in  the  vestibule  to  the  first  catacomb  mj?. 
of  San  Gennaro  dei  Poveri  in  Naples,  are  divided  into  har- 
moniously l>alanced  parts,  while  some  of  the  decorations  can 
only  with  greatest  care  be  distinguisluMl  from  the  hcatlu-n  mural 
])ictures  of  the  same  age  (v.  Fig.  28).'  In  each  is  manifcsti-tl 
a  like  love  of  nature  in  representations  of  the  seasons,  sceiu's 
from  reaping  and  from  the  vintage,  dolphins,  birds,  flowers,  etc. 
(y.  Figs.  1,  2).  The  earliest  Christian  frescos  are,  however, 
generally  wanting  in  architectural  pers])ective,  as  this  is  seen  in 
the  Pomjx'ian  decorations,  and  arc  usually  less  artistic  in  technical 
execution." 

Probably  the  artisans  in  the  catacombs  were  generally  unskilled, 
nor  did  they  attempt  to  execute  these  paintings  with  jtcrfection  of 

'  !'.  Scliiilty.e  :  Die  Kakikomhen.  etc.,  s.  12,  and  pliitc  iv. 
*  Reber:  Uid.  of  JItditval  Art.    New  York,  1887.   pp.  73,  74. 
1 


1)8  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

det:^jl.  Tlio  frescos  were  manifestly  painted  rapidly  in  broad,  full 
line,  since  in  dimly  lighted  subterranean  rooms  minute  details 
could  be  of  but  slender  utility.  This  may  suggest  a  reason  for 
the  difference  in  the  artistic  character  of  the  frescos  of  Christ- 
ian and  pagan  origin,  since  the  latter  were  used  to  adorn  rooms 
where  light  was  abundant,  and  where  the  festive  character  of 
many  of  the  subjects  demanded  more  careful  handling.  Pains- 
taking study  of  models  seems  to  have  been  seldom  practiced, 
since  it  is  hardly  possible  to  suppose  that  in  the  early  part  of 
the  second  century  the  Church  had  a  school  of  professionally 
trained  artists.  Nevertheless,  the  narrowness  of  the  cycle  of 
artistic  subjects  and  their  frequent  repetition  might  secure  read- 
iness of  execution  and  a  fair  degree  of  ease  and  vigor  of  treat- 
ment. 

The  introduction  of  symbolism  was  of  somewliat  later  date.  Their 
more  distinctively  Christian  character  then  first  appears.  The  merely 
decorative  and  pleasing  then  assumes  a  deeper  significance,  the 
paintings  become  a  means  of  religious  teaching,  and  the  mind  is 
directed  tOAvard  certain  important  doctrines.  The  figures,  the  dress, 
and  the  adornments  do  not  widely  differ  from  the  prevailing  pagan 
style.     Notwithstanding  this  close    alliance  of  Christian   painting 

,  with  the  current  heathen  art,  Christianity  had,  never- 
The    cycle    of  p       i  •  i     i  i 

christiaa    art  theless,  an  entirely  unique  cycle  of  subject  and  thought. 

peculiar.  r^^^^^  spiritual  depth  and  significance  of  its  portraitures, 

as  distinguished  from  the  mere  superficial   beauty  of   the  pagan 

art,  justify  the  claims  of  Christian  painting  to  a  good  degree  of 

originality. 

The  office  work  of  Christ  as  Good  Shepherd  is  sometimes 
revealed  only  by  the  accom})anying  fiock,  or  single  sheep  borne 
on  the  shepherd's  shoulders,  or  by  the  imiilements  of  his  oftiice, 
as  the  crook,  the  pails  of  milk,  and  the  shepherd's  pipes  (Fig.  38). 
The  costume  is  the  ordinary  Roman  tunic  and  pallium,  and  the 
feet  are  generally  clad  in  sandals.  The  same  vigor  characterizes 
other  figures  in  the  earliest  mural  paintings  of  the  catacombs. 
Old  Testament  scenes,  as  the  sacrifice  of  Isaac,  the  smiting  of 
the  rock  by  Moses,  the  loosing  of  his  sandals  in  the  presence 
the  burning  bush,  etc.,  are  treated  with  considerable  force  and 
naturalness. 

As  before  stated,  some  of  the  earlier  ceiling  frescos  reveal  a  pur- 
An artistic bai-  P<"^t'  *>f  artistic  balancing  and  harmony.  It  must  not, 
ancing.  however,  be   inferred  from  this  that  a  corresponding 

balancing  of  the  sul)jects  of  the  pictorial  teaching  was  intended. 
This  would  be  an  abuse  of  the  syml)olic  i)rlnciple.     For  example,  in 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  PAIXTIXCS  AND  MOSAICS. 


99 


Fig.  28,  tlie  antitlit'sis  of  Most's  sinitiiiL;  tlie  rock,  and  Christ 
raising  Lazarus,  cannot  Le  regarded  as  type  and  antitype,  since 
this  would  compel  the  use  of  too  fanciful  and  far-fetched  analogies. 
The  same  is  true  of  Daniel  in  the  den  of  lions,  and  David  with  the 
sling.  Nor  can  we  suppose  that  the  artistically  balanced  pastoral 
scenes  were  designed  to  teach  dogmatic  or  practical  truths,  wi-U- 


Flg.  38.— Fresco  ceiling  from  Santa  Doniitilla,  Rome.    Orplions  In  center. 

understood  by  the  initiated  but    unknown    to   others.     This,  too, 
were  to  carry  the  symbolic  princij)le  to  an  unwarrante<l  extreme. 

While  there  is  a  general  similarity  of  technical  treatment  to  that 
of  the  contem])orary  lieathen  art,  and  the  originality  of   Naturalness  of 
the  Christian  handling,  coniing   from  juster  and  more   niristiun  art. 
inspiring   views   of    nature,    has    been    (luesliomMl,'    these    frescos, 

'  Woltmann  and  "Wocrmann:  History  of  Paintinij,  translatc'tl  by  Colvin,  1880, 
vol.  i,  pp.  163,  164.  Contra  v.  Sclmansc:  Geschichte  d.  hild.  Kiinxte,  2d  Auf.,  iii.  ss. 
102.  sq.  "  Christianity  first  unlocked  tlie  sense  for  nature  by  teaching  us  to  under- 
stand a  creation  groaning  with  us  and  by  sliowing  iho  connection  of  nature  wiili 
ourselves  and  our  own  life."  Uhlhorn  :  Conflict  of  Christianity  with  Ucathenism, 
Rev.  ed.,  pp.  6G-69. 


100  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

nevertheless,  become  invaluable  indexes  of  the  belief  and  life  of  the 
infant  Church.  They  prove  that  the  aesthetic  feeling,  common  to  all 
men,  is  struggling  for  expression  amidst  the  adverse  influences  of 
the  times,  and  that  the  new  religion,  so  far  from  being  hostile  to 
art,  is  seeking  to  purify  and  inspire  it  by  its  own  richer  spiritual 
truths.  They  show  that  the  early  Christians  Avere  animated  by  a 
religion  of  cheerfulness  and  hopefulness.  The  objects  in  these 
mural  decorations  directly  or  symbolically  represent  persons,  offices, 
or  beliefs  that  are  soul-sustaining.  Nearly  the  whole  Old  Testa- 
ment cycle — the  history  of  Noah;  Abraham  offering  Isaac,  and 
God's  interference  to  save  by  a  substituted  victim;  the  smiting  of 
the  rock  by  Moses;  the  preservation  of  the  Hebrew  children  in  the 
fiery  furnace;  Daniel  in  the  den  of  lions;  the  history  of  Jonah — all 
these  are  of  a  character  to  support  and  inspire  the  faith  of  the  early 
believers.' 

In  the  pictorial  representations  of  Christ,  two*  general  types  are 
Two  types  of  early  met.  The  first  is  that  of  a  beardless  young  man 
Christ.  of  considerable  force  and  freshness,  quite  closely  resem- 

bling the  sculptures  on  heathen  sarcophagi  of  the  same  date.  This 
type  is  usually  connected  with  the  cycle  of  Christ's  miraculous 
works,  as  the  opening  of  the  eyes  of  the  blind,  the  healing  of  the 
paralytic,  the  raising  of  Lazarus  (Fig.  29),  etc.  A 
like  buoyancy  of  spirit  is  met  in  the  paintings  of 
Christ  as  the  Good  Shepherd.  We  have  elsewhere 
{v.  p.  61)  noticed  the  relations  of  this  figure  to  the 
rambearing  Mercury  of  the  heathen  mythology. 
This  type  is  usually  without  a  beard,  as  in  Fig.  29, 
in  the  multiplication  of  the  loaves,  and  the  raising 
of  Lazarus  in  the  encircling  lunettes. 

The  second  type,  though  somewhat  more  severe, 
riff.  29.— Christ  rais-  is  Still  youthf ul,  but  bearded  and  with  long  flowing 
ing Lazarus.  Fresco,  j^^-^.  j^  -^  rarely,  if  ever,  found  in  the  mural 
paintings  of  the  catacombs,  but  appears  later  upon  the  gilded 
glasses. 

In  both  these  types  the  influence  of  heathen  thought  is  manifest, 
since  the  quite  prevalent  opinion  respecting  the  Saviour,  which  was 
held  by  some  of  the  Christian  fathers,  as  derived  from  Isa.  lii,  23,  is 
here  dominated  by  the  heathen  idea  that  the  gods  must  be  conceived 

'  V.  Fig.  30,  in  which  most  of  these  scenes,  together  with  the  healing  of  the  par- 
alytic, the  mnltiplication  of  the  loaves,  and  the  resnrrection  of  Lazarns,  are  grouped 
about  the  Good  Sheplierd. 

2  A  third,  found  iu  the  mosaics  of  the  post-Constantine  period,  is  elsewhere 
noticed. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  PAINTINGS  AND  MOSAICS. 


101 


The  Greek  Ik'Iu'vcmI  that 


of  as  eii(l()wc<l  with  vigor  and  beautv 


Fig.  30.-Fresc.o  from  the  ceiling  of  a  cliamber  lu  San  Calisto,  Rome. 


riwisc  that  the  highest  physical  perfection  was  requisite  in  tlie  sen- 
suous representation  of  the  divine.  To  his  apprehension  virtue  and 
beauty,  vice  and  ugliness,  were  in  indissohihle  union.  The  beautiful 
was  the  good,  and  deformity  was  felt  to  be  a  consequence  of  evil. 
It  was  therefore  necessaiy  that  the  most  worthy  embodiment  of 
the  divine  sliouUl  be  in  perfect  and  beautiful  forms.  Unlike  the 
gods  of  the  Indians  and  the  Egyptians,  with  which  much  of  the 
grotesque  and  ugly  was  often  connected,  the  gods  of  the  Greeks, 
being  conceived  as'  free  from  moral  imperfections,  were  represented 
by  images  of  truest  nobility  and  lieauty,  and  free  from  every  trace 
of  sorrow  and  weakness.' 

But  this  type  of  Christ  underwent  a  remarkable  transformation. 
Fi.^     :^1    is   the    representation    (»f    a   fresco   bust   dis-  The  lat.-r  fm-u 

'"'*  ^        c    lj         t>         ■  r,f    <"<^s    depart 

covered  by  IJosio  in  the  catacomb  ot   !>an  1  onziano,  ai   ,^,^„^  „„,  p^r. 
Rome.     This  is  a  wi.le  departure  from  the  type  found  iier  tyin-s. 
in  the  earlier  frescos.     The  form  of  the  cross,  the  richly  jeweled 
•  V.  Alt:  Die  Ileiligenbilder, etc.,  pp.  4-7. 


102 


ARCHJSOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


corona,  the  more  grave  and  mature  cast  of  countenance,  the  peculiar 
curve  of  the  eyebrows,  are  positive  proofs  of  a  new  era  of  art.     A 


Fig.  3t.— Bust  of  Christ  from  San  Ponziano.    Probably  from  ninth  century. 

somewhat  similar  art  type  is  seen  in  Fig.  32,  which  is  from  one  of 
the  catacombs  of  Naples.  It  is  of  the  sixth  century.  The  long, 
pointed  beard,  the  elongated  features,  the  countenance  bearing  an 
appearance  of  haggardness  and  of  sorrow,  are  in  directest  contrast 
with  the  air  of  youthful  vigor  and  cheerfulness  that  characterizes  the 
frescos  and  bass-reliefs  which  represent  the  biblical  cycle  of  Christ's 
works.  The  corona,  the  open  book,  and  the  hand  raised  in  the  man- 
ner of  teaching,  show  that  the  conception  of  Christ  has  shifted  from 
that  of  the  benevolent  wonder-worker  to  that  of  the  severe,  authori- 
tative, and  majestic  teacher  and  ruler. 

The  crypt  of  Santa  Cecilia  is  among  the  most  interesting  in  the 
immense  cemetery  of  San  Calisto.  It  is  connected  with  the  martyr- 
dom of  one  of  the  most  revered  female  saints  of  the  early  Church,  and 
is  rich  in  epigraphical  and  pictorial  objects  which  aid  in  the  under- 
standing of  some  portions  of  her  curious  history.  The  pictures  now 
preserved  in  this  crypt  are  manifestly  of  a  much  later  date  than  the 
original  ornamentation,  since  there  are  unmistakable  evidences  that 
mosaics  and  slabs  of  porphyry  have  in  some  instances  been  removed. 


EAKLY  ("lIUIftTIAN  TAIXTINnS  AND  MOSAICS. 


103 


ri.'.  •'32.— Bust  of  Cliiist  from  a  cemetery  of  Naplns.    riobi.bly 
of  the  sixth  century. 

tics,  .111(1  lias  lost  the   t'rci'doiii   [ 
and  i^racv'  of  the  picturt's  pro- 
diKH'(l  uiidor  the  iiillnence  of 
the  classie  spirit. 

The  tendeiic}^  to  increased 
decoration,  an<l  to  clothing 
the  person  of  Christ  with  the 
insignia  of  authority,  in  con- 
trast with  the  simplicity  of 
the  earlier  frescos,  is  fui'ther 
seen  in  the  accompanying  rep- 
resentation of  a  mural  paint- 
ing found  in  the  small  subur- 
ban cemetery  of  Santa  (iene- 
rosa,  near  Rome  (Fig.  ;34).  It 
is  believed  to  belong  to  llic 
seventh  or  eighth  centiiiv. 
Christ  is  here  associated  with   I — 

.    .  ,  .  Flir.  33.— From  the  crvpt  Saiiia  I  •  I  I... 

sanits,   whose   names  are   in-  suu  cuiisto.  I'mu.biy  of  Mv.mh 


In  one  of  the  Ini- 
I'ial  niches  is  found 
a  bust  <jf  C'lirist, 
reprcseiiti'<l  Ijy  T'lg. 
33,  which  has  been 
referred  to  the  sev- 
enth century.  The 
(iri'ck  nimbus,  the 
hand  in  the  posi- 
tion of  blessing  or 
of  leaching,  and 
r.ie  book  licM  in 
the  left  hand,  are 
symbols  of  autlioi- 
ity.  The  whole  ex- 
pi  ession  and  execu- 
tion of  the  fresco 
suggest  a  distinc- 
tively By/.antini' 
influence,  and  indi- 
cate that  the  art  «tf 
theC'hunli  has  fal- 
len under  the  dii'cc- 
tion    of    ecdesias- 


lot  AKCILEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

scribed  on  tlie  walls  in  the  style  of  the  later  Byzantine  pictures. 
He  is  clad  in  the  customary  tunic  and  ^:>«^^i^<»<,  whose  drapery 
lacks  grace  and  flexibility;  his  right  hand  is  extended  in  the  fashion 
of  the  teacher,  oi',  as  some  discover  in  it,  in  the  act  of  benediction 
after  the  Greek  manner ;  in  the  left  is  held  the  book,  highly  orna- 
mented M'ith  jewels.  The  entire  picture  indicates  a  later  origin, 
and  a  wide  departure  from  the  youthful  vigor  and  naive  simplicit}' 
of  the  earlier  figures  of  Christ.  The  jeweled  crowns,  and  the  exces- 
sive ornamentation  in  the  case  of  the  female  figure,  are  further  evi- 
dences of  art  decadence. 

While  the  fact  is  unquestioned,  the  reason  of  the  transition  from 
the  youthful  type  of  Christ,  as  it  is  met  in  the  earlier  frescos  and 
sculpture,  to  the  more  severe  and  majestic  type  of  the  later  repre- 
sentations is  not  manifest.  A  change  so  marked  and  general  could 
not  result  from  fortuitous  or  transient  causes.  Had  the  earlier  type 
of  Christ  tallied  with  the  conceptions  of  the  later  Church  it  would 
have  continued. 

It  is  not  improbable  that  the  Arian  controversy  left  its  imjiress 
upon  the  ai't  representations  of  the  Saviour  in  the  fourth  and  follow- 
ing centuries.  It  is  well  known  that  intei'est  in  the  nature  and 
person  of  Clirir^t  was  not  limited  to  the  theologians,  but  the  ques- 
tion of  his  divinity  was  debated  by  all  classes  of  the  Roman  world. 
The  adoption  of  the  Nicene  and  Constantinopolitan  creeds  must 
necessarily  have  gi'catly  exalted  the  conception  of  the  dignit}^  and 
power  of  Christ.  This  personage,  "  the  one  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  .  .  . 
Light  of  Liglit,  very  God  of  very  God,  ...  by  whom  all  things 
Avere  mr^de,  .  .  .  who  cometh  to  judge  the  quick  and  the  dead," 
must  find  a  representation  in  art  which  should  cori'espond  with  this 
sublime  concejjtion.  Evidently  the  earlier  simpler  forms  of  the" 
Good  Sliepherd  and  of  the  benevolent  Wonder-worker  failed  to 
express  the  thought  Avhich  the  creed  had  eml)odied.  To  develop 
a  ty]ie  Avhich  might  more  fully  accord  with  the  prevailing  belief 
was  but  natural  and  ^lecessar^^  Moreover,  a  triumphing  Church 
demanded  that  the  elaborate  mcciics  wl.ich  now  adorned  the 
apses  and  triumphal  arches  of  the  basilicas  sliould  impress  upon 
the  M'orsliippers  the  truth  of  the  accepted  sj-mbols.  The  dog- 
matic interest  must  have  influenced  the  art  development,  and  ma}-- 
have  occasioned  the  introduction  of  the  new  type  which  is  the 
representation  of  the  mighty,  the  exalted,  and  superhuman  Christ. 
This  type  1)ocame  common  in  the  imposing  mosaics,  in  some  of  the 
frescos,  and  on  some  of  the  more  prominent  })ortions  of  the  sarcoph- 
agi, while  the  earlier  t3q)e  was  continued  in  the  cycle  of  biblical 
history  and  in   symbolic  representations.      While  the  artistic  exe- 


106 


ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


Orantes 


cution  in  the  latter  is  inferior  it  more  fully  embodied  the  prevailing 
belief. 

The  representations  of  persons  with  uplifted  hands  as  in  the  act 
of  prayer,  technically  called  Ortuitts,  are  quite  frequent 
in  the  early  Christian  art  of  the  Roman  catacombs. 
While  their  reference  is  not  always  clear,  by  association  with  other 
objects  their  import  is  sometimes  suggested.  Probably  they  indi- 
cate the  devout  character  of  the  departed  on  or  near  whose  tomb 
they  are  found.  Possibly  in  exceptional  cases  reference  may  be 
had  to  the  Virgin  Mary.  Examples  are  also  found  sculptured  on 
sarcophagi. 

Representations  of  the  Virgin  are  quite  frequent.^  But  an  iso- 
lated picture  or  a  veritable  portrait  of  Mary  is  not  met  in  the  pre- 
No  symbolical  Constaiitine  frescos  of  the  catacombs,  in  the  oldest 
lepresentation  mosaics  of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  nor  anywhere  in  the 
of  tbe  Virgin,  ga^liest  Christian  sculpture.  Generally  she  is  associated 
with  the  child  Jesus,  who  sits  upon  her  lap  or  is  held  in  her  arms. 
The  Virgin  is  never,  like  her  divine  Son,  represented  symbolically." 

The  Virgin  with  the  star   (Fig.  35)  is  probably  the  oldest  fresco 


hj]|jil]3iMLlkiJ%ullllL 

Fig.  35.— Virsrin  and  star  from  Santa  Priscilla,  Rome. 


'  De  Rossi  mentions  more  tlian  twenty. 

^  Eckl:  Die  Madonna  als  Ge(jenstand  chrisfKcher  KunttmnWei  und  Sadptur,  1833, 
p.  3.  On  a  few  gilt  ulasses  of  a  later  origin  she  appears  alone,  and  a  single  example 
of  a  marble  found  in  Gaul,  much  defaced  and  of  unknown  da'e,  bearing  the  in- 
scription MARIA  VIRGO  MINISTER  I)K  TEMPLO  GEROSOLA,  has  sometimes 
been  referred  to  as  showinsr  her  conseoraliou  to  the  temple  service  during  lier  inf-mcy. 
This  opinion  finds  very  slender  monumeutal  support — probably  none  earlier  than  tlie 
seventh  century. 


EARLY  rrirJSTIAN  PAINTINGS  AND  MOSAICS, 


107 


of  this  siil)ji'ct.  It  is  i'oiind  in  tiie  ccinetcrv  of  Santa  Prisfilla,  and  is 
claimed  l)y  dc  Ilossi  to  l)t'l()n<j;  to  the  first  century'  or  early  part  of  the 
second.  The  most  natural  suggestion  of  the  scene  is  that  of  the 
holy  family.  .losepli  points  to  the  star,  which  is  the  kiy  to  the 
subject  of  the  ficscu,  and  thus  conHnes  it  to  the  cycle  of  biblical 
history.  The  more  lal>ored  interj»retation  of  de  Rossi,  that  the 
male  figure  refers  to  one  of  the  pro})hets  of  the  old  coveiuint  (prob- 
ably to  Isaiah),  who  points  forward  to  the  Star  of  Bethlehem  which 
was  to  indicate  where  the  Virgin  mother  and  the  infant  Jesus  were 
to  be  found,  seems  unnecessary,  and  adds  little  to  the  value  of  the 
testimony  of  such  paintings.  In  either  interpretation  the  fresco 
Avould  have  a  purely  biblical  character,  and  rejjresent  an  historical 
e\H'nt  wholly  void  of  the  dogmatic  significance  Avhich  has  been 
attributed  to  it  by  some  Catholic  commcntatoi's.  ^ 

The  Virgin  and  child  from  Santa  Domitilla  (Fig.  30),  has  been 
referred  to  the  second  half  of 


m 


I 


'If:  lil!,\^ 


•■'X 


the  third  century.  There  is 
evidence  that  it  was  originally 
a  j)art  of  a  representation  of 
the  "  adoration  of  the  magi," 
since  faint  traces  of  four  of 
these  magi  are  here  seen,  as 
in  the  fresco  from  SS.  Pietro 
e  Marcellino  outlines  of  two 
only  api)ear.  The  whole  scene 
is  simply  biblical.  It  lias  a 
severity  of  artistic  treatment 
suggesting  a  very  early  origin. 
The  fresco  in  the  cemetery 
of  Santa  Agnesc  (Fig.  87), 
on  the  Via  Xomentana,  be- 
longs to  the  fourth  or  fifth 
century.  It  represents  the 
Virgin  ^Nfary  and  the  child 
Jesus. 

The  Virgin  extends  the  hands  in  the  attitude  of  prayer,  in 
harmony  with  the  class  of  figtires  called  Onoifis.  Neitlier  the 
Virgin  nor   child    is   encircled    with   the    nimbus,  but    the   sacred 

'  We  frivo  tl.is  and  a  Cow  other  pliotoprrnphx  to  convoy  to  tlie  nn initiated  some  i(ie;i 
oftiio  real  condition  of  these  frescoa.  From  the  elaborate  enirraviti^s  and  cliromo- 
litliographs  of  Perct  and  others,  entirely  iinjnst  opinions  of  the  artistic  excellence  of 
these  remains  might  l)c  formed.  Frecinently  much  nnist  he  supplied  both  in  outline 
and  color  to  complete  the  fresco.     Our  plate  is  after  a  pliotograph  by  Roller. 


FIff.  3G.— Vlrprln  and    chiUi,  fmrn  Ssuita  iKniiittlla, 
Rome. 


108 


ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


monogram  clearly  indicates'  the  subjects.  This  seems  to  be  the 
first  attempt  to  produce  any  thing  like  a  portrait  of  Mary  The 
growing  taste  for  ornamentation  is  noticed  in  the  jeweled  necklace  ; 


Fig-.  37.— Virgiu  iuid  eliild,  from  Santa  A^nese,  Rome. 

the  wide  departure  of  the  details  of  the  figure  from  the  noble 
simplicity  of  the  earlier  frescos  points  to  a  later  origin,  and  plainly 
suggests  a  possible  Bj^zantine  influence.^ 

From  the  close  of  the  fourth  century  the  artists  who  portray  the 
Vii'gin  and  the  child  depart  from  the  simple  biblical  story.  The 
frescos,  and  especially  the  elaborate  mosaics,^  seem  to  be  "  little  less 
than  embodied  creeds,  reflecting  from  century  to  century  the  pre- 
vailing tone  of  opinion  on  the  part  of  those  of  highest  authority  in 
the  Church."  •*  The  simplicity  of  faith  and  the  supporting  trust 
and  hope  which  characterized  the  Christians  in  the  age  of  obscurity 
and  persecution  yielded  to  the  pomp  and  splendor  of  a  triumphing 
and  protected  Church.^ 

•  The  circumstance  that  the  P  of  the  monogram  points  in  botli  instances  Mvard  the 
figures  is  manifestly  of  no  dogmatic  importance.  The  claims  of  some  Catholic  writers, 
based  on  this  seemingly  accidental  circumstance,  must  be  regarded  as  unscientific. 

2  From  the  absence  of  the  corona  in  case  of  both  mother  and  child,  and  from  the 
general  style,  de  Rossi  has  been  led  to  place  this  in  the  time  of  Constantine. 

3  These  are  described  later  in  this  chapter. 

*  Mariott:    TJte  Testimony  of  the  Catacombs,  etc.,  p.  34. 

5  "It  was  the  truth  of  the  Incarnation  which  they  (the  early  Christians)  embodied 
in  their  pictures  of  the  Virgin  mother  and  her  holy  Child.  "Christ  crucified,"  they 
recalled,  even  in  the  emblematic  letters  inscribed  beside  him  ;  Christ  the  Good 
Physician  of  body  and  soul,  in  their  oft-repeated  pictures  of  the  healing  of  the  sick, 
or  the  giving  of  sight  to  the  blind;  Christ  the  Bread  from  Heaven,  in  the  miracle  of 
the  loaves ;  Christ  the  Prince  of  life,  in  the  raising  of  Lazarus  from  the  grave  ;  Christ, 
the  Star  risen  out  of  Jacob,  and  Ihe  Desire  of  all  nations,  in  the  star-led  magi,  laynig 
their  offering  at  his  feet  in  Bethlehem;  Christ,  above  all,  in  that  form  which  to 
Christian  hearts  is  the  tcnderest  and  most  loving  embodiment  of  their  Lord,  the 
Good  Shepherd,  bearing  back  upon  his  shoulders  the  lamb,  that,  but  for  him,  had 
been  lost."     Mariott:    Op.  cit,  p.  30. 


EAULY  CHRISTIAN  PAINTINGS  AND  MOSAICS. 


lO'J 


FiiX.  :5S,;i  I'lvscoof 
the  Good  SlK'i»hc'rd 
from  tlie  seventh 
century,  shows  a  like 
dee:ulence.  Tlie  pe- 
culiar shepliercrs 
pipes,  the  crux  gcDn- 
Allketnm-  nuita,  or 
si  lion  lu   g^vastik.i 

other    su  b- 

jeots.  upon     the 

tunic, thehiscription 
"  Pastor  "above  the 
head,  are  new  ele- 
ments which  find  no 
place  in  the  simpler 
and  nobler  figures  of 
the  "  Good  Shep- 
herd "  from  the  ear- 
lier period  of  Christ- 
ian painting. 

So  also  in  Fig.  39, 
which  is  a  represen- 
tation of  Saint  Ce- 
cilia,  found   in  the^ 

Crvi)t   of    Santa    Ce-     Flg.SS.— AGoodSliepl)mi,fnm;U.t'ceii.i..ur)  ul  baiUaUcnrr.isa. 

cilia  in  the  catacomb  of  San 
Calisto.  It  gives  evidence  of 
having  been  painted  over  an 
earlier  mosaic,  some  traces  of 
which  still  remain.  From  the 
peculiar  ornamentation,  the 
richness  of  dress,  etc.,  it  seems 
justifiable  to  refer  it  to  the 
seventh  century,  or  to  the  very 
close  of  the  period  of  which  we 
propose  to  treat.  It  shares  the 
general  inferiority  of  the  works 
of  this  century,  and  plainly  re- 
veals the  subjection  of  art  to 
the  influence  and  authority  of 
the  Church. 
. jjiu ■  mmmmsmmmmmat^  The  simjde  vintage  scenes 
*>-^'-'= ■■•ff^Hint  <v.iii'uf><m.  tiu- crypt  of    ^  ^^^      transitions    of 

Santa  Cecilia,  Rome.  uiiuci^u 


110 


APX'ILEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


style.  Figs.  1  and  2  (?j.  pp.  57,  58)  show  the  ease  and  grace  of  the 
treatment  of  these  subjects  as  found  in  the  early  frescos  of  the  cata- 
combs. Nothing  could  be  more  completely  natural  than  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  vine  in  Fig.  1,  while  the  action  of  the  genii  in  Fig.  2  is 
most  free  and  charming.     When  compared  with  Fig.  40  the  change 


Fig.  40.— Vine  ornament  from  San  Calisto,  Rome.  Fourth  century. 
in  treatment  is  manifest.  "  Nobody  can  fail  to  notice  how  widely 
they  depart  from  the  truth  and  beauty  of  nature,  and  with  what 
arbitrary  violence  the  branches  are  twisted  into  regular  form,  so  as 
rapidly  to  degenerate  into  a  mere  decorative  pattern." '  Later  still 
a  further  hardening  of  the  lines  and  an  artificial  restraint  are  noticed, 
till  in  the  mosaic  decorations  in  the  mausoleum  of  Galla  Placidia 
(Fig.  41),  at  Ravenna,  "  Grreco-Roman  art  has  reached  the  Byzan- 
tine stage  of  high  conventionality,  still  retaining  great  beauty.'"* 

'  Xoithcote  and  Brownlow :  Roma  Sntkrnnca,  vol.  ii,  p.  151.  To  these  autliors 
we  are  indebted  for  permission  to  use  tliese  and  other  plates. 

"Tyrwhitt:  Christian  Art.  Symholism,  pp.  66,  67,  and  Tlie  Art-Teacliing  of  the 
Primitive  Church,  p.  117,  quoted  by  Northcote  and  Browulow.     It  is  difficult  to  see 


EAKLV  C'1IRI>'1'1AN   I'AINTINCS  AND  MOSAICS. 


Ill 


FiDiu   the   roiiilli  and    liilli   txiilurk's  a  coiixiik'niblu   miiiilii':"  of 
uniaint'iitecl  gilt  glasses  which  possess  iniich  artistic  and   p„|„t|„^    ^  ^ 
(l(»Hiiiatic  interest  liavc  l)oi'ii  prest'rved.    A  few  |)robal)Iy   Riit  Kiii-^scn,  or 
belong   to   the  third    and  sixth    eentnrics.       They   can    i'""-" 'J'"'^- 
hardly  he  regardeil  as  paintings,  hut  ar-  rather  drawings  nude  hy  a 


Fig.  41.— Mosaic  vine   ornaiiii'iit  fr  in  (.ome  of  llie  nmiisolciini  of  Galla  Placiilia,    Itavcnna. 

A.  i>.  ^4(1. 

sharp  pointed  instrument  upon  gold  foil  wliicli  was  ]»la('t'd  uj)on 
glass  ;  this  plate  was  then  covered  by  another,  and  the  whole  fused 
together.  These  have  been  fully  described  by  Garrucci  and  other.-.' 
Their  cycle  is  not  essentially  different  from  that  of  the  catacomb 
frescos,  except  that  the  rei)resentation  of  saints  is  somewliat  more 
frequent,  and  the  dogmatic  element  seems  to  be  more  prominent. 
On  these  the  Virgin  is  found  associated  with  Christ,  witli  the  ajios- 
tles,  Paul  and  Peter,  and  in  a  few  instances  of  late  date  she  is  the 
solitary  figure."  The  frequent  ])ietorial  association  of  primacyof 
Peter  and  Paul  is  instructive  in  the  examination  of  the  Peter, 
art  testimony  to  the  ilognia    of  tlu'  primacy  of  Peter  (i\  Plate  I). 

how  ihcso  mosaics  can  with  an}-  proprictj-  be  described  as  "  rich  acanthus  scroll- 
work."    V.  Vonables:  "Mosaics,"  in  Dirt,  of  CInis.  Antiquities,  p.  1330. 

'  I',  especially  Vcfri  ornnti  di  figure  in  pro  fravati  nei  cimiteri  dc'  tTistiani  primitivi 
di  Roma,  4to.  Roma,  1864,  and  liis  e.xtensive  work,  Storia  ddl'  arte  nistiiina,  clc, 
6  vols.,  4to.  Prato,  1873,  se^.  Also,  do  Rossi:  ^owo  Sb/fcrranea,  3  vols..  4to.  Roma, 
1864.  1867,  1877.  Roller:  Les  Cci'a'-mnhes  de  Rome,  2  vols,  4to.     Taris.  1882. 

*  It  has  been  questioned  whether  this  name  may  not  nppl)*  to  some  saintly 
person  named  Mary,  rather  than  to  the  mother  of  Jesns;  since  the  earlier  Chrislinn 
monuments  seem  not  to  introduce  the  Virjrin  in  her  individual  and  independent 
character,  but  the  infant  .Tciiw  w:w  the  .';/>„>,  d'etre  for  the  representation  of  the 
mother. 


113  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

With  the  exception  of  a  very  few  of  late  orighi  there  is  in  these 
gilded  glasses  no  intimation  of  any  preeminence  of  Peter  over  Paul. 
In  some  instances,  where  these  apostles  are  associated  with  Christ 
on  the  same  glass,  Paul  has  the  place  of  honor;  in  others,  Peter  is  at 
the  right  hand  of  Christ;  thus  showing  that  the  primacy  of  either 
would  not  once  be  suggested  by  the  pictorial  representations. 
Both  wear  the  corona,  as  in  Fig.  3  ;  both  are  represented  in  like 
dress  as  youthful  and  beardless,  as  in  Fig.  4  ;  both  are  receiving  a 
common  crown,  as  in  Fig.  5  ;  both  are  seated  upon  like  Roman 
chairs,  and  bear  equally  the  rolls  as  a  symbol  of  apostolic  authority, 
as  in  Fig.  7  ;  both  alike  are  being  crowned  from  above,  as  in  Figs. 
8,  9,  TO.  In  these  art  representations  there  is  no  intimation  of  a 
superiority  or  primacy  of  any  sort  whatever.  This  is  more  note- 
Avorthy  from  the  fact  that  these  glasses  belong  to  a  period  when  the 
primacy  of  Peter  had  already  been  asserted.  Their  teaching,  how- 
ever, entirely  accords  with  the  general  tradition  of  the  joint  agency 
of  Peter  and  Paul  in  founding  the  Church  of  Rome.  In  Fig.  1 
there  is  manifestly  an  attempt  at  portraiture.  Tiie  bronzes.  Figs. 
1  and  2,  have  given  rise  to  much  discussion  relative  to  their  age  and 
character.  Many  archaeologists  believe  that  in  Fig.  1  are  found  the 
traditional  characteristics  of  these  chief  apostles.  Peter  has  a  tirmer, 
rounder  head,  thick  curled  hair,  and  a  short  matted  beard  ;  Paul  has 
more  elongated  features,  thinner  hair  inclining  to  baldness,  a  longer 
yet  more  scanty  beard.  Amid  the  contrariety  of  opinions  it  is  impos- 
sible to  pronounce  absolutely  upon  the  age  of  bronze  Fig,  1,  or  the 
person  represented  in  Fig.  2.  The  artistic  excellence  of  the  work 
would  suggest  an  early  origin.* 

It  is  quite  remarkable  that  in   the   cemeteries  and  churches  of 

,  Italy,  and  in  the  art  monuments  of  the  first  four  centuries 
The  cycle     of  -^ '  „        .      . 

subjects  u  n  i  -   in  other  lands,  the  cycle  of  the  subjects  of  painting,  of 

^°^^^-  sculpture,  and  of   the   glyptic  arts  is  nearly  uniform. 

The  same  symbols  from  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms,  the 
same  biblical  events,  the  same  historical  characters,  are  everywhere 
repeated.  Some  archaeologists  have  accounted  for  this  uniformity 
on  the  supposition  that  the  Church  had  given  its  sanction  to  these 
as  a  means  of  expressing  and  perpetuating  a  common  faith,  and  of 
teaching  doctrines  which  were  regarded  as  fundamental,  thus  guard- 
ing against  the  attempts  of  heretical  teachers  to  divide  the  Church. 
Outside  the  catacombs  the  number  of  surviving  paintings  of  the 
first   six   centuries  is   very  limited.     From   documentary  evidence 

'  While  tliose  bronzes  properly  belong  to  tlie  department  of  plastic  art  or  sctilp- 
ture,  it  seems  more  convenieul  to  refer  to  them  here  iu  connection  with  tlie  gilded 
glasses  containing  like  subjects. 


Platk  I.— Gilded  ^lavna  und  broiue  buHtsi,  rppresentliiK  PertiT  and  Paul. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  I'AINTIXr.S  AND  MOSAICS,  113 

we  arc  jiistiticil  in  bclii-viiii:;  that  Xhv  art  iiilliu'iuH'  of  tlic  Koiiiaii- 
("liristiaii  world  cxU-ridc'l  far  a!iil  w'nk'  in  tliu  cuuii-  puintini.Ts  still 
tiics  (if  \vt>U'ni  aii<l  iiorllu'rii  Eiiroiu-  whicli  had  l)(-'t'ii  i" ''xi^ttmce. 
Christ  iaiii/(.'d  tliroii<;h  the  zealous  hiboiirs  of  rnissi(»iiaries.  Wi-  iiifi-r 
that  paiiitini;  was  extensively  used  in  the  deeoraliun  of  iin|t()sin^ 
churches  in  (iaul,  alony;  the  banks  of  the  Rhine,  ami  in  S|iaiii.  'i'lie 
>tylt'  and  subjects  of  such  ))aintin'jfs  were  probably  similar  to  those 
of  Christian  Rome,  somewhat  moditied  by  influences  peculiar  to  the 
l)arbarian  peoples.  Ireland,  which  was  conveitiMl  in  the  first  half  of 
the  tlfth  century,  and  had  developed  its  ecclesiastical  life  almost 
indi-peiidi-ntly  of  Roman  iiiHuence,  was  not  wantin<^  in  attempts  to 
ornament  the  churches  with  appropriate  mural  puintiiiifs.  Of  these 
none  of  an  earlier  date  than  the  seventh  century  liave  survived. 

A  few  illuminated  manuscripts  have  been  preserved  to  our  time. 
The  art  of  illumination  common  to  the  classic  ]»eoi)les  was  prac- 
tised l»y  the  Christians  from  the  fourth  century,  and  Miniaturps  and 
reached  its  hiirhest  perfection  in  the  .^liddle  Ai^es.  iiiiiininations. 
Such  manuscripts  were  sometimes  dedicated  to  persons  of  hil?h 
ottlcial  station,  or  were  given  Ijy  the  wealthy  to  religious  liouses. 
This  was  proV)ably  one  reason  of  their  rich  ornamentation.  The 
purpose  of  the  illumination  was  partly  artistic  and  partly  didactic. 
The  beautiful  illuminations  of  portions  of  the  Scriptures,  of  Psalters, 
and  of  prayer-books  which  have  come  to  us  from  the  mcdia-val 
period  suggest  a  similar  practice  of  the  Church  from  the  fourth  to 
the  seventh  century. 

A  fine  example  of  illumination  of  Greek  origin,  believed  to 
date  from  about  the  close  of  the  lifth  century,  is  ]>re-  BcK.k  of  Gene- 
si'rvcil  in  ilu'  Imperial  Lil)rary  at  ^'i('mla.  This  work  **'**• 
comprises  bil)lic;d  _  characters  and  allegorical  figures  which  are 
hel[diil  in  the  interpretation  of  the  text.  "It  contains  twenty- 
four  leaves  illuminated  on  both  sides,  in  most  cases  with  ]»ictures 
arranged  in  two  rows  on  purple  vellum.  The  execution  is  slight, 
almost  su|)erficial,  but  yet  shows  certainty  of  touch.  We  still  liiid 
here  a  close  observation  of  the  life  of  men  and  animals  ;  the  figures 
show  considerable  power  of  bodily  expression  and  movement  ;  they 
are  of  sturdy  build,  for  slenderness  of  proportion  is  not,  as  often 
sui)posed,  the  sign  of  IJyzantine  as  distinguished  from  Western 
art,  l)ut  rather  of  a  later  period  as  opj)Osed  to  an  earlit-r.'"  ' 

The  religious  books  are  generally  more  fully  and  carefully  illus- 
trated than  the  ancient  treatises  on  science,  or  even  the  fragments 

'  Woltmann  and  Woermann  :   History  of  Puinting,   vol.  i,  p.  190.     Labartc:  His- 
toire  des  Arts  indtustrieh,  etc.,  2d  ed.,  1872.     Plate  42   gives  a  colored  reproduction 
of  a  single  scene — the  interview  of  Jacob  witli  his  sons. 
8 


114  ARCH.EOLOGY  OF  CIirJSTIAN  ART. 

of  classic  literature.  The  pictures  are  not  of  persons  only,  nor  are 
they  confined  to  the  i-epresentation  of  'historical  events  or  places, 
but  delineations  of  mental  qualities,  virtues  and  vices,  protective 
powers,  etc.,  are  not  infrequent.  The  borders  of  these  manuscrii)ts 
are  often  rich  with  oi-namentation  in  whicli  the  harmony  of  propor- 
tions and  colour  is  carefully  studied. 

The  few  leaves  of  a  Latin  Bible  preserved  in  the  Royal  Library 
Fragment  of  a  o^  B^'rlin  belong  to  the  sixth  century.  On  these  are 
Latin  Bible.  found  somewhat  mutilated  representations  of  the  histoiy 
of  Saul.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  they  have  suffered  so  much, 
since  their  artistic  excellence  appears  to  have  been  exceptional. 

A  Syrian  Gospel-book,  of  the  last  quarter  of  the  sixth  century, 
Syrian  Gospel-  is  Specially  interesting  for  containing  one  of  the  earliest 
^°°^-  pictorial  representations  of  the  crucifixion.     We  have 

already  seen  that  the  early  Christians  avoided  depicting  the  painful 
and  more  repellent  scenes  in  the  life  and  passion  of  Christ.  Later, 
however,  when  the  Church  had  secured  complete  recognition,  and 
art  had  declined,  these  subjects  were  represented  in  all  their 
„   ,     .      literalness.     In  the  border  of  this  manuscript  the  cruci- 

The    first    pic-      _  i 

tiMiai  cruciflx-  fied  Lord  appears  fastened  to  a  cross  by  four  nails  ;  on 
'"^"  either  side  are  the  thieves,  wliile  below  St.  John,  th(^ 

Marys,  and  the  soldiers  casting  lots  for  Clirist's  garments  are  pictured; 
in  another  part  tlie  resurrection,  the  Marys  at  the  tomb  addressed 
by  the  angel,  and  the  Saviour  appearing  to  the  women  are  delin- 
eated. As  might  be  expected,  this  provincial  work,  the  manuscript 
of  which  was  written  in  the  convent  of  St.  John  at  Zagba,  in  Mes- 
opotamia, and  the  painting  executed  hy  Rabula,  a  monk,  is  quite 
inferior  in  execution  to  mucli  that  is  preserved  in  the  great  centers 
of  commerce  and  enlightenment.' 

Most  of  the  illuminations  of  the  sixth  century  exhibit  consider- 
able artistic  power,  and  give  evidence  of  an  attempt  at  art  revival 
after  the  fearful  destruction  and  decadence  of  the  fifth  century. 

MOSAICS. 

A  very  interesting  class  of  monuments,  illustrating  the  thought 

and  artistic  power  of  the  early  Ciiurch,  are  the  Christian  mosaics. 

Tliey  can   be  classified  neither  with  paintings  nor  witli 

How  classifled.  ■'  ^7  i        n      i  in  ...i        ^ 

sculpture.  1  hey  can  hardly  be  ranked  among  the  fine 
arts  at  all,  since  their  ])roduction  seems  in  some  respects  to  depend 
more  upon  the  mechanical  than  umou  the  artistic  faculty.  This 
consideration  would  lead  us  to  classify  the  musivist  among  artisans 

'On  tliis  illiiminnted  manuscript  u.  Garnicci:  Llaria,  c\.c.,  Plates  128-140,  and 
Labarte,  Op.  cit.,  vol.  i,  pp.  164,  165,  Plate  44. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  PAINTINGS  AND  MOSAICS.  115 

ratluT  than  aiuDHi,^  artists.  To  what  extent  the  musivist  was  also 
the  creator  of  his  dcsii^n  caiiiiot  now  be  known,  Sinec,  liowcvcr, 
mosaic  is  a  branoli  of  pictorial  art,  or  art  on  a  surface  includiiiuf  two 
dimensions,  in  which  color  effects  are  studied,  it  is  NVarpst  aiiiea 
most  nearly  allied  to  paintinc:,  and  can  best  be  studied  ^'P"""""?- 
as  the  historic  successor  of  the  frescos  of  the  catacomljs. 

With  other  arts  the  Christian  Church  inherited  from  the  heathen 
world  the  mosaic  also.  Some  of  the  most  elaborate  Borrowed  from 
decor.itive  works  of  antiquity  were  in  this  style.  The  antiquity. 
8('ri|ttiires  si)eak  of  ])avements  "of  red,  and  blue,  and  white,  and 
black  marl)le  in  the  palace  of  Aliasuerus  "  (P]sther  i,  G).  The  fre- 
quent mention  of  mosaics  by  Pliny,  and  the  preservation  of  such 
beautiful  exam])les  as  the  "  Bellerophon,"  the  "  Doves  of  the  Caj)- 
itojine  IMuseum,"  the  "  Battle  of  Arbela,"  and  the  fountain  pieces  of 
Pompeii,  show  that  this  art  had  been  carried  to  jjreat  perfection  b}'' 
pre-Christian  peoples.  The  Romans  recognised  three  kinds  of  mo- 
saics :  1.  The  opus  tesselhdun),  which  consisted  of  small  pieces  of 
stone  or  bits  of  marble,  arranged  in  regular  geometric  forms.  This 
was  the  most  ancient  style.  2.  The  ojvis  vermicidatum,  which  re- 
ceived its  name  from  the  fineness  of  the  pieces  of  marble  of  which 
the  work  Avas  composed.  3.  The  opus  sectile,  which  was  fornuMl  of 
j)lates  of  marbles  of  different  colors,  making  thereby  a  decorated 
veneer. 

The  genuine  Christian  mosaic,  that  is,  the  use  for  decorative  or 
didactic  purposes  of  cubes  of  colored  glass  on  walls  Limited  use  in 
or  ceilings,  instead  of  in  pavements,  is  but  very  the  catacombs, 
sparingly  found  in  the  catacombs.  The  few  examples  which  still 
survive  adhere  quite  closely  in  general  style  and  subjects  to  the 
contemporaneous  frescos.  The  Saviour  seated  between  Peter  and 
Paul,  the  raising  of  Lazarus,  the  healing  of  the  ])aralytic,  Daniel  in  the 
lions'  den,  a  couple  of  medallion  busts  of  a  man  and  wife,  the  latter 
with  arms  outstretched  in  jn-ayer  in  the  general  fashion  of  the 
Orantes,  comprise  nearly  all  the  subjects  treated  in  these  mosaics. 
They  are  usually  of  inferior  workmanship,  and  promise  little  for 
that  wealth  of  ornamentation  afterward  met  in  the  Constantinian 
ajid  post-Constantinian  churches. 

An  inci<lental  bcnetit  of  the  study  of  the  mosnics  from  the  fourth 
to  the  tenth  century  is  the  aid  thus  afforded  in  deter-  utility  of  the 
mining  the  age  of  the  paintings  in  the  catacombs  them-  »^»^y- 
selves.'  Little  doubt  can  be  entertained  relative  to  the  ])rogressive 
<»rnamentation  of  subterranean  ])urial  places  through  the  zeal  and 
devotion  of  the  popes.  Carefid  study  of  the  Church  mosaics  be- 
•  do  Jouy:  Les  Afosaiques  chretiennes,  etc.,  Paris,  1857,  p.  6. 


116  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CPIRISTI.VN  ART. 

tween  A.  D.  350  and  A.  D.  450  (the  latter  date  marking  the  de- 
struction attending  the  terrible  irruption  of  Attila)  shows  three 
types  :  those  of  Santa  Constantia,  which  are  allied  to  classic  art  ; 
those  in  the  Chapel  of  Galla  Placidia  at  Ravenna,  whose  Good 
Shepherd  suggests  immediately  the  primitive  paintings  of  the  cata- 
combs, belong  to  the  cycle  of  symbolic  art  ;  and  the  mosaics  of 
Santa  Maria  Maggiore  at  Rome,  which  represent  purely  historical 
and  biblical  events.  All  belong  to  the  old  Roman  rather  than  to 
the  Byzantine  school.'  The  latter  school  seems  to  have  had  com- 
plete sway  from  the  middle  of  the  fifth  to  the  seventh  century, 
except  where  the  Lombard  churches  show  a  partial  emancipation 
from  its  influence. 

Their  extensive  use  for  decorative  and  dogmatic  purposes,  and 
their  great  durability,  give  to  mosaics  almost  a  first  rank  among 
archaeological  monuments.  With  regard  to  no  other  objects,  how- 
ever, are  greater  skill  and  caution  needed  to  ensure  correct  results. 
Caution  against  Such  is  the  nature  of  the  materials,  the  permanence  of 
restorations.  the  colors,  and  the  ease  with  which  insertions  can  be 
made,  that  experts  may  be  deceived.  It  is  probable  that  hardl)^  an 
important  mosaic  has  escaped  attempts  at  restoration.  Their  evi- 
dential value  may  thus  be  seriously  impaired.  Only  when  thero  is 
some  assurance  that  even  the  restorations  are  in  the  spirit  of  the 
original  can  these  monuments  be  regarded  as  witnesses  to  the  life 
and  thought  of  their  age. 

The  location  of  inosaics  is  various  in  different  churches  and 
in  the  same  church.     They  ^i"e  more  usually  employed 

Where    found.    .         ,  ,-,...  ',■      i  •!  •       .i        i  i 

in  the  vaulted  ceilings  oi  the  tribune,  m  the  broad 
spaces  on  the  face  of  the  triumphal  arch,  on  the  spandrels  of  arches 
in  the  main  nave,  and  on  the  entablatures.  These  positions  not 
only  afford  the  greatest  available  area,  but  also  place  the  pictures, 
decorative  or  didactic,  in  the  most  favorable  light  for  studj''. 

The  question  of  the  chronology  of  these,  as  of  other  early  Christ- 
ian monuments,  has  greatly  divided  the  opinion  of 
archaeologists.  Rome  is  probabh^  the  site  of  the  earliest 
and  best  preserved,  unless  we  except  the  remarkable  group  in  the 
dome  of  St.  George  in  Thessalonica  (modern  Salonica).  If  this 
St.  George  of  Cliurcli  was  dedicated  by  Constantine  during  his  sojourn 
Thessalonica.      in  that  city  in  A.  D.  323,^  then  its  mosaics  excel  all 

'  Tyrwhitt:  Art  Teaching  of  the  Primitive  Church,    London.  1882,  pp.  148,  149. 

^  Texier  and  Pullan:  ^glises  Byzantines,  plates  xxxi-xxxiv.  In  this  work  the 
origin  of  the  church  is  discussed  at  some  lengtli.  Especial  stress  is  laid  upon  the 
fact  that  the  portraits  in  mosaic  are  all  of  ihose  saints  wlio  lived  before  Constantine. 
Also  the  character  of  the  symbols  on  the  bricks  of  the  pavement  is  regarded  of  great 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  PAINTINGS  AND  MOSAICS.  117 

other  extra-catacoinhul  oms  in  age,  extent,  and  ma<>iuHcencc.  Its 
doiiu' (''.  Fijj;'.  105),  two  liiindriMl  and  sixteen  feet  in  eircuniference,  is 
almost  entirely  covered  witii  elaborate  and  inijtosini^  desii^ns  which 
have  been  estimated  to  contain  more  than  36,000,000  tesserce,  or 
small  cnbes  of  jjlass.  The  style  of  the  decoration  is  somewliat  like 
that  on  the  walls  of  Pomjteii,  and  immediately  remin<ls  the  student 
of  some  of  the  early  frescos  of  the  catacoml)s.  'I'liis  circumstance 
would  sugtjest  an  eai'ly  origin. 

The  grouping  of  the  figures  is  more  easy  and  natural  than  in  the 
later  Byzantine  art.  There  is  manifest  attention  to  )»er-  characUT  of 
spective,  while  the  variety  of  character  and  ex)»ression  t'"''«i'  niosalcs. 
is  indicative  of  artistic  power  and  freedom.  The  (•u))ola  is  divided 
into  eight  nearly  e(pial  com])artments.  'J'he  handling  of  sulijects 
is  generally  uniform,  though  in  some  particulars  there  is  striking 
variety.  Kach  segment  contains  the  representation  of  a  building, 
evidently  designed  for  Christian  worshij),  wonderfully  elaborated, 
decorated,  and  furnished  with  the  paraphernalia  for  ritualistic 
service.  In  the  foreground  of  each  arc  two  majestic  figures,  clad 
in  the  rt)bes  of  the  othciating  clergy,  with  hands  extended  in 
the  attitude  of  prayer  or  benediction.  In  the  fashion  of  the  Byzan- 
tine art  the  names  of  these  are  written  n]»on  tlie  wall  near  the  fig- 
ure.' They  refer  to  some  of  the  noted  men  of  the  Eastern  Church 
whose  labors  were  effective  in  shaping  its  history  and  in  formula- 
ting its  doctrines. 

The  only  rival  of  St.  George  in  the  age  of  its  mosaics  is  the  circular 

Church,  8anta  Constanza  of  Rome.    As  elsewhere  stated  .s;,nta  constan- 

{'K  Fig.  118),  this  building  was  erected  by  Constantine,   za  of  uome. 

and  is  therefore  of  the  fourth  century.*    What  was  the  original  ])ur- 

]»ose  of  its  erection,  whether  for  a  baptistery  to  the  adjacent  basilica 

of  Santa  Aijncse,  or  as  a  burial  i)lace  for  the  emi)eror\s 

.  Its  style, 

daughters,  Constantia  and  Helena,  may  not  be  known. 

The  style  of  some  of  its  mosaics  certainly  indicates  an  eaily  origin. 

importance,  v.  pp.  133-135.  Unger:  Eisch  u.  Grubcr^s  Eiicydopi.i:dia,  Ix.x.xiv,  407. 
places  these  mosaics  at  a  much  later  period.  Woltmunn  and  Woermami :  v.  History 
of  Painting,  vol.  i,  p.  198,  note,  share  Unpor's  opinion.  Bayet :  Rtchtrclies  pour 
servir  a  I'histoire  de  la  Peinture,  etc..  v.  p.  85  and  note,  inclines  to  place  them  between 
llie  age  of  Constantine  and  that  of  Justinian,  bnt  is  in  doulit.  Kraus  also  accepts 
Unper's  opinion. 

'  This  is  generally  quoted  in  proof  of  a  later  origin,  tliough  not  decisive. 

'  The  age  of  these  mosaics  has  likewise  been  a  subject  of  controversy.  Doubtless 
one  reason  of  the  widely  different  opinions  is  the  failure  to  discriminate  between  the 
orisrinals  and  tlie  restorations.  That  some  of  the  restorations  belong  to  tlie  scvcntli 
century  is  conceded,  but  that  some  portions  reach  back  to  about  the  middle  of  the 
fourth  can  hardly  be  doubted. 


118  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

The  rich  decoration  upon  a  white  i^round,  representing  the  vin- 
tage, together  with  many  figures  of  genii,  birds,  fruit,  etc.,  liken  it 
very  strongly  to  the  heathen  art  of  the  period.  There  is  in  it  very 
little  which  is  distinctively  Christian.  The  space  is  divided  into 
twelve  sections  or  compartments,  two  of  which  extend  into  the 
form  of  an  apse.  The  subjects  seem  to  be  arranged  on  the  general 
]n'inciple  of  artistic  balancing,  somewhat  after  the  style  of  some 
early  frescoed  ceilings  of  the  catacombs.  The  mosaics  of  the  dome 
have  long  since  disappeared.^ 

A  like  classical  spirit  is  noticed  in  the  slight  mosaic  remains  in  two 
Chapels  ia  San  ^'^^''^P'^l*  of  the  Baptistery  of  San  Giovanni  in  I.j.ttrnno, 
Giovanui  in  at  Rome.  They  belong  to  the  latter  part  of  the  fifth 
Laterano.  century.     While  the  opinion  that  they  were  part  of 

the  palace  of  Constantine  has  been  questioned,  they  nevertheless 
bear  the  peculiar  character  of  naturalism  which  associates  them  in 
the  same  class  with  Santa  Constantiaof  Rome,  and  St.  George  of  Thes- 
change  in  tbe   salon  ica.     But  this  richness  of  decoration  soon  passed 

subjects  of  mo-  rp^     ^        mosaics  are  executed  with  a  verv  differ- 

saies     in     the  '■  •' 

churches.  ent  feeling.     A  more  sober,  didactic  purpose  seems  to 

control  the  artists.  Dr.  Woltmann  says  :  "  This  decorative  style, 
with  its  playful  symbolism,  did  not  in  the  long  run  suit  the  serious- 
ness of  the  Christian  spirit.  When  St.  Nilus  (A.  D.  450)  was  con- 
sulted about  the  decoration  of  a  church  he  rejected,  as  childish  and 
unworthy,  the  intended  design  of  plants,  birds,  animals,  and  a  num- 
ber of  crosses,  and  desired  the  interior  to  be  adorned  with  pictures 
from  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  with  the  same  motive  that 
Gregory  II.  expressed  afterward  in  the  folloAving  words  :  '  Painting 
is  employed  in  churches  for  tliis  i-eason,  that  those  who  are  ignorant 
of  the  Scriptures  may  at  least  see  on  the  walls  what  they  are  unable 
to  read  in  the  books.'  From  this  time,  accordingly,  church  pictures 
become  no  longer  purely  decorative  ;  they  serve  for  edification,  for 
instruction,  for  devotion.  With  this  object  Christian  art  makes  the 
great  step  from  mere  sj^mbolie  suggestion  to  real  representation."* 
Santa  Puden-  This  statement  finds  happy  illustration  in  the  remark- 
ziana.  ;j][3ig  mosaic  of  Santa  Pudenziana,  on  the  Esquiline,  in 

Rome.     The  work  also  shows  the  necessity  of  careful  discrimination 

'  E.  Miintz:  Notes  sitrles  MosaiqifS  chretiennes  de  Vltalie,  in  the  Revue  Archeologique, 
IS75  and  1878,  attempts  to  show  that  this  cupola  displays  a  composition  entirely 
pagan  in  character.  He  claims  that  it  represents  a  triumph  of  Bacchus,  wliicii  is  in- 
dicated by  the  accompanying  satyrs,  bachantea,  tigers,  etc.  Possibly  tliis  may  fur- 
nish a  ground  for  the  opinion  that  this  church  was  originally  a  temple  of  Bacchus,  as 
•advocated  by  Ciampini  {v.  Be  sacris  cedificiis),  and  by  .other  more  recent  archaeologists. 
*  History  of  Painting,  vol.  i,  p.  167. 


KAIILY  CiriUSTIAX  PAINTINGS  AND  MOSAICS.  ll'.t 

between  ori'j^iiials  ;iii<l  rv'stonilioMs.  Liibarte '  iK-licvcs  that  the 
apostles  and  female  iii^iires  are  from  tlie  close  of  llie  foiirtli  century, 
but  that  the  C'lirist,  the  symbols  o(  the  evani^elists,  and  some  other 
portions  are  of  later  orij^in.'^  (rarnicci,  Woltinann,  and  others  rcfci- 
this  mosaic  to  Pope  ISiricius,  who  built  the  church  in  -V.U)  A.  !).  It 
certainly  marks  a  transition  from  the  decorative  style  to  the  iiistoric 
ami  didactic.  In  the  center  is  a  colossal  fit^ure  of  a  lu-arded  and  nim 
bused  Christ,  seated   in  a  richly  ieweled  chair  and  clad 

•       u        •  1  II  .       1      1  •         •    1        1         1    •         1  IH-scrii.tlou. 

m  ilowing  robes,  lie  extends  his  ri<;ht  hand  m  tin* 
manner  of  blessin<;,  while  in  his  left  is  an  o]>en  book.  On  his  riLjlit 
and  left  are  arrani,'ed  the  apostles,  Peter  and  Paid  beini^  next  to  the 
Saviour.  On  the  heads  of  tlu'  latter,  female  tii(ures  of  great  di<)^nity, 
supposed  to  represent  the  Jewish  and  the  Cieiitile  Churches,'  jtlace 
wreaths  of  triumph.  Behind  the  Christ  is  a  richly  jeweled  cross,  stand- 
intj  on  a  mountain  ai)art  by  itself.  Jlisint^  in  the  distance  are  archi- 
tectural structures  representini^  the  two  .sacred  cities,  Bethlehem  and 
Jerusalem,  while  above  in  the  clouds  float  the  symbols  of  the  Evan- 
gelists. The  whole  work  is  of  a  most  serious,  yet  artistic,  character. 
The  transition  from  the  style  of  tSanta  Constantia  to  that  of 
Santa  Pudenziana  is  most  remarkable.  That  within  a  half  centuiy 
there  shoidd  be  ])resente<l  so  great  a  contrast  in  interior  'rp^„sj^i„„  j„ 
church  decoration  certaiidy  suggests  some  exceptional  style,  una  iim 
cause.  The  classic  chai-acter  of  nearly  every  part  of  *'''"'''^- 
this  mosaic  differs  much  from  the  art  of  the  age  of  Const  an  tine 
and  of  his  immediate  successors.  Moreover  the  seriousness  of 
the  religious  teaching  end)odied  in  it  is  noteworthy.  The  Christ 
seems  to  stand  midway  between  the  youthful  and,  for  the  most 
])art,  im|ieisoiial  Christ  of  the  catacombs  aii<l  that  severer  and 
more  gloomy  ty])e  which  is  ])rominent  in  the  later  frescos  and 
mosaics.  Probably  the  art  historians  are  correct  in  attributing  this 
result  mainly  to  the  impulse  given  to  art  studies  by  the  legal  enact- 
ments of  the  emperors.  The  (U-mand  of  the  now  established  religion 
for  churches  not  only  of  greater  dimensions  but  also  of  increasi'd 
magnificence  was  in  itself  a  stimulus  to  art  activity.  "^riierc  is 
also  discovered  in  some  of  the  mosaics  of  this  period  a  ti-ndeiicy 

'  Art^  induslriek,  vol.  ii,  pp.  3:!8-:M2,  niid  454.  plate  Ivii.  v.  also  Vilet:  Etudts 
sur  Vllistoire  de  I'Art.  Piiri.s,  18G4,  vol.  i,  pp.  18-39. 

'Crowe  and  Cavacafclle :  History  of  Puiuting  in  Italy,  Loiidon,  18G4,  vol.  i,  ]ip. 
12,  13,  recognise  numerous  reHtoraiions  in  these  figures. 

*  Garrucci  :  Istoria,  etc.  Woltmjinii  «nd  Woermann:  Ilustonj  of  Painting,  vd.  i. 
p.  167.  Others  see  in  llicso  the  rcpresentiitions  of  the  sisters  SS.  Pudentiuna  and 
Prcsedes.  v.  Gerspacii :  La  Mosaique,  p.  140 ;  also  Barbet  de  Jouy :  Leu  Musaiqu^s 
chretiennes,  p.  49. 


120  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

to  return  to  classic  models,  and  to  subject  the  artist  to  tlie  rules  of 

the  ancient  school.' 

The  mosaics  of  Santa  Sabina  at  Rome  belong  to  the  fifth  century. 

They  consist  of  two  female  figures,  one  marked  '■'■Ecdesia 
Santa    Sabina.  .  .   .         „  .         i         i        ^      i 

ex  circmnctsione,    or  the  church  oi    the  circumcision  ; 

the  other  "  Ecdesia  ex  (jentibus^''  or  the  church  of  the  Gentiles  ;  also 

of  an  inscription  of  seven  verses,  which  gives  the  occasion  of  the 

origin  of  the  mosaic,  and  contains  a  highly  eulogistic  notice  of  the 

artist.'^     The  type  of  these  is  entirely  Roman. 

Tlie  few  remnants  of  the  mosaics  of  San  Paolo  fuori  le  mura,  on 
St.  Paul  beyond  the  Via  Ostia,  must  also  be  referred  to  this  century. 
the  walls.  The  destruction  of  this  interesting   church  by  fire,  in 

1823,  removed  some  of  the  most  valuable  Christian  monuments  of 
the  fifth  century  which  had  anywhere  survived.  The  few  original 
mosaics  upon  the  triumphal  arch  were  jDrepared  by  the  order  of 
Galla  Placidia,  daughter  of  Theodosius.* 

The  completest  series  of  mosaics  at  Rome,  dating  from  the  fifth 
Santa  Maria  century,  is  in  Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  called  also  the 
Maggiore.  Liberian  Basilica.    Their  exceptionally  artistic  character 

has  frequently  been  noted  by  critics.  They  seem  to  be  entirely 
isolated  from  works  before  and  after  the  period.  The  suggestion 
has  been  made  that  the  artists  formed  these  mosaics  after  the 
fashion  of  the  classical  bassreliefs,  especially  those  of  the  columns 
of  Trajan  and  of  the  Antonines,  while  their  predecessors  had 
taken  the  frescos  of  the  baths  as  their  models,  and  their  succes- 
sors were  influenced  by  Greece  or  Byzantium.*  The  arch  of  the 
tribune,  divided  into  three  zones,  is  decorated  Avith 
New  Testament  scenes.  In  the  first  are  the  Annun- 
ciation and  the  Presentation  in  the  temple  ;  in  the  second  the 
Adoration  of  the  Magi,  and  the  Dispute  of  Jesus  with  the  doctors 

1  "Laws  were  enacted  by  Oonstantine  (A.  D.  3.'54  and  'X^A)  to  promote  the  training 
of  architects,  and  to  grant  then)  specific  exemptions,  as  well  as  to  painters,  sculptors, 
and  worliers  in  mosaic.  In  A.  D.  375  tlie  emperors  Valentinian,  Valens,  and 
Gratian  promulgated  an  edict  granting  imporiunt  privileges  to  professors  of  paint- 
ing."    Woltmann  and  Woermann  :  Hidory  of  Painting,  vol.  i,  p.  169. 

^  C.  J.  Hemans  claims  that  of  the  whole  mosaic  cotnnosition  in  Santa  Sabina  only 
these  two  figures,  representing  the  Jewisli  and  Ciirisiian  covenants,  are  oriiiinal. 
V.  Academy,  1874,  p.  415. 

*  Bar  bet  de  Jony:  Les  Mosaiques  chretiennes,  etc.,  pp.  18,  19.  Forster:  Unter 
Italien,  p.  276.     Gerspach:   La  Mosaique,  pp.  47,  48. 

^  27.  Edmund  Veuables:  Article  "Mosaics"  in  tlie  DicUominj  of  Chrifttian  An- 
tiquities, vol.  ii,  p.  1327.  Also  Lord  Lindsay:  Hintory  of  Christian  Art,  2d  edition, 
London,  1885,  vol.  i,  p.  264;  Vitet:  Etudes  sur  VHistoire  de  VArl,  Paris,  1864, 
vol.  i,  p.  241. 


I 


I':ARLV  CIIKISTIAX  paintings  and  mosaics.  121 

in  the  teiiii»k'.  In  tlic  tiist  (li\  isimi  of  tlii'  third  zone  are  fouinl  tin- 
Massacre  of  the  Infants  and  all  the  aeeonijianyinsjf  circumstanees  and 
j)ersons — as  Herod,  liis  «riiards  wlio  execute  his  orders,  and  a  groiiji 
of  females  who  shield  tlieirlittU-  chiMren  in  their  arms.  The  second 
division  is  occupied  hy  the  cities  of  Ik-tideheni  and  .Jerusalem,  made 
sacred  by  the  birth  and  <leath  of  the  Saviour.  The  mosaics  which 
are  arran^^ed  on  the  entablatures  on  eitlu'r  si(h'  of  the  main  nave  are 
iifiven  t»»  the  illustration  of  Old  Testament  history.  Jiy  destruction 
and  replacement,  the  original  forty-two  distinct  j)ictures  of  tlie 
series  have  been  reduced  to  twenty-seven.  The  first  series  begins 
in  tlie  upper  left  hand  portion  with  the  interview  of  Abraham  with 
Melchizedec,  and  terminates  with  the  history  of  Isaac  and  Jacolt. 
On  the  right  hand  the  series  begins  with  the  tinding  of  Moses,  and 
ends  with  the  battle  of  Beth-horon.  The  treatment  of  tlic  mosaics 
in   the   nave  is   far   superior   to  that   on    the  triumidial 

,  ,,       ,  .  .  -,         .    .        ,  .  ,.    Tlicir teaching. 

arcii.  Aiuch  animation  and  spirit  cliaracterize  some  oi 
the  iigurt's.  The  presrncc  of  a  classical  fri'edom  and  excellence 
is  manifest  in  many  of  the  forms.  Yet  the  strong  liiblical  char- 
acter of  these  mosaics  indicates  the  introduction  of  a  didactic 
principle  into  the  decoration  of  the  churches,  in  harmony  with  the 
teaching  of  the  more  influential  Christian  fathers.' 

Some  of  the  most  interesting  mosaics  of  Ra\ cnna  must  also  ])e 
referred  to  this  century.  In  no  other  city  can  this  art  Mosaics  of  Ra- 
l)e  so  consecutively  studied  in  the  monuments.  They  veniiu. 
are  well-preserved,  and  have  suffered  fewer  changes  from  nstoia- 
tion.  Moi'eover,  they  seem  to  have  1)een  arranged  as  an  integral 
part  of  the  architectural  plan,  rather  than  to  serve  the  })urposes  of 
mere  decoration.  Nearly  all  of  them,  too,  were  constructed  upon 
classical  principles,  free  from  that  Byzantine  influence  which  a 
little  later  so  effectually  repressed  the  naturalness  of  art  ex- 
pression. 

The  earliest  mosaics  of  Ravenna"  are  preserved   in  the  ba])tistery 

'  For  a  description  see  Biinsen :  B<utiliken  Roms,  Bd.  iii,  Tli.  2,  pp.  262,  etc.  For 
pood  vie\v.s  see  Bunscn :  plates  i.\,  x  ;  and  Garnicci :  Istoria,  etc.,  plates  cc.\i-ccx.xii. 
For  art  estimates  see  Vitet:  Hifstoirt  fie  rait,  vol.  i,  pp.  241-243;  Lord  Lindsay: 
IIi><t.  of  Cliri'xt.  Ai-t,  vol.  i,  p.  2G5.  For  a  very  Tnll  description  of  this  church  v. 
Valentini :  La  pairiarale  bosilica  Liberinna.  This  is  one  of  four  treatises  on  the  four 
preat  basilicas  of  Rome,  prepared  and  puhlished  untlor  the  auspices  of  tlie  Roman 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts. 

*  For  the  mosaics  of  Ravenna  amonp  others  see  London  Times,  Sept.  2a,  and  Dec. 
M),  1876.  Gerspach:  La  Mosaviue.  Richler :  r>ie  Mosaikvn  Bavnuas.  Wicn,  1878. 
Quast:  Die  alt  chri.sllii-h"n  Bauwerke  von  Ruvenna.  Berlin,  1842.  Woltmann  and 
AVoermimn  :  IIi'<t.  of  Piiin(>ng,  vol.  i.  Texier  and  Pullan :  Les  ^glises  Byzantines. 
Labartc  :  Uistoire  des  arts  industriels,  etc.,  voL  iv. 


122  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

of  the  church  formerly  called.  Ecclesia  Ursiana,  now  San  Giovanni 
San  Giovauni  in  ^^^  fonte;  they  date  from  A.  D.  430.  Tlie  building 
fonte.  is   octagonal,    surmounted   by   a   cupola.       The   span- 

drels of  the  lower  tier  of  arches  are  enriched  with  eight  noble 
figures  of  prophets  upon  a  background  of  gold,  and  decorated,  with 
acanthus  leaves  and  scroll  work.  The  cupola  is  divided  into 
two  zones,  the  lower  of  which  is  ornamented  with  colonnaded 
churches,  throned  crosses,  altars,  chairs,  tombs  ;  the  upper  con- 
tains the  twelve  apostles,  who  circle  round  the  crowning  scene, 
Theanosties  ^^^®  baptism  of  Christ  by  John  in  Jordan.  The  ac- 
and  the  baptism  tion  of  the  apostles,  as  they  advance  with  jeweled 
of  Christ.  crowns  toward  the  figure  of  Christ,  is  spirited  and  in 

the  style  of  the  best  classical  work.  The  Baptist,  a  strong,  half 
nude  figure,  pours  water  from  a  shell  ujjon  the  head  of  the  Saviour, 
who  stands  in  the  stream,  while  the  descent  of  the  Spirit  in  the 
shape  of  a  dove  ratifies  the  sacrament.  The  one  incongruous  ele- 
ment is  the  representation  of  the  Jordan  by  a  river-god,  in  true 
mythological  style.  This  is  a  further  illustration  of  the  religious 
syncretism  which  was  so  widely  prevalent. 

Equally  interesting,  and.  even  richer  in  mosaics,  is  the  mauso- 
Mausoieum  of  leum  of  Galla  Placidia,  built  in  A.  D.  440.  It  is  a 
Gaiia  Placidia.  church  in  the  form  of  a  Latin  cross,  and  is  now  known 
as  SS.  Nazario  e  Celso.  It  is  impossible  by  mere  description  to 
give  an  adequate  idea  of  the  magnificence  of  this  church.  Nearly 
the  entire  interior,  both  Avails  and  ceiling,  is  covered  with  mosaics 
of  exceeding  richness  and  high  artistic  excellence.  They  can  be 
classified  under  neither  the  earlier  nor  later  school,  but  have  been 
justly  regarded  as  representing  a  transition  from  the  style  of  the 
earlier  catacombs  to  that  of  genuine  Byzantine  art.  Amid  the 
multitude  of  interesting  objects  two  figures  especially  arrest  atten- 
tion and  challenge  careful  study.  The  first  is  in  the  chief  lunette 
opposite  to  the  entrance.  It  is  that  of  a  man  of  earnest 
mien  striding  rapidly  along,  his  robe  flying  in  the  wind, 
bearing  a  cross  upon  his  shoulder  and  an  open  book  in  his  right 
liand.  Before  him  is  a  burning  grate;  behind,  a  closet,  where  rolls 
supposed  to  represent  the  gospels  are  seen.  The  old  reference  of 
this  to  Christ  now  finds  few  defenders,  since  it  is  essentially  differ- 
ent from  all  other  delineations  of  our  Lord  known  to  art.  The  refer- 
ence of  it  to  St.  Laurence  and  his  martyrdom  seems  to  be  the  most 
reasonable  interpretation  of  the  scene.'     The  second  notable  figure 

'  Woltmann  and  Woermann :  Op.  cif..  vol.  i,  p.  174.  V.'uables :  Article  "Mo- 
saics "  in  Dictionary  of  Christian  Antiquities.  Contra,  Gerspach  :  La  Mosaiqiie,  p.  50, 
who  regards  it  a  picture  of  Christ.     Also  Qiiast:   Op.cit.,  pp.  14,  15. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  PAINTINGS  AND  MOSAICS.  1,':5 

of  tliis  church  is  tliat  of  tlic  Good  SlK'|)lR'r(l,  f<»iiii(l  in  the  arch 
ovi-r  the  entrance.  He  sit.s  in  tlio  midst  of  a  somewhat  The  (iood Shep- 
i-Hirrrod  huidscapc,  clad  in  a  golden  tunic  and  purjyle  ^^^*^- 
mantle,  holding  in  one  hand  a  shepherd's  staflF  wiiieh  terminates 
in  a  cross,  while  the  other  is  stretched  across  the  ]>reast  to  caress 
a  land).  Tlie  face  is  that  of  a  young  and  beardless  man,  the  hair  is 
long  and  flowing,  and  the  head  encircled  with  the  nind)us.  The 
general  mien  is  dignified,  and  the  figure  seems  to  express  the  per- 
sonality, as  well  as  to  symholize  the  office,  of  the  Rc<leemer.  The 
animals  and  i)lants  are  of  inferior  style,  indicating  little  sympathy 
with  a  purely  naturalistic  treatment.'  The  mosaics  of  this  church 
are  exceedingly  important  in  revealing  the  art  tendencies  and  the 
character  of  the  religious  and  dogmatic  thought  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury. 

Some  instructive  mosaics  are  still  ]»resei-ved  in  the  churches  of 
San  Lorenzo  and  San  Ambrogio  in  Milan.     The  Christ   ^„^ 

_^_  _  other   mosaics 

ill  the  chapel  of  San  A(juilino  (San  Loreii/,o)  is  of  of  thenrthcen- 
youthful  appearance,  beardless,  and  in  some  features  ^"'"^" 
suggests  the  type  found  in  the  earlier  catacombs.  'I'liere  is  an 
almost  entire  absence  of  Byzantine  influence.  The  figures  of  Christ 
and  the  apostles  are  varied  in  expression  and  attitude,  and  the 
landscape  is  treated  with  unusual  naturalness.  The  A.  i2.  in  the 
cruciform  nimbus  encircling  the  head  of  Christ  leaves  no  doubt 
respecting  the  personage  here  represented. 

The  mosaics  in  the  chapel  of  San  Victor  (San  Ambrogio)  are 
of  a  high  order  of  merit.  They  have  by  some  archaeologists 
been  assigned  to  the  fifth  century.*  The  treatment  of  the  wreath 
encircling  the  head  of  San  Victor  is  skilful,  and  the  V)alancing  of 
the  parts  by  the  figures  of  the  evangelists  is  artistic  and  jdi-asing. 

The  beautiful  chapel  of  the  archbisho|)'s  palace  in  Ravenna, 
which  still  survives,  has  ivsually  been  ascribed  to  Bishoj)  Peter  Chry- 
sologus.  Tills  view  would  ri'ganl  it  as  a  work  of  about  the  middle 
of  the  fifth  century.''  The  interior  arrangement  is  quite  similar  to 
that  of  SS.  Nazario  e    Celso   of    the  same   ))eriod    (v.    Fig.    120). 

'  Compare  tlie  represenUlioii  of  vine  ornnmonUition  in  tlio  dome-vaulting  of  this 
church.  Fijr.  41,  witli  the  frescos  of  Santa  Domitilla.  Fips.  1  and  2. 

^  Tlie  chronolopy  of  tliese  mosaics  has  lieen  a  matter  on  which  archaeologists  and 
historians  of  art  have  widely  diflered.  Here,  as  in  so  many  other  cases,  may  not  the 
failure  to  discriminate  with  sufficient  care  between  the  original  parts  and  the  res- 
torations be  one  reason  of  this  wide  divergence  of  opinion  ?  It  is  certainly  very 
difficult  to  refer  the  entire  work  of  these  mosaics  to  the  fifth  centur}'.  Some 
portions  point  rather  to  the  eight  or  ninth  century. 

^  Scluimise:   Op.  cit,  Bd.  iii,  s.  206. 


134 


ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


Under  the  dome  of  this  chapel  are  mosaic  medallions  of  Christ  and 
six  of  the  apostles,  three  on  either  side,  and  in  the  side  arches  on 
either  side  are  like  medallions  of  six  male  and  six  female  saints. 
Fig.  42  represents  the  mosaic  of  Chi'ist.     The  jeweled   corona  in 


Fig.  42.— Mosaic  of  Clirist  in  the  arc.hbisbop's  palace,  Ravenna.    Fifth  or  sixth  century. 

the  form  of  a  Greek  cross,  the  treatment  of  the  hair,  and  the 
general  facial  expression  are  quite  unique.  Vigorous  young  man- 
hood is  here  expressed,  yet  the  cast  of  countenance  is  somewhat 
sedate;  the  drawing  is  accurate,  the  coloring  appropriate.  A  some- 
what striking  red  tints  the  cheeks,  while  a  brilliant  white  sets  off 
the  eyes  and  higher  lights.  As  a  whole  this  mosaic  scarcely  con- 
forms to  any  of  the  known  types  of  Christ.' 

After  the  destructive  invasions  and  the  political  disruptions  of 
Mosaics  of  the  the  fifth  century,  art  activity  at  Rome  experienced  a 
sixth  century,  very  considerable  revival.  More  clearly  than  ever 
before  the  power  of  the  Church  in  preserving  the  elements  of  civi- 
lization in  the  midst  of  threatened  barbarism  is  seen.  Of  the  mo- 
saics of  the  sixth  century  we  can  refer  only  to  some  of  the  more 
important.  Well  preserved  examples  are  found  in  Rome,  Ravenna, 
Parenzo  in  Istria,  and  Constantinople. 

ss.  cosmas  and  The  most  important  mosaic  monuments  of  this  cen- 
Damian.  tury  at  Rome  are  preserved  in  the  Church  of  SS.  Cosmas 

e  Damiano,  which  was  built  by  Felix  VI.,  A.  D.  526-530  ;  they  are 

'  Schnaase :  I.  c. 


EAKLY  CHRISTIAN  PAINTINGS  AND  MOSAICS.  125 

in  the  apse  and  triiiiiiplial  areli.  These  re])resei)l  thive  distiiiet 
scenes  or  coneejttions.  On  the  triunn)hal  areli  the  a|>oealyittic  vision 
of  the  Lamb  amidst  the  seven  churches  is  pictured.  A  lainl*,  sur- 
mounted by  a  cross,  rests  upon  a  jcweletl  altar,  on  either  sick;  of 
wiiich  are  the  t^oUU'n  candlesticks.  Jieyond  these,  rii^ht  and  left, 
are  two  angels,  while  still  fuither  toward  each  extreme  are  symbols 
of  the  Evangelists.  The  most  elaborate  and  im])osing  work  is  in  the 
aiKse  (Fiir.  43).  The  central  tigure  liere  is  Christ,  who  is 
represented  as  floating  on  fleecy  clouds,  lie  extends  the 
right  hand  in  benediction,  while  in  the  left  he  holds  a  roll — the  sym- 
l)ol  of  authoritative  teacluJig.  The  head  is  nimbuse<l,  the  face 
bearded,  the  dra])ery  rich  and  flowing,  and  the  mien  severely  majestic. 
On  the  right  (spectator's)  of  the  main  figure  is  Peter  leading  forward 
St.  Cosmas,  who  bears  a  crown  indicative  of  martyriloin  ;  beyond 
is  St.  Theodore.  On  the  left  Paul  in  like  manner  is  leading  St. 
Damian,  who  also  bears  a  martyr  crown,  while  beyond  is  Felix,  tlie 
founder  of  the  Church.  The  extremities  are  occupied  by  palm  trees, 
on  (me  of  which  is  perched  the  phoenix,  symbol  of  immortality.  In 
a  narrow  zone  below,  the  third  scene  is  de])icted.  A  x  ii  i-  lowt-r 
nimbused  lamb  stands  upon  a  liill  or  mountain,  from  2"'"^- 
whose  base  flow  four  rivers  marked  by  their  names.'  On  either 
hand,  pressing  toward  the  central  figure,  are  six  lambs,  ivpresenting 
the  twelve  apostles,  wliile  on  the  extremes  the  sacred  cities  Jerusa- 
lem and  Bethlehem  appear.  The  entire  mosaic,  in  each  of  its  three 
scenes,  is  full  of  naturalness  and  life,  and  is  a  remarkable  example' 
of  the  recuperative  art  power  of  the  Church. 

A  class  of  mosaics  of  exceeding  richness  and  value  in  Raveima 
and  Constantinople  must  be  referred  to  the  sixth  century.  Tlie 
reign  of  Justinian  was  powerful  in  its  influence  on  Church  ami  State. 
The  convenient  codification  of  the  civil  law  was  only  a  single  illus- 
tration of  the  i>ainstaking  care  of  this  ruler  for  the  varied  interests  of 
the  empire.  Among  the  best  preserved  and  most  instructive  mosaics 
of  the  sixth  century  are  those  of  the  Church  of  San  Apollinare  Nuovo, 
in  Ravenna.'  Tlu'  friezes  on  either  side  of  the  nave  are  occupied  by 
triumplial  processions  of  lioly  men  and  women.  On  the  south  si<le 
martyrs  and  confessors,  chiefly  of  the  Ravenna  church,  clad  in  white 
garments,  ])ress  toward  the  tribune  to  ])resent  their  crowns  to  Chiist, 
who   is   enthroned,  and  attended   by   four  angels.       The    figure   of 

'  These  iire  not  sliown  iii  the  cut. 

'  V.  d'Ajriiicoiirt:  Architecture,  p.  xvii,  17-22,  who  fjives  pround  plan,  section,  and 
a  few  details  of  this  church.  Quast :  Die  altchrintlicht  Bamorke  ron  liavnna, 
as.  19.  20,  Tdf.  vii.  Garriicci:  Storia  deW  art  a-itt.,  iv.  Tav.  ocxlii-t'clii.  Richter.- 
Die  Mosaiken  von  Ravenna,  1878,  s.  69. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  PAINTINGS  AND  MOSAICS. 


127 


Christ  (a  partial  restoration)  is  most  iniitosini;  (/'.  Fi^'.  44).  Tlii* 
cxi)rfssion  is  dij^'niticd,  the  face  hcanlcd,  tlie  liair  lon^'  and  flowing, 
tlie  head  encircled  with  tiic  crucironn  nimbus,  and  the  ri_t,dit  hand  in- 
dic-ative  of  the  teailiiiig  ollici'.  On  tlie  (tpposite  or  north  frieze  is  a 
similar  procession  of  holy  women  clad  in  rich  attire,  bearing  crowns, 
passing  from  the  city 
of  Classe  to  join  the 
Magi  who  reverently 
offer  their  gifts  to  the 
Holy  ("liild  sitting 
upon  the  lap  of  Mary, 
also  enthroned  and  at- 
tended by  four  angels 
bearing  sceptres  in  tlu-ir 
hands.  Both  mot  her  and 
child  extend  the  hand  in 
invitation  and  blessing. 

From  Fig.  97,  which 
represents  a  portion  of 
the  north  frieze,  it  will 
be  seen  that  these  i)ro- 
cessions  are  full  of 
spirit  and  natui'alness. 
This  cut  will  also  help 
us  to  understand  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  ricii 
mosaics  between  the  windows,  and  in  the  cornice  above,  also  the 
medallions  in  the  s)»andrels  of  the  arches.  The  jieeuliar  relations  of 
Mother  and  Child  in  this  mosaic,  especially  their  like  attitude  in 
the  act  of  blessing,  would  suggest  that  the  cult  us  of  JMary,  which 
soon  afterward  exalted  the  Mother  above  the  Son,  had  already 
made  considei'able  progress.' 

Interesting  mosaics  ai-e  also  found  in  other  churches  of  Ravenna, 
as  Santa  Maria  in  Cosniedin,  San  Vitale  (the  arrangement  of  whose 
mosaics  can  be  seen  from  Figs.  107,  109),  and  San  Apollinai'c  in 
Classe  {i\  Fig.  99). 

In  extent  and  richness  the  mosaics  of  St.  Sophia  were  entirely 
worthy  of  the  grandest  church  of  the  Byzantine  Empire.  The  mag- 
nificent ])avements  and  dad<»s  of  richly  variegated  marlde  found 
their  counterpart  in  the  brilliancy  and  jterfection  of  the  mosaics 
upon   the  vast   and  varied  expar.ses  of  ceiling  and   dome.     The  his- 

'  Qnast:  IHe  alt-chrisHichen  Luuaerkc  icrn  liavtuiiu,  8.  "JO,  :ilso  T;\f.  vii,  Fig- 
ures 3,  5. 


Fig.  44.— Mosaic  of  Clirist  In  San  Aiiolllnarc  Nucvo,  Ra- 
venna.   Sixth  wntiiry 


128  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

toric  value  of  these  jnonuments  is  somewhat  lessened  by  the  uncer- 
tainty of  their  age."  The  repeated  attempts  of  the  iconoclastic 
Mussulman  to  obliterate  the  mosaics  by  removing  the  tesserce, 
and  by  covering  the  whole  with  coats  of  whitewash,  greatly 
marred  their  original  incomparable  beauty.  The  repairs  of  this 
church,  under  the  direction  of  the  Italian  architect  Fossati,  gave 
opportunity  for  careful  drawings  of  the  parts  which  have  survived." 
These  mosaics  differ  from  those  of  Galla  Placidia  of  Ravenna,  Santa 
Pudenziana  of  Rome,  and  others,  in  that  there  is  little  attempt  at 
pictorial  effect  or  perspective.  They  are  for  the  most  part  isolated 
figures  of  prophets  or  saints,  generally  of  great  dignity,  with  the 
attendant  ornamentation  of  vines,  borders,  flowers,  etc.  The  fixed- 
ness of  type  which  later  characterized  nearly  all  the  pictorial  art  of 
the  East  is  not  prominent  in  these  mosaics  of  St.  Sophia.  The 
adornments  of  the  panels,  of  the  spandrels  of  the  arches,  etc.,  are 
free  and  cheerful.  In  the  sections  of  the  vast  dome  the  outlines  of 
four  colossal  figures  of  seraphs  with  overshadowing  wings  are  still 
seen.*  They  have  a  vigor  and  freshness  of  treatment  indicative  of 
an  age  of  considerable  artistic  freedom.  Also  the  mosaics  of  the 
prophets  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  Daniel,  exhibit  much 
skill  in  the  origination  of  independent  forms  and  expression,  while 
their  variety  of  attitude  argues  wholesome  exemption  of  the 
artist  from  the  rigid  ecclesiastical  art  canons  which  later  became 
imperative. 

The  immense  mosaic  picture  [v.  Fig.  45)  of  Christ,  with  the 
prostrate  emperor  and  the  medallion  busts  of  Mary  and  an  angel 
(St.  Michael  ?),  is  believed  to  be  of  later  origin.  This  is  shown  by 
the  style  and  accessories  of  the  composition.  Christ,  seated  on  a 
magnificent  throne,  raises  his  right  hand  in  the  attitude  of  blessing 
or  teaching,  while  the  left  supports  the  open  book.  His  head  is 
surrounded  by  the  nimbus,  the  face  is  bearded,  the  whole  mien  im- 
pressive. Before  him,  in  the  attitude  of  servile  prostration,  is 
the  emperor,''  clad  in  most  gorgeous  attire,  with  nimbused  head  and 

'  "Woltinaiin  and  "Woermann :  History  of  Painting,  vol.  i,  pp.  2.".3,  refer  these 
mosaics  to  the  rcigu  of  Basil  the  Macedonian,  in  the  latter  part  of  tlie  ninth  century. 
Evidently  they  are  of  various  dates,  but  some  bear  evidence  of  an  earlier  origin  than 
these  authorities  suppose. 

^  Fossati :  Aya  Sofia,  Constantinople,  as  recently  restored  by  order  of  H.  M.  the 
Sultan,  Abdul  Mejid.  London,  1852.  Salzenberg:  AU-christliche  Baudenkmale  von 
Constaiitinople,  with  magnificent  plates. 

'  See  Fig.  1 IG,  a  section  of  St.  Sophia,  where  two  of  these  are  shown. 

*  Opinions  relative  to  tiie  sovereign  here  represented  ore  various.  Some  (Wolt- 
mann  and  Woermann  and  others)  have  seen  in  it  Basil  I.,  wlio  restored  the  western 
apse  of  the  church   into  which  this  entrance  leads :.  others  (Vemibles,  e?  aZ.)  call  it 


EARLY  ClIinsriAX  PAI.\Tl.\.;s  AND  MOSAICS. 


12't 


j('W('li'<l  cruwii.  Oiii'iital  tiistc  is  iti-oiiiinciil,  .•iiid  art  «K'caiU'iici' 
is  here  painfulK'  niaiiilVst.  Tlii'  subji-ctioii  <•!'  the  (ciiiiioral  to  tlio 
spiiidial  ]io\V('i-  is  jilaiiily  tauiL,dit  by  this  mosaic;  llic  su|tr('iiiacy 
of  (lie  '•  Diviiu'  Wisdom,"  to  whom  the  <j:ori,a'oiis  lcm|tl('  was  <h'(li- 
•atc'd,  is  most  coiisjiiciioiis.     The  olh.T  mosaics  of  this  church,  many 


Fi<r.  ■l.').--Mo.-iaic  of  ("hrist  from  St.  Sophia,  Constaulinople. 

of  wliicli  aro  of  ox(|iiisito  workmanship  but  of  varied  artistic  merit, 
cannot  hore  be  described.  Eacii  lias  a  vabial)k'  lesson  for  the  his- 
torian of  art  and  for  the  student  of  the  history  (»f  the  (Treek 
Cliiircli. 

Nearly  contem]»oraneous  with  St.  Sophia  at  Constantinople  is  St. 
Sophia  of  Thessalonica.  An  immense  expanse  of  mosaics,  said  to 
covi'r  nearly  six  hundred  square  yards,  represents  the  ascension. 
The  parts  in  the  center  of  the  dome  have  suffered  much,  'i'his  was 
occupied  by  the  ascending?  Christ,  attended  by  anp-ls.  The  other 
prominent  personai^es  were  the  VirLjfin  and  the  apostles,  wrouirht 
out  in  colossal  fiijures  more  than  twelve  feet  h\>x]\.  'J'exier  and 
Pullan'  are  of  the  opinion  tliat  these  mosaics  were  )»roduce<l  lu-fon' 
the  influence  of  ecclesiastical  Jirt  traditions  had  checki'd  the  freedom 
of  the  Eastern  artisans.  They  notice  the  survival  of  creative  and 
technic  power  in  the  variety  of  posture  and  of  the  facial  ex|)ression 
in  the  fitjures.  Instead  of  Ciie  stiff  uniformity  of  a  later  jieriod, 
tlu'  Viru^in  and  the  two  auijels  (one  on  either  side), who  adilress  the 
a))ostles,  have  each  decided  ])ersonal  characteristics.  The  treatment 
i-i  viijorous,  and  the  handlinij:  of  the  colors  in   the  drapery,  etc.,   is 

Constantino  Poironatns ;  wliilo  still  others  (Gerspach,  et  al)  call  it  Ju'^tinian.  The 
troneral  stylo  of  this  fiRiire  in  expression  and  dress  is  so  different  from  well  known 
pictures  of  Justinian  ei.«c\vhcre  preserved  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  believe  tlint  it 
is  intended  for  tliis  emperor. 

'  £'/lises  Bijzantine-1,  plates  .\1,  xli.  pp.  142-144. 
9 


130 


ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


free  and  pleasing.  Instead  of  the  lixed  attitude  of  the  eighth  and 
ninth  centuries,  each  one  of  the  apostles  has  an  individuality  ;  some 
look  upward  into  heaven,  others  with  downcast  face  are  in  prayerful 
meditation,  Avhile  others  raise  the  hands  in  expression  of  surprise.' 

Considerable  mosaic  Avork  is  also  found  in  the  aj^se  of  St.  Cath- 
arine's on  Mount  Sinai.  The  subjects  have  been  variously  described 
by  travellers.  The  transfiguration,  Avith  figures  of  Christ,  Moses, 
and  Elias,  is  the  central  scene.  The  accompanying  figures  of 
prophets,  apostles,  and  saintSj  medallion  busts  of  Justinian  and 
Theodora,  and  the  oft-repeated  scenes  of  Moses  at  the  burning  bush 
and  the  receiving  of  the  tables  of  the  law,  contain  little  that  is 
peculiar.^ 

'  There  seems  to  be  a  very  imimate  connection  between  this  cliurcli  and  St. 
Sopliia  at  Constantinople. 

*  No  thorongh  study  of  these  has  yet  been  made  by  competent  speciahsts.  The 
want  of  trustworthy  photographs  or  plates  leaves  the  chronology  and  technical  exe- 
(Hition,  as  well  as  the  archaeological  value,  of  these  mosaics  undetermined.  Many  v.d- 
uablc  articles  upon  Christian  mosaics  have  appeared  from  time  to  time  in  the 
European  reviews.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  supply  the  lack  of  monuments  by 
the  literary  rolerences  to  many  now  lost  mosaics.  Among  the  most  skilful  and  suc- 
ces.sful  of  these  workers  must  be  reckoned  Eugene  Miintz  of  Paris,  and  Professor 
Frothingham  of  Princeton  University. 


EAKLV  CIIKISTrAN  SCULPTURE.  131 


CHAPTER  V. 

EARLY  CHRISTIAN  SCULPTURE. 

Wic  liave  bofdiv  (liook  i,  chap,  ii)  traced  tlio  cflPect  of  the  .Towish 
law  and  ot"  the  .Semitic  imagination  npon  tlie  cultivation  of  the  arts 
of  form  ;  also  the  influence  of  these  factors  in  the  development  of 
the  Christian  art  of  the  first  two  centuries. 

Tiu'  avoidance  of  the  seductive  power  of  heauty,  as  emhodied  in 
the  matchless  creations  of  the  heathen  artists,  and  of  art  in  its  asso- 
ciations with   a   corrupting  polytheism,  was  most   manifest    Avith 

res])ect  to  sculi)ture.'     As  before  noticed,  the  pictures   „ 
,  ^        .  1  .  '    .       '  Reasons  of  ihi- 

of  Christ  were  more  readily  tolerated  than  his  j)resenta-   stemiiiKiiostii- 
tion  in  free  statuary.     This  was  prohably  due  to  the  I'y ''""'• 
fact  that  sculpture  is  the  most  materializing  of  all  the  fine  arts.     It 
was  most  employed  in  connection  with  the  pagan  cultus,  and  was 
therefore  most  threatening  to  the  ])urit3''  of  a  monotheistic  faith. 

There  was  no  agreement  in  tlic  traditions  of  the  early  Church  re- 
specting Christ's  })hysical    chai'acteristics  and    ai)])ear-   Rgj^sonsofd 
ance.     ^Moreover,    when    the    Cliiistian   Church   was  in   cadence  of 
circumstances  favorable  to  the  cultivation  of   the  fine  ^^"'p'"'"*'- 
arts,  sculpture,  which  had  formerly  been  almost  the  foremost  art 
among  the   Greeks,  had  fallen   into  a  condition  of  sad  decadence,'' 
and   painting  had  assumed  the   chief  prominence.     Hence  few,  if 
any,  works  of  Christian  sculpture  of  an  earlier  date  than  the   last 
of  the  third  or  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century  have  been  pre- 
served to  our  day.     Indeed,  the  number  of  free  statues   no protraitures 
of    early    Christian     origin     is     excej>tionalIy     small,   "f  Christ. 
Scarcely  a  half  dozen  of   Clirist  have  survived  from  the  first  five 

'  We  li.ivG  already  saitl  that  this  seeminij  hostility  of  some  of  the  Christian  father.'^ 
to  tlio  patronage  and  production  of  \vorl\S  of  art  was  not  due  to  a  lack  of  {esthetic 
feelinsr,  but  it  arose  from  fear  of  the  contaminatinc;  influence  of  heatlicn  worship. 
Tlie  same  tendency  is  noticed  from  time  to  time  in  the  liistory  of  the  Church.  The 
denunciations  of  the  revived  lieathcnism  in  the  Italian  paintinp  at  the  close  of  the 
fifteenth  cenlurj',  by  Savonarola,  produced  a  marked  revolution  in  the  style  of  some 
of  tlie  preat  painters  of  the  period.  A  like  result  is  noticed  in  the  attempts  of 
Zwiiifrlius,  Calvin,  and  others  in  rcmovina;  statties  from  the  churches,  v.  Lccky: 
Hixf.  of  lialiowtlism^  vol.  i,  pp.  2.j9,  200 ;  and  Gruencisen :  Z>e  Protestantiviio  artibw 
haud  inf-sto. 

'  Labarte:  Ilistoire  des  acte  industrieli.  tom.  i.  p.  12. 


132 


ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


centuries.  While  Eusebius'  testifies  to  liaving  seen  at  Cresarea 
Pliilippi  a  statue  of  Christ  extending  his  hand  toward  the  woman 
having  an  issue  of  blood,  to  cure  her,  and  Philostorgius'  speaks 
of  its  being  destroyed  under  Julian,  it  is  generally  agreed  that 
the  traditions  respecting  the  early  ])ortraitures  of  Christ,  pictorial 
or  plastic,  have  very  slender  support.  The  free  statues  which 
remain  are  manifestly  not  designed  for  portraitures,  but  are  of  a 
symbolic  character.  In  all  alike  Christ  is  represented  as  the  Good 
Shepherd  "  who  careth  for  the  sheep."  The  dress  is  that  of  the 
shepherd  of  the  period,  the  ordinary  tunic;  the  feet  are  either 
naked  or  sandaled,  while  the  implements  of  the  shepherd's  vocation, 
the  purse  and  the  staff,  are  sometimes  present. 

Figs,  46  and  48  are  representations  of  the  finest  and  best  preserved 

of  these  free  statuettes.  It  is  now 
in  the  Lateran  Museum  at  Rome. 
It  has  been  restored  in  parts.  The 
si)irit    and    naturalness    of  „»,       ^       . 

1  TheGood 

the  work  are  exceptionally  Shepherd  in 
fine,    and    readily   suggest   ^•''^e  statuary. 
a  classic  sympathy  and  oi'igin. 

A  second  example  is  given  in  Fig.  47. 
The  original  is  also  in  the  Lateijn 
Museum.  The  execution  is  rude,  and 
the  general  tone  of  tlie  work  is  far  in- 
ferior to  that  represented  by  Fig.  40. 
The  general  spirit  of  the  biblical 
sjmabol  is,  l.owevcr,  fully  preserved. 
Instead  of  the  shepherd's  purse,  as  in 
Fig.  46,  here  is  the  shepherd's  staff  or 
crook.^ 

There  are  two  other  statuettes,  one 
preserved  in  the  church  museum  of  the 
College  of  Rome,  the  other  in  the 
basilica  San  Clemente,  which  differ  little  in  general  art  character  from 
the  last,  and  are  in  close  affiliation  with  it  in  subject  and  spirit.     Hiib- 


^^^^ 

{\y^'W^^mK^ibW 

s^^w 

Mtw^^^^^^ 

|w^^^^ 

^y'lE^  '' 

W 

Ul' 

^_ 

£    1 

■y 

"Fig.  46.-Statue[te  of  the  Good  Shep 
herd.    Liiteran  Museum. 


'  Hist.  Eccles.,  vii,  18. 

«  Hist.  Ecdes..  vii.  2. 

'  These  and  all  other  autotj-pes  used  in  this  chapter  arc  tnken  In-  permission  from 
the  excellent  work  of  Th.  Roller:  Zes  Catacombes  de  Rome.  We  have  preferred 
these  impressions  from  photographs  to  claboi'ate  engravings,  since  they  give  to  tlie 
lay  reader  a  jiister  idea  of  the  orig'nal  objects.  "With  great  generosity,  M.  Roller, 
in  a  letter  fall  of  the  true  spirit  of  the  Christian  scholar,  placed  all  his  plates  at  the 
disposal  of  tlie  antlior  of  this  hand-book. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  S(  ILPTIRK. 


138 


nor'  has  doscribcd  a  small  statue  of  the  Ciootl  Shepherd  fouml  in 
Seville,  Spain.  Tiie  H<,nire  of  the  laiiil)  is  waiitiiiG:.  The  oritrin  and 
ehronoloijy  are  uiieertain,  altkoui^h 
he  ineliiies  to  phue  it  near  the  elose 
of  tlie  fourth  century. 

The  general  artistic  treatment  <>[' 
these  statues  closely  conforms  to  the 
contemporary  heat  lien  art  ;  never- 
theless, in  all  alike  llu'  subject  is 
distinctively  Christian  :  the  office 
work  of  the  (iood  Shepherd  in  bring- 
ing back  to  the  fold  the  lost  sheej).- 
The  difference  between  these  and 
the  statues  of  the  ram-bearing  Mer- 
cury,   Ilermes-Kriophoros,   is    maii- 

DiiTerenc.   of  ''^''^^-     Invariably  a   full 

the  Good  siiep-  drapcrv  is  found   in   the 

herd  f ntni   the  ^    ^        '    /■ .  i      i  •>        i  o  i 

ram-beariiiK  statuesoi  the  Good  MiCp- 

Mercury.  herd,    while    the    pagan 

Kriophori  have  complete  or  partial 
midity  as  a  characteristic  feature.'' 
This  is  well  illustrated  by  comj)aring  Figs.  48  and  49, 

Another  work,  daimecl  by  some  able  writers  to  be  of  Christian 
origin,  is  the  celebrated  bronze  statue  of  St,  Peter,  now  ^,j^,  bronze 
found  in  the  michlle  nave  of  St.  Peter's,  Rome.  ()i)in-  statue  of  st 
ions  repecting  its  origin,  chronology,  and  motive  have  '^^^' 
been  various  and  sometimes  contradictory.  The  statue  is  certaiidy 
very  im))Osing,  and,  if  genuine,  must  be  regarded  as  by  far  the  most 
imj)ortant  ])lastic  work  of  the  early  Christian  centuries.  The 
ai»ostle  is  represented  seated  in  a  chair  of  Roman  style,  uplifting 
the  right  hand  in  the  attitude  of  teaching.  The  head  is  lirndy  set  ; 
the  hair  is  thiik  and  curled,  and  is  of  the  type  traditionally 
ascribed  to  Peter,  which  is  met  upon  early  sarcojjhagi  and  in  fres- 
cos fiom  the  catacombs.  The  folds  of  the  drai)ery  are  not  unworthy 
the  best  classic  period,  while  the  general  pose  is  equal  to  that  of  tin- 


Fig.  Jr.-  (iodd  Sliephcrd  with  cnnik  >  r 
staff.    Lateran  Miiseiiiii. 


'  Die  antiken  Bildwerke  von  Madrid,  Berlin,  18G2,  s.  324. 

'  V.  Th.  Roller :  Le^i  Catawiuhvs  dt  Home,  vol.  i,  p.  265,  where  the  extreme  view  ol 
Raoiil-Uochetto  respecting  the  ahsolmo  lack  of  ori;rinality  of  Christiou  art  is 
vigorously  treated. 

'Chanot:  In  the  Gazette  Archeolo<jique,  1S78,  pp.  17.  et  seq.,  and  pp.  100,  et  seq. 
We  have  elsewhere  more  fully  examined  these  difTerenccs,  Book  i,  chap.  iii.  v.  also 
Veyries:  Les  Fi(juri's  Criopliores  daius  Vart  gnc,  tart  Greco-romain  et  I'art  chrctien, 
Paris,  1884,  pp.  61-81,  especially  pp.  80,  81. 


134 


ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


more  celebrated  works  of  the  fourth  century.  Every  part  of  the 
statue  indicates  a  careful  adherence  to  some  antique  model,  and 
therefore  evinces  little  originality  of  treatment.'  The  key  in  the 
left  hand  is  an  addition  of  a  later  period,  probably  of  the  sixteenth 
century. 


Fig.  48.  — The  Good  Sliepherd^ 
To  compare  with  Hermes-Kriophoros, 
Fig.  48. 


Fig.  49.  —  Hermes-Krinph^ros 
from  Wilton  House.  To  coiupai-e 
v.-itli  Fig  47. 


Another  work  in  free  sculpture  is  the  statue  of  St.  Hippolytus, 
now  preserved  in  the  Lateran  Museum,  Fig.  50.  It  was  discovered 
in  1551.  Only  the  lower  part  of  the  figure  and  the  chair  are  orig- 
inal, the  other  parts  being  modern  restorations.  In  its  statue  of  st. 
present  restored  form  it  represents  St.  Hippolytus  seated  Hippolytus. 
on  a  cathedra,  clad  in  the  garb  usual  to  the  ancient  philosophers, 

1  Luebke:  History  of  Sculpture,  vol.  i,  p.  33T.     It  is  for  this  and  other  reasons  that 
the  Cliristiau  origin  and  subject  of  the  statue  have  been  stoutly  denied. 


EAllLY  CHRISTIAN  SCULPTLliE. 


i:!.-) 


holdiiiij  in  liis  left  liaiul  a  l)ook   upon  wliioli  rests  tlie  riplit  clljow. 
'i'liu  t'anoti  J\cschalis,  or  table  for  calculatini,'  Easter,  wliieli  he  is 


FlR.  50.— Restored  statue  of  Htppolytus. 


.said  to  have  invented,  is  enfjraved  in  Greek  cliaracters  on  one  side 
of  the  chair  ;  on  tlie  other  is  a  partial  list  of  his  writings.     The  re- 


^86  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

stored  statue  is  a  work  of  great  dignity  and  excellence.  As  m  the 
ease  of  the  statue  of  St.  Peter,  there  has  been  much  controversy 
respecting  its  Christian  origin.  There  seems  to  be  sufficient 
Its  Christian  ^'^ason,  however,  for  believing  that  it  cannot  be  of  a 
origin  q  u  e  s-  later  date  than  the  sixth  centur}'-,  while,  from  artistic 
tioned.  considerations,  some  able  archaeologists  are  led  to  place 

it  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  third,  or  the  beginning  of  the  fourth 
century.  We  have  not  space  to  enter  into  the  examination  of  these 
arguments.' 

The  general  type  of  Christ  found  in  Christian  sculpture  is  rather 
that  of  the  early  Christian  frescos,  and  seems  to  conform  more  closely 
to  the  pagan  conception  of  deity,  that  is,  that  divinity  must  be  rep- 
Type  of  Christ  I'ssented  under  the  form  of  a  beautiful  and  vigorous 
i  n  Christian  manhood.  The  historic  scenes  are  usually  realistic.  The 
scu  p  ure.  lessons  are  for  the  most  part  easily  understood  ;  mystery 

and  an  esoteric  exclusiveness  are  seldom  suggested.  Sometimes  a  pur- 
pose to  depict  scenes  in  the  order  of  their  historic  development,  or  of 
their  dogmatic  connection,  is  apparent  ;  at  other  times  the  principle 
of  artistic  grouping  or  balancing  seems  dominant.  Into  some  of 
the  most  noted  sarco})hagi  an  architectural  principle  is  introduced. 
The  principles  whereby  the  surface  is  divided  into  sections  by  means 
chriSan^  '"  ^^  pillars  Avhich  support  an  ornamental  entablature, 
sculpture.  Upon  these  surfaces  are  found  inscriptions  or  figures  in 

relief.  Sometimes  the  space  is  divided  into  zones,  in  each  of  whieli 
a  progressive  history  or  a  rich  symbolism  may  be  found. 

The  timid  caution  which  influenced  the  Christian  fathers  to  in- 
dulge but  sparingl}^  in  the  use  of  free  statuary  was  not  cherished 
respecting  these  works  in  relief.  From  the  first  part  of  the  fourth 
century  the  sculptures  on  burial  monuments  are  numerous.  In 
The  Christian   general  style  they  adhere  quite   closely  to  the  contem- 

sarcophagi   porary  pagan  art.     In  the  distril)ution  of  motives,  in  the 

have  little  ar-    ^  -j    ^     ^  ^  ' 

tistic  original-   pose  and  balancing  of  parts  to  make  a  harmonious  whole, 

*'y-  and   in  the  character  of  their  technique,  the  Christian 

sarcophagi  can  claim  little  originality.     The  marked  difference  is  in 

But     embody   the  changed   cycle   of  the  end^odied  thought.     In  this 

new  thought,     respect  they  are  in  striking  contrast  with  similar  pagan 

monuments.     Nevertheless  the  subjects  sculptured  on  these  sarcoph- 

'AmoDS  manv  see  Bi'.clier:  In  Mio^rie's  pditinn  ol"  tlie  works  oF  St.  Hippolvtns. 
Engravings.  gi\-ing  both  s'de  views  of  ilie  st;itiie  and  tlio  icxi,  "!'  ilie  Canon  Pd^rhalls 
are  there  given,  and  Bnclier  examines  tlie  eontent  of  ilie  Canon  itself.  Bnn.-eu  : 
Hippolytus  und  xeiw.  Ze.it.,  lie  Abtli.,  ss.  IG.!.  1(11.  XortJicote  and  Brownlow  :  7?t)v»'/ 
Sotterranea,  2d  ed.,  vol.  ii,  pp.  2G2-265.  Apiieli :  Miiiuments  of  Earhj  Chridian  Art 
p.  5. 


KAKLV  cniMSTIAN  SCULPTUHP].  I;j7 

agi  are  very  like  tliosc  of  tlie  fri'scos  ;iii<l  mosaies.  Here,  too,  is  Inninl 
a  rieh  syinbolisin  ;  liere  are  sei'ii  tlic  su<;<xestive  l)il)lic;il  typr  ami 
antitype,  as  well  as  the  instnietive  Seripture  history.  Thci-e  is  hardiv 
a  seeiie  that  has  not  already  lucn  nut  in  the  diseussion  of  Christian 
])aintinuf.  The  ereation  ol"  our  lirst  parents,  the  tenijitation  by  tin; 
serpent,  the  saeritiee  of  Isaac,  Moses  in  the  presenee  of  the  hurninu; 
bush,  or  strikinLf  watrr  from  the  rock,  the  history  of  Jonah,  tie.' 
three  Ilebri-w  worthies  in  the  burniiiL!:  fnrnace,  Daniel  in  the  lion's 
den,  and  sonietitncs  the  translation  of  Klijali,  ari'  the  Ti,e  subjects 
ehii'f  subjects  from  the  Old  Testament  history  ;  while  ii^'atod. 
the  \  arious  benevolent  works  of  Christ,  the  first  miracle  in  Cana  of 
Galilee,  the  multii)lieation  of  the  loaves,  the  liealing  of  the  j)ar- 
alytie,  the  opening  of  the  eyes  of  the  blind,  the  cure  of  the  woman 
with  the  issue  of  blood,  and  the  raising  of  Lazarus  are  the  favoiite 
scenes  from  the  New  Testament.  Ineidi-nts  in  the  life  of  Christ, 
the  nativity,  the  teaching  of  the  disciples,  the  arrest,  the  trial,  the 
deni;il  by  Peter,  the  handwashing  by  Pilate,  the  resurrection,  and 
j)rol)ably'  the  ascension  are  also  found  sculpt ui'ed  on  these  burial 
monuments.  Rei)resentations  of  the  crucilixion  are  for  pew  scenes  of 
tlu'  UKtst  ])art  avoided  during  the  iirst  foui-  and  a  half  sufferlnp. 
centuries;'-  also  the  other  scenes  of  special  sull'ering  in  the  life  of  our 
T^ord.  The  scope  of  these  sculjjtures,  as  well  as  their  art  value,  can 
best  be  learned  from  a  few  examjiles. 

Fig,  51  represents  one  of  the  older  Christian  sarcophagi  that  have 
been  preserved.  We  are  immediately  reminded  by  this  of  some  of 
the  earliest  frescos  of  the  catacombs.  Tlu'  joyous  scene  of  the  vint- 
age, the  pastoral  simplicity  shown  in  the  free  association  of  the 
genii  with  the  animal  world,  the  rich  luxuriance  of  the  vine  and  its 
fruit,  suggest  a  decorative  rather  than  a  symbolic  principle.  In  the 
absence  of  the  figures  of  the  (iood  Sheplu-rd  there  would  Tiic decorative 
be  nothing  in  the  scenes  to  show  the  Christian  character  I'l/,",'.,'/''^  ii,e 
of  the  sarco])hagus;  thej'  would  be  equally  becoming  to  fyinboiic. 
a  ))agan  burial  monument.  Indeed,  in  general  spirit  the  sculpture 
well  accords  with  that  found  on  many  works  of  heathen  origin.  Yet 
the  ])eculiarities  of  the  thn-e  figures  bearing  the  sheej)  uj)on  the 
shoulders,  to  which  reference  has  elsewhere  been  made  (r.  ]>.  l.S:{,  l;i4), 
clearly  ]»rove  them  to  be  designed  for  the  Good  Shepherd,  an<l  not 
for  representations  of  the  ram-bearini,''  .Mt-rcury.  While,  therefore,  it 
may  not  l»e  unre.isoiiable  to  regard  the  vintage  sci'ues  as  mainly 
decorative,  it  is  )>ossible  that  to  the  mind  of  the  designer  or  of  the 

'  The  interprotatioi)  of  tlio  scenes  in  wliicli  some  iirclijeologist.s  see  tlie  ascensiou 
depicted  is  somewhat  donbtfnl. 

'  This  question  has  been  e.\Mmin  d  clsewliere,  r.  p.  84. 


138 


ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


Possible 
bolism. 


artizan  tliere  ma}'-  have  been  present  a  reference  to  the  symbol  of 
syin-  the  vine  and  its  branches,  and  to  the  joys  and  fruition 
of  those  who  are  under  the  tender  care  and  heavenly 
guidance  of  the  Good  Shepherd.     The  vigor  and  naturalness  of  the 

artistic  treatment  would 
point  to  an  origin  jjrior  to 
the  serious  art  decadence 
of  the  fourtli  and  fifth 
centuries. 

The  translation  of  Eli- 
jah (Fig.  52)  is  a  subject 
of  ver}^  infrequent  occur- 
rence in  early  Christian 
art.    We   have  elsewhere 

(p.  61)  noticed    Translation  ol 

the  r  e  s  e  m-  EiiJaii. 
blance  of  this  to  the 
heathen  representations 
of  the  sun-god  and  his 
chariot.  The  Christian 
character  of  this,  and  of  a 
somewhat  similar  sarcoph- 
agus given  in  Bosio's 
work,  cannot,  however,  be 
doubted.  A  fresco  of 
the  same  scene  is  likewise 
found  in  the  catacomb  of 
SS.  Nereus  and  Achilles. 
At  a  somewhat  later  date, 
likewise,  it  reappears  on 
some  of  the  sarcophagi  of 
Aries.  The  two  main 
figures  and  their  action 
are  imderstood  without 
difiiculty.  Plainly  the  as- 
cending prophet  is  giving 

to    his    succes-   1 1  s  signifl- 

oi   „  1,; ,    cance. 
sor  m  oincc  nis 

mantle,  and  therewith  is 
to  come  a  double  meas- 
ure of  his  spirit.  The 
significance  of  the  small 
figures  in  the  central  back' 


EARLY  CIIUISTIAN  SCULPTURE. 


VYJ 


frround,  and  of  tlic  bear  in  tlit-  lower  rii^lit  liand  corner,  is  not  so  nian- 
itest.  8oine  liave  su^'j^t'Slcd  tliat  licrt'in  iniixlit  hv  a  retVrcni-e  to  the 
children  who  mocked  the  prophet,  and  U)  the  instrument  ol'  their  tear- 
ful punishment.  The  otlur  sareophai,^us  in  Rome  which  scul]>tures 
this  scene  contains  a  jjlainly  mythological  element  in  the  a  myiiioloRlc 
rorm  of  a  river-god  that  personifies  the  Jordan.  This  is  a  «;i<-'muut. 
-najestic,  half-nude  figure,  in  a  reclining  jtosture,  with  rich  Howinghair 


The  translation  of  Elijah.    Sarcophaifus  in  the  Lateran  MuM-mn. 


held  back  by  a  band.  He  rests  one  arm  upon  an  urn  from  which 
flow  the  living  waters,  and  holds  in  the  right  hand  a  reed,  also  sym- 
bolic of  the  river.  The  action  in  these  sarcophagi  is  full  of  life, 
and  the  artistic  quality  of  the  work  fairly  good. 

Fig.  53  represents  a  sarco]thagus  fi-om  the  cryj^t  of  Saint  I\'ter's. 
The  crowded  condition  of  the  objects  in  alto  relievo  causes  a  little 


Tin.  53.— The  history  of  Jonah  and  other  st-enes.    From  a  »arc"i>liaKus  iu  the  Lateran  Museui.. 


obscuritv,  and   conse(juent   uncertainty  in  the   inter])retation.     The 
main  scene  in  the  lower  jtortion  of  the  sarcoi)hagus  is  plain;  it  illus- 
trates the  history  of  Jonah.    The  tempest  is  indicated  by   xhe  history  of 
the  full-swelling  sail,  and  by  the  figure  above,  blowing   J""**'- 
upon  it  from  the  conch-shell.     The  sea-monster  receives  the  ening 


140  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

prophet  whom  the  crew  cast  overhoard,  and  vomits  him  forth  upon 
the  land,  while  above  Jonah  is  represented  reclining  in  peace  under 
the  grateful  shade  of  the  gourd.  On  the  extreme  right  of  the  upper 
zone  the  Good  Shepherd  leads  forth  the  sheep  from  a  house,  the 
fold,  the  church,  while  at  the  extreme  left  appears  the  Wonder- 
And  its  attend-  worker  raising  Lazarus.  The  center  is  occupied 
ant  scenes.  with  what  appears  to  be  the  scene  of  the  smiting 
of  the  rock  by  Moses,  where  the  people  slake  their  thirst  with 
the  refreshing  water.  The  history  of  Jonah  frequently  recurs 
on  the  Christian  sarcophagi,*  since  the  truth  it  foreshadowed  was 
among  the  most  distinctive  and  precious  of  all  which  the  apostles 
inculcated. 

A  work  of  much  artistic  excellence  is  represented  by  Fig.  54.  It 
was  formerly  in  the  church  San  Paolo  fuori  le  mura,  Rome,  but  is 
A  notable  sar-  now  in  the  Laterau  Museum.  The  two  busts  in  tlie 
cophagusof   gii(^ii.ii]^g  frame  are    in   alto  relievo,  ^^   are  most  other 

the   L  a  t  e  r  a  n  '  _     _ 

Museum.  figures  of  the  sarcophagus.     The  artistic  handling  and 

execution  are  exceptionally  vigorous.  The  grouping  is  varied  and 
natural,  the  pose  well-studied,  the  drapery  wrought  out  with  unusual 
care.  The  division  of  the  space  into  two  zones  is  often  met.  While 
the  reference  in  most  of  the  scenes  is  readily  understood,  it  is  not 
easy  to  discover  any  necessary  relation  of  these  ideas  one  to  the  other 
Its  subjects  and  ^^  the  order  of  a  series.  The  principle  of  artistic  balanc- 
treatment.  i^g  jg  manifestly  observed,  also  the  study  of  economy 
of  space.  In  the  upper  zone  on  either  side  of  the  busts  are  noticed 
eight  larger  figures,  while  the  cock,  in  the  scene  of  the  denial  of 
Peter,  is  balanced  by  the  child,  in  the  sacrifice  of  Isaac.  The 
hand  of  Moses,  receiving  the  table  of  the  law,  is  balanced  by  tlie 
outstretched  arm  of  Abraham  which  is  arrested  by  the  hand  break- 
ing forth  from  the  clouds.  In  the  lower  zone,  also,  eight  adult 
figures  are  on  either  side  of  the  central  scene,  while  one  of  the  lions 
on  the  left  is  balanced  by  the  figure  of  the  blind  receiving  his  sight. 
It  is  noticeable  that  here,  also,  the  type  of  Christ  in  each  of  his  acts — 
of  raising  Lazarus,  of  rebuking  Peter,  of  opening  the  eyes  of  the 
blind,  and  of  multiplying  the  loaves — conforms  to  that  of  the  earlier 
frescos  of  the  catacombs,  and  is  more  consonant  with  the  pagan 
notion  that  divinity  should  be  represented  under  forms  of  high^^st 
physical  perfection. 

The   frequency  of   the  recurrence    of    several    Scripture    scenes 

'Burgon:  Lttlers  frum  Rnvit  (Letter  xx),  says  tliat  of  fifty-five  sarcophagi  which 
he  examined  twenty-tlireo  contained  the  history  of  Jonah.  Of  one  hundred  and 
ninety-five  in  Rome,  oulbide  the  Lateran  Museum,  twenty-eight  contain  this  history. 
V.  p.  142,  note  2. 


143  ARCII.EOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

is  quite  remarkable.  On  fifty-five  sarcopliagi  whicli  Burgon'  exam- 
Frequency  of  inecl  in  the  Lateran  Museum,  lie  found  the  smiting  of  the 
the  recurrence   ^.^^^  ^^  occur  twenty-thi'ee  times  ;  the  miracle  of  the 

of  vai'ious  sub-  ,        "^  ' 

jects.  loaves,  twenty  times  ;    the  giving  sight   to  the  blind, 

nineteen  times;  the  raising  of  Lazarus,  sixteen  times;  Daniel  in  the 
lions'  den,  fourteen  times  ;  the  sacrifice  of  Isaac,  eleven  times. 
While  these  are  thus  frequent,  the  crowning  with  thorns  occurs  but 
once,  and  of  a  real  crucifixion  there  is  no  trace.  One  hundred 
and  ninety-five  Christian  sarcophagi  at  Rome,  outside  of  the  Lat- 
eran Museum,  contain  the  history  of  Jonah  twenty-eight  times; 
Moses  smiting  the  rock,  ten  times;  our  first  pai'ents,  nine  times; 
sacrifice  of  Isaac,  eight  times;  the  raising  of  Lazarus,  six  times;  the 
multiplication  of  the  bread,  and  the  miracle  in  Cana,  each  six  times." 
Rich  architectural  effects  are  met  u]3on  several  of  the  best  sar- 
sarcopiiaKus  cophagi  in  the  vaults  of  the  Vatican  and  in  the  Chris- 
vvuh  architect-  tian  m.useum  of  the  Lateran.  One  face  of  such  sar- 
urai  features,  cophagus  is  represented  in  Fig.  55,  The  seven  com- 
partments are  formed  by  columns  richly  ornamented  with  the  vine 
and  its  tendrils.  The  central  figure  is  plainly  Christ  in  the  attitude 
of  the  teacher,  in  the  midst  of  his  apostles.  The  roll  held  in  his  left 
lumd  is  supported  by  one  of  the  disciples,  while  the  positions  of  the 
hands,  both  of  Christ  and  of  those  Avhom  he  is  addressing,  are  indi- 
cative of  conversation,  rather  than  of  the  formal  discourse  of  the 
great  Teacher.  The  Christ  is  of  the  more  youthful,  vigorous,  and 
pleasing  type,  and  has  in  it  elements  which  are  suggestive  of  the 
better  period  of  sculpture.  The  other  figures  are  self-explanator3\ 
On  the  extreme  right  is  Christ  before  Pilate,  Avho  is  washing  his 
hands  in  token  of  his  innocency  of  the  blood  of  the  royal  A^ictim. 
On  the  extreme  left  is  the  frequently  recurring  scene  of  the  sacrifice 
of  Isaac,  which  here,  more  than  is  usual,  seems  to  be  a  type  of  the 
great  Sacrifice  for  the  sin  of  the  world.  The  curious  figure  beneath 
the  Saviour,  who  is  holding  a  veil  above  the  head,  is  not  easy  of 
A  doubtful  eie-  interpretation.  It  occurs  in  one  or  two  other  sarcophagi, 
™'^"'^-  notably  in  that  of  Junius  Bassus.     Perhaps  the  sugges- 

tion that  a  mythological  element  is  here  introduced,  the  figure  rep- 
resenting either  Uranus,  the  heaven,  or  Tellus,  the  earth,  may  be 
most  satisfactory.^ 

^  Letters  from  Rome,  Letter  xx. 

'^Orousset:  Mude  sur  Vh/'stoire  des  sarcophagen  Chretiens,  Pnris,  1885,  8vo. 

^  Schnaase  :  GescJiichte  d.  hildenden  Kiinste,  Ite  Aufg.,  Bd.  iii.,  s.  75.  Liibke:  Hist, 
of  Sculpture,  Transl.,  vol.  i,  p.  345,  re.sards  it  as  a  fio:iire  of  Oceaniis.  Northcote  and 
Brownlow:  Roma  Sotterrarifa.  vol.  ii,  p.  256,  say,  "  The  vault  of  heaven  beneath 
His  feet  being  expressed  (as  in  pagan  monuments)  by  the  veil  which  the  female 
figure  holds  above  her  head." 


EAIJLY  (MlUrsTIAX  SCTLPTURE. 


m 


Probably  tlu'  most  (.'laborati-  saivoi>Iiaifus  of  the  early  sarcophaRiis  of 
Christian  centuries  which  lias  been  iireservc-l  i-^  that  of  Junius  nassi;:;. 
Junius  Hassus,  in  the 
crypt  of  St.  Peter's, 
Koine.'  The  inscri})- 
tion  along  the  upper 
band  of  this  monu- 
ment li^ives  the  de- 
sired information 
relative  to  the  char- 
acter and  aije  of  the 
person  whose  mem- 
ory is  hereby  perpet-  ^ 
uated.  It  is  as  fol-  ^ 
lows:  IVN.  RASSVS  f 
VC  QUI  VIXIT  AN-  k 
NIS.  XLII  MEN.  II.  i 
IN  IPSA  PUAEFEC-  | 
TVRA  VHHl.  NE-I 
OFITVS  11  r  AD  ^ 
DE\  M.  Mil  KAL  ? 
SEl'T  EV.SEUIO  ET  i 
YPATIO  COSS.  I 
"  Junius  BassuR,  of  g 
])atrician  rank,  who  S 
lived  forty-two  years  "^ 
and  two  months.  In  ^ 
theveryyearinwhich  '§  * 
he  became  jirefect  of  g 
the  city,  a  neophyte,  i 
he  went  to  God  on  3 
the  •2■^(\  of  AuGfUst, 
Eusebius  and  Ilypa- 
tius  beincf  Consuls  " 
(A.  D.  359). 

'  ( lood  casts  of  tliis  sar- 
cnpliiifiiis  are  found  in  the 
LaUTaii  Miigenm.  also  in 
the  Miiseuin  of  Cliristinn 
Arclia?nlo'_'y,  Berlin,  wliich 
was  fiiniided  by  Professor 
Piper,  and  under  his  in- 
dcfati<raljle  labors  lias  l)e- 
ponie  one  of  the  most  use- 
fiil  collections  in  Hlurope 
for  purposes  of  study. 


144 


ARCIKEULOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


The  facts  of  the  inscription  are  confirmed  by  contemporary  his- 
its  inscrip-  torians,  thus  giving  positive  information  respecting  the 
tioiis.  time  of  the  origin  of  the  monument,  and,  therefore,  aid- 

ing in  appreciating  the  cycle  of  subjects  here  portra3^ed,  as  well  as 
the  artistic  value  of  the  work.  The  architectural  principle  is 
The  subjects  likewise  introduced  into  this  sarcophagus,  dividing  the 
introduced.  surface  into  compartments,  in  each  of  which  is  found  a 
scriptural  scene.  On  the  extreme  left  of  the  up]:»er  zone  is  the  sac- 
rifice of  Isaac,  in  which  the  knife  raised  to  slay  the  boy  is  arrested 
by  a  hand  stretched  out  from  the  clouds,  while,  near  at  hand,  the 
substituted  ram  is  found.  It  is  difficult  to  account  for  the  frequent 
introduction  of  this  event  in  Scripture  history,  except  that  it  may  have 
a  typical  or  symbolical  signification — pointing  to  the  real  sacrifice,  the 
Lamb  of  God,  who  was  to  "take  away  the  sin  of  the  workl."  On 
the  other  extreme  is  the  hand-washing  of  Pilate.  The  lower  zone  is 
equall}^  significant,  showing  in  the  middle  portion  Christ's  triumphal 
entry  into  Jerusalem.  On  the  right  is  the  representation  of  Daniel  in 
the  lions'  den.  Here  in  the  case  of  Daniel  a  draped  figure  is  intro- 
duced, while  in  other  delineations  of  the  same  scene  the  figure  is 
entirely  nude.  On  the  left  is  the  temptation  of 
our  first  parents.  The  serpent  is  winding  around 
the  tree  of  the  knowledge  of  good  and  evil  ;  the 
sheaf  of  wheat  by  Adam  indicates  the  life  of 
labor  which  he  must  lead,  and  the  lamb  symbol- 
\f\  izes  the  employment  of  Eve.  Some  interpreters 
find  in  this  figure  of  the  lamb  a  symbol  of  the 
promised  Redeemer.  The  relation  of  the  ele- 
ments of  this  scene  can  best  be  studied  from 
Fig.  56.  The  middle  figure  of  the  upper  zone  has 
been  variously  interpreted.  Some  have  seen  in 
it  the  teaching  Christ,  the  two  figures  being  those  of  his  disci- 
ples. The  roll  and  the  attitude  of  the  hand  would  suggest  this. 
Others  have  associated  it  with  the  central  scene 
in  the  lower  zone.  As  the  latter  is  representative 
of  his  triumph  before  the  people,  so  is  the  upper 
scene  (v.  Fig.  57)  the  transfiguration,  v.ith  Moses 

0''i^>^--.r{^r.mwji  and  Elias  as  his  companions.  This,  it  is  claimed, 
i^li^^MM  jrf  '"  indicated  by  the  figure  below,  which  is  to  rep- 
resent earth  as  his  footstool,  under  the  form  of 
j'^kj  ^^*-^'^"*''  ^^^^  holds  a  veil  over  the  head,  thus  sym- 
Fi.^^sr.— FioiiiiheJu-  bolizing  the  firmament.  The  latter  interpretation 
niusBassusnv.nunient.  jjpppj^,.;,  hardly  accordant  with  the  principles  of 
a  rational  s^'mbolism.     The  other  scenes  are,  respectively,  on  the  ex- 


Fi!?.  5G.  — The  Fall. 
From  sarcopliagus  of 
Junius  Bassus. 


EAKLY    C'lIlUSTIAX    SCULI'TUIIE.  143 

trcmo  loft,  in  the  lower  /oiu',  tlu-  lininiliatioii  of  Job;  on  the 
linht  the  arrest  of  Peter;  on  the  upper  /.one,  Christ's  arrest,  and 
his  arrai^nnu'iit  before  Pilati-.  In  tlu'  spandrels  of  the  arches  is 
a  most  suni^estive  sN'inbolisni.'  In  one  j)art  a  sheep  \  sii»rir»*stlve 
is  strikinuf  with  a  staff  the  rock,  whence  flows  water  symiwiism. 
which  another  sheep  is  drinking.  In  another  section  a  sheep  is 
ii'ceivitii:;  the  table  of  the  law;  in  another  it  j)erfornis  the  miracle 
of  the  loaves;  a  third  lays  its  forefoot  upon  the  head  of  another, 
over  which  baptismal  waters  flow,  while  the  rays  stream  fnnn 
the  beak  of  the  dove  which  represents  the  Holy  Spirit.  Thus 
in  all  tlu'  symbolic  cliaracter  of  the  lamb  is  most  manifest;  the 
central  thought  being  Christ  the  source  of  power,  blessing,  and 
life. 

The  sculpture,  Fig.  58,  is  of  later  origin,  )»robably  of  the  sixth 
century.  The  central  figure  is  one  (}uite  frecpiently  met  ^  later  s:ir- 
in  the  frescos — an  orante — on  either  side  of  whom  copiiuKus. 
stands  a  figure  whose  signification  it  is  ditKcnlt  to  determine.  The 
presence  of  tlie  ])alm-trees  points  to  the  thought  of  victory  or 
of  joyousness  in  the  heavenly  inheritance.  The  extension  of  the 
hands  in  })rayer  is  the  usual  attitude  met  in  the  early  momiments — 
frescos,  sculptures,  aiul  mosaics.  It  is  plain  that  this  ])osition  of 
standing  with  outstretclied  hands  in  prayer  was  the  usual  or 
prescribed  one.  No  instance  of  prayer  to  God  in  the  kneeling 
posture  is  met  in  the  monuments.  Supplication  foi-  Attitude  in 
aiil  from  another,  as  in  case  of  the  woman  with  the  prayer, 
issue  of  blood,  etc.,  may  be  met;  but  that  this  was  not  the  usual 
attitude  in  case  of  public  worship  seems  evident.  In  this  the 
monuments  and  the  literary  evidence  are  in  entire  accord.  The 
other  members  of  this  sculpture  are  familiar.  On  the  right  the 
midtiplication  of  the  loaves  in  the  hands  of  the  disciples — a  most 
favorite  scene  with  the  early  Christians;  on  the  left  the  first  mira- 
cle in  Cana  of  Galilee,  which  is  hardly  less  fre(pient  njxm  the  I'arly 
monuments.  The  extreme  right  has  been  by  soiiu'  inter]tfi'ted  ti> 
be  the  afHicted  Job  sitting  in  ashes,  attended  by  one  of  his 
friends.'  This  is  less  certain  in  its  reference  than  the  other  portions 
of  the  sarcophagus.  As  a  work  of  art  this  is  much  inferior  to 
many  others  :  it  indicates  a  wide  de))arture  from  the  classic  spirit, 
and  a  decay  of  originating  power,  as  well  as  feebleness  in 
execution. 

The  representation   of   the    Nativity   and   its   attendant  circum- 

'  Unfortunately,  these  do  not  appear  wiili  iniicli  disliiietiie.s3  in  our   plute,  ou 
•ccount  ol  tlie  (.litTiculties  of  photograpliinir  in  lliese  dark  crypts. 
^  Roller:    Catacombes  de  Borne,  vol.  i,  p.  2y7. 
10 


14G 


ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 


stances  is  quite  exceptional  on  the  Christian  sarcophagi.   The  Nativity  in 
Tn  the  Lateran  collection  but  a  single  example  is  met,    scuiptme. 

upon  a  fragment  of  a  small  sar- 
cophagus, represented  in  Fig.  59. 
The  scene  is  easy  of  interpreta- 
tion. Joseph  and  Mary  occupy 
the  extreme  right.  The  central 
portion  suggests  the  manger  scene, 
the  sacred  babe  in  swaddling 
clothes  laid  in  a  basket,  while  the 
ox  and  the  ass  in  their  stall  help 
to  complete  the  pictiire  of  the 
lowliness  of  the  birth2:»lace  of  the 
Lord.'  Toward  the  left  the  magi, 
clad  in  their  usual  dress,  are 
bringing  gifts.  On  the  extreme 
left  is  a  Avinged  genius  in  the  pe- 
culiar style  of  pagan  art,  showing 
the  syncretism  of  thought  in 
Christian  sculpture,  or,  at  least, 
the  readiness  with  which  these 
figures  were  introduced  for  deco- 
rative purposes. 

The  interesting  sarcophagus 
represented  by  Fig.  60  is  from 
the    latter  part   of   the   The  arpear- 

,.,.,,  ,  A         „    ance   of   the 

htth     century.      As     a   ^^^,  ^,,^^^  .^ 

work  of  art  it  ])lainly  sculpture, 
belongs  to  the  period  of  deca- 
dence. The  scenes  in  the  life  of 
Christ  also  show  by  their  peculiar 
treatment  that  the  age  of  i)er- 
secution  is  past,  and  the  age  of 
triumph  has  been  reached.  The 
hand-washing  by  Pilate   is  mani- 

'  Some  interpreters  luive  sugjjested  that 
reference  may  be  had  to  Isa.  i,  3 ;  that 
while  llie  brute  creation  recognise  their 
Lord  and  Creator,  and  the  heathen  world 
(the  magi)  is  full  of  e.xpectaiion,  and  is 
ready  to  worsliip  tlic  infant  Redeemer, 
"Israel  doth  not  know,  my  people  doth  not 
consider." 


148 


ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 


festly  the  scene  presented  on  the  extreme  left.      This  is  indicated 
by  the  basin,  the  pouring  out  of  the  water  from  the  pitcher  by  the 

soldier,    the    attitude    of   the 
sitting   figure,    etc.     Next   is 
the  figure  of  Christ  attended 
by  the  soldier,  who   bears  a 
spear    and    wears    the    usual 
Roman  helmet.    Christ  seems 
in  the    attitude  of   speaking. 
The  position  of  the  hand,  with 
the  two  forefingers  extended, 
as    is    customary     with    the 
teacher,    might    suggest    the 
answer   to   the  inquiring   Pi- 
late, "  My  kingdom  is  not  of 
this  world.  .  .  ."     "Art  thou 
a  king  then  ?  "  "  Thou  sayest 
that  I  am  a  king,"   The  scene 
first  on  the  left  of  the   center 
is  plainly  the  crown- 
ing of  Christ  by  the 
soldier.  But  may  not 
the  time  of  the  origin  of  this 
sculpture  be  conjectured  from 
the  fact  that  the  crown  is  no 
longer  one  of  thorns  but  *of 
garlands?     On    the    extreme 
left  is  the  cross-bearing.     To 
what  extent  the  crown  of  gar- 
lands may  suggest  triumph,  or 
how  far  it  may  be  merely  or- 
namental, and  is  used  to  com- 
jdete  the  artistic  balancing  re- 
quired by  the  like  crown  in 
the  hand-washing,  may  not  be 
determined    with     certainty. 
The  central  portion  is  full  of 
suggestion.     A  curious  com- 
bination of  elements  indicates 
that    the  period  of  suffering 
and  the  time  when  the  cross 
The   Constantinian  monogram  rests 
be  indicative  of   sacrifice,  but  it  is 


Interpreta- 
t  i  o  n    of 

scenes. 


must 
upon 


be  concealed  are  past, 
the  cross.     This  would 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   SCULPTURE. 


149 


crowiu'd  by  a  cliaplct  wliicli  is  ciiihlciiiatic 
Triu,nphra.h..r  ^f  victory.  This  wouM  Ik-  lur- 
thun  suiTeriiiK  ther  emphasized  by  tlie  ick-u  ot 
suKKcsU'd.  j^jj^^  ivsurrc'c'tion,   su<r<;(.'sted  by 

the  watch  of  lioinaii  soldiers  wiio  were  set 
to  ujuard  the  sealed  tomb. 

Early  Christian  art  contains  few  refer- 
ences to  the  retributions  of  a  future  state. 
Herein  it  is  in  completest  contrast  with  tlie 
art  of  the  later  Middle  Ages,  and  with  some 
of  the  most  celebrated  works  of  tlie  Re- 
naissance. In  this  we  observe  the  intluence  ~ 
of  that  spirit  of  simple  faith  and  love  which  £ 
led  the  early  Christians  to  dwi-ll  rather  upon   J^ 

the  beneficent  offices  of  our  Lord,  and  ui)on   -■ 

r 
the  more  cheerful  and  winning  aspects  of  the   % 

religion  which  he  established.  The  state-  c 
ments  already  made  in  relation  to  the  5 
frequency  on  the  early  monuments  of  such  S 
scenes  in  the  life  of  Christ,  and  of  events  in  ^ 
the  biblical  history  wliich  contemplate  the  | 
elevation  of  the  individual  or  of  % 
the  race,  fully  confirm  this  | 
opinion.  In  the  sarcophagus.  Fig.  Gl,  is  g 
almost  the  only  instance  of  a  representation  p 
of  the  last  judgment  in  early  Christian  4 
sculpture.  It  is  a  simple  reproduction  of  | 
It3  scriptural  the  Scripture  statement  in  Matt.  " 
character.  xxv,  ;il-46.     Here  is   the  shep-   = 

herd,  not  the  angry  judge,   separating  the   e 
sheep  from  the  goats.     The  whole  action  of   § 
the  sculpture  is  most  ett'ective.     The  press-  §■ 
ing  forward  of   the  sheep  in  obedience  to  * 
the   glad   invitation,  "  Come,  ye  blessed  of 
my  Father,"  the  hand  laid  approvingly  upon 
the  head  of   the    nearest,  the   face  of  the 
shepherd  turned  toward  those  who  had  done 
his  will  in  acts  of  beneficence,  are  in  strik- 
ing  contrast  to   the  attitude  of  the  proud 
goats  who  were  a{»]>r(iaching  with  eager  con- 
fidence, but  who,  arrested   by  the  fearful 
words,  "  Depart  from  me,  ye   cursed,"  now 
shi-ink  back  from  the  touch  of  the  averted 


The  last  judK 
ment. 


P^ 


^^' 


^^ 


r^i 


^ 


y^'^^ 


150  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 

hand,  and  are  troubled  by  the  face  turned  away  in  sorrowful  con- 
demnation. Nothing  could  more  fully  and  effectively  express  the 
decisions  of  the  last  judgment  in  a  manner  completely  in  harmony 
with  the  Scripture  conception.' 

CARVINGS    IN    IVORY. 

Another  very  interesting  class  of  objects  are  the  carvings  in  ivory. 
They  are  considerable  in  number,  and  on  account  of  the  durability 
of  the  material  have  suffered  less  from  the  forces  which  have  seri- 
ously marred  works  in  stone  and  bronze. 

Some  of  the  most  important  of  these  ivory  carvings  prior  to  the 

eiffhth  century  are  in  the  form  of  diptvchs.     This  term, 
Ivory  diptychs.  .  .  . 

while  properly  applying  to  any  thing  folded  together 

(diTTTv^ov),    has  more    especial   reference   to   tablets   used   by   the 

ancients  for  writing  with  a  stylus  of  ivory  or  metal.     They  often 

had  three  leaves  (triptychs),  sometimes  four  and  more.     The  inner 

surface  was  covered  with  a  thin  lilm  of  wax,  the  outer,  or  cover 

proper,  was  often  elaborately  carved. 

For  general  art  archaeology  the   most  important  of  these  are  the 

Consular   dip-  consular  diptychs,  since  they  are  usually  larger,   more 

tychs  mostim-  giaborate,  and  bear  dates  and  legends  which  are  often 
portant  for  _  '  _  _  o 

chronology.  helpful  in  the  solution  of  historic  and  chronologic  prob- 
lems. These  were  usually  presents  which  the  newly  ai)pointed  con- 
suls were  accustomed  to  send  to  their  friends  and  adherents,  and 
differed  in  value  and  artistic  excellence  according  to  the  social 
rank  or  political  influence  of  the  recipients.  Some  of  the  consular 
diptychs  were  afterward  presented  to  churches  and  ecclesiastical 
communities,  and  were  changed  in  their  character  from  secular  and 
heathen  to  Christian  by  the  removal  of  portions  of  the  original 
carving  and  the  substitution  of  subjects  of  religious  significance. 
As  might  be  anticipated,  they  sometimes  present  a  commingling  of 
heathen  and  Christian  elements. 

Diptychs  were  also  quite  common  in  the  public  service  of  the  early 
Church.  Their  uses  have  been  well  summarized  as  follows:  First, 
like  the  church  registers  of  modern  times,  they  contained  names  of 
all  baptized  and  unbaptized  persons  of  the  parish  or  district ;  secondly, 
in  them  were  recorded  the  names  of  bishops  and  chief  personages 
who  had  been  benefactors  and  patrons  of  that  particular  church; 
thirdly,  they  contained  the  names  of  those  who  had  suffered  mar- 
Ecciesiasticai  tyrdom,  or  who  were  of  specially  saintly  character — 
diptychs.  these  names  being  often  read  at  the  public  services  to 

show  the  unity  of  the  Church  militant  and  the  Church  triumphant; 
'  Roller:    Catacombes  de  Borne,  vol.  j,  pi.  xliii,  No.  3. 


EAllLV    CilWlSTlAN    S(  TLI'TLIlr:.  mi 

fourthly,  tliiMT  were  (li])ty('lis  in  wliicli  wci't' writti-ii  tlic  names  of  the 

(leee.iseil  ineinhers  of  the  ])articuhir  chureli  or  district,  who  were  to 

he  i-ciiicinliei-ed  at  mass.'      'I'his   was   reLr''ii"de<l   a   iiiattei'  of   extreme 

interest,  siiiee    the  erasure  of  a  name  from  the  diptyehs    was  eijuiv- 

aU'Ut   to  actual   e.\e«)mmuiiic-ation,   and   the    name    so    erased    could 

no    longer   be   mentioned    in    the    j)ra3'ers   of    the   ehurch.'^       'I'he 

number    of    ecclesiastical    diptychs   prior    to   A,    D.    Too    is    xt^'vy 

small;  yet  they  are  of  peculiar  interest  in   the  illustration  of  the 

seul|tture  of  the  period  prior  to  the  liberati<»n  of  Christianity  from 

(ir;vco-Roman  iiiHuence,  and  of  the  development  of  an  art  peculiarly 

its  own. 

A  single  leaf  of  a  beautiful  Christian  diptych,  ])lainly  of  Hyzantine 

origin,  is   now  in   the    British    Museum.      It  rt'piesents   q.,,,.!^   import- 

an  angel  of  young  and  vigorous  mien  standing  under   ^'^^^^'^■ 

an  arch  supported  by  Corinthian  columns.     He  is  clad  in  a  tunic 

and  flowing  mantle.     In  the  right  haiulhe  bears  a  globe  surmounted 

by  the  cross,  very  much  in  the  style  of  the  Byzantine  emi)erors,  and 

with  the  left  supjjorts  a  long  scepter  similar  to  the  lance  borne  by 

warriors.     The  general  cliaracter  of  the  work  is  good, 

1  ,  •  1  1  •    ii  1       Examples, 

and  suggests  that  the  artist  must   have   l)een  innuencea 

by  the  classic  statues  with  which  Constantinople  then  abounded.* 
A  second  example  from  the  sixth  century  i.^  now  in  the  British 
collection  ;  both  leaves  are  preserved.  One  re])resents  the  \'irgiii 
and  child  enthroned,  with  two  angels  in  waiting;  on  the  other 
leaf  Christ  is  seated  between  SS.  Peter  and  Paul.  A  third,  now 
belonging  to  the  treasury  of  the  Cathedral  of  Monza,  also  from 
the  sixth-  century,  has  both  leaves  preserved.  It  has  been  sug- 
gested that  it  was  early  converted  from  a  consular  diptych  to  the 
cover  of  an  antiphonarium  of  Gregory  the  Great. ^  On  one  leaf 
is  a  figure  in  consular  rolies;  but  the  head  shows  the  tonsure, 
and  the  staff  terminates  in  a  cross.  It  has  l)een  claimed  to  be 
a  re})resentation  of  (Ti-egory  himself.  The  other  side  contains  a 
somewhat  similar  figure,  but  lacks  the  tonsure,  and  is  associated 
with  the  inscription,   DAVID  REX.     This  association  of  Gregory 

'Gori:  Tliesnurwi  veterum  diptijchnruin,  Florentia;,  1759,1.  i,  pp.  242,  24.'?,  Binp- 
ham:  Antiquities  of  the  Christian  Church,  Book  xv,  cli.  iii,  §.  18. 

*  Among  others  see  Binsfham:  Op.  cil..  Book  xvi,  cli.  iii,  §  12;  Book  xix,  cli.  ii, 
§11.  Dodwcil:  Fiflh  Cyprian  Dis'sertiilion.  Ad  Epistolam  X.  De  noininum  e  dip- 
tychi-s  ecclesice  recitatione  ill  Eacharistia.     Oxen,  1684. 

'Labarte:  Op.  cit.,  t.  i,  pp.  30,  .*il.  Oidlicld:  Select  Examples  of  Ivory  Carving  from 
the  Seco7ii  to  the  Sixteenth  Century.     London.  1855,  p.  10. 

*  Gori'.  Op.  cit.,  t.  i,  p.  201.  OMiiold:  Op.  nt.,  p.  10.  Maskell:  Ivories,  Ancient 
and  Mediceval,  etc.,  p.  xxxvi.  Contra,  Pulszky  :  The  Fejevdry  Ivories,  p.  23.  La- 
barte :  Op.  cit.,  t.  i,  p.  16. 


152 


ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 


and  David  has  been  thought  to  be  very  appropriate  on  account 
of  their  similar  interest  in  sacred  music  and  song.  While  the  work 
is  rude,  and  indicates  great  artistic  decadence,  it  is  nevertheless  of 
great  importance  in  the  art  study  of  a  period  from  which  comjijara- 
tively  few  examples  of  sculpture  have  survived. 

It  has  often  been  remarked  by  investigators  of  early  Christian 
monuments  that  they  are  remarkabl}^  free  from  scenes  of  suffering, 
as  the  early  inscriptions  furnish  few  examples  of  the  expression  of 
a  spirit  of  complaining,  despair,  or  vindictiveness.  It  is  quite  gen- 
erally agreed  that  in  the  first  four  centuries  no  instance  of  a  repre- 
sentation of  the  crucifixion  of  Christ  upon  the  monuments  has  yet 
been  found.  The  reason  of  the  avoidance  of  these  scenes  has  else- 
where been  suggested  [o.  p.  1U4).     Hence  the  agony  in  the  garden, 


Fgi.  63.—  "V  Cruciflxion     Trom  an  ivr  rv  in  the  M  I'jkell  f  ollet  tion  in  Bi  itish  Muibeum     Probably 

of  the  Ufth  century. 

the  scourging,  the  cross-bearing,  and  the  crucifixion,  all  of  which 
became  favorite  sul)jects  of  art  portraiture  in  the  meditvval  period, 
are  rarely  met  in  the  art  of  the  first  three  and  a  half  centuries. 
Fig.  02  is  from  an  ivory  carving,  and  is  believed  to  be  one  of  the 
The  earliest  oldest  representations  of  the  crucifixion  yet  discovered. 
representation    j^  cannot  be  of  a  date  earlier  than  the  fifth  century.   From 

of  the  eruciflx-  ■' 

ion.  its  general  style  and  resemblance  to  the  sculptures  of  the 

Roman  sarcophagi,  its  genuineness  has  come  to  be  accepted  by  the 
best  critics,  and  its  date  determined.  It  is  now  in  the  collection  of 
the  British  Museum,  and  was  part  of  the  celebrated  Maskell  cabinet 
of  ivories  which  have  come  to  be  so  highly  prized.  The  scenes  here 
represented,  one  of  four  divisions  of  the  ivory,  are  manifest.     The 


EAKLY   riTRISTIAX   SCrLPTURE.  ir,3 

Saviour,  cxtriidc'tl  upon  a  Lalin  cross,  receives  llu'  tlirusi  from  the 
soldii'r's  sjtear,  while  on  the  otlier  side  aj>])ear  the  l»eIoved  disciple 
and  the  sorrowiuu"  niotlur  (John  xix,  20,  27).  On  the  extrenu  left 
is  the  re]»resentation  of  the  history  i^iven  in  Matt,  xxvii,  5:  "And 
he  cast  down  the  pieces  of  silver  in  the  temple,  and  dei)arted,  and 
wi'ut  and  haniicd  himself."  Previous  to  the  discovery  and  de- 
scription of  this  ivory  carving,  the  earliest  representation  of 
the  cruciHxiou  was  believed  to  be  that  contained  in  the  decora- 
tion of  a  Syriac  manuscript  of  the  gospels,  now  in  Florence,  which 
l»ears  tlie  date  A.  D.  580. 

An  interesting  instance  of  ivory  carving  upon  covers  of  books 
is  found  in  the  National  Library  of  Paris.  Three  prin-  carvintrsontiie 
cipal  scenes  are  represented;  namely,  above,  the  An-  cwersor books. 
nunciation;  in  the  centre,  the  Adoration  of  the  Magi;  below,  the 
Massacre  of  the  Innocents.  The  entire  composition  is  in  very  supe- 
rior style  of  art,  indicating  the  thorough  acquaintance  of  the  artist 
with  tlie  best  works  of  anticpiity.' 

A  second  example  of  like  character  is  in  the  treasury  of  the  Ca- 
thedral of  Milan.  Both  covers  have  been  preserved.  The  central 
portion  of  the  one  is  occupied  by  a  richly  jeweled  Af//ncfi  Del  with 
circled  and  jeweled  nimbus.  In  the  upper  part  is  represented  tlie 
Nativity,  flanked  by  symbolic  figures  of  Matthew  and  Luke.  In 
the  lower  ))ortion  is  depicted  the  massacre  of  the  Innocents,  wliile 
on  either  side  of  the  cover  are  three  scenes  from  Gospel  history. 
The  center  of  the  other  leaf  contains  a  jeweled  cross,  above  which 
is  the  adoration  of  the  Magi,  with  symbolic  representations  of  Mark 
and  John;  below  is  the  marriage  in  Cana,  while  six  scenes  from  the 
life  of  Christ  enrich  the  sides.  From  the  circumstance  that  Christ 
is  represented  as  young,  unbearded,  and  without  a  nimbus,  as  well 
as  from  the  fact  that  while  his  presentation  to  the  women  after  tlie 
resurrection  is  the  subject  of  one  of  the  carvings,  the  crucifixion  is 
here  avoi<led,  some  have  been  inclined  to  assign  this  ivory  to  a 
very  early  date.  It  is  probable,  liowevi-r,  tliat  il  cannot  antedate 
the  fifth  century.* 

This  last  work  in  ivory  is  surpasse<l  in  value  and  interest  only  by 
the  noted  cathedra  of  Hisho)>  !Maxiinianus,  now  preserved   pj,t|,pdra  of 
in  the  sacristry  of  the  Duomo  in  Ravenna.     It  is  entirely   Bishop  Maxim- 
covered  with  carvings,  many  of  wliich  are  of  the  finest  de-  '""""*■ 
sign  and  technic.     Ten  scenes   from  the  life  of   .Tosi-ph   are  of  very 

'  Labarte :    Op.  cit,  t.  i,  p.  .32. 

'  Tliis  celebrated  work  has  been  described  liy  ni;iiiy  writers.  Labarlo,  Op.  cit., 
t  i.  p.  32.  li:is  triveii  a  very  line  pliite;  aud  Oidfleld,  Op.  cit.,  p.  11.  has  given  a  par- 
tial description. 


154 


ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   OERISTIAX   ART 


su23erior  workmanship,  while  the  animals  and  plants  reveal  a  warm 
sympathy   of  the  artist  with  nature.      Only  the  figures  of  saints 

that  fill  the  front  side  show  the 
stiffness  and  artificiality  of  the 
later  Byzantine  style.  Fig.  03 
represents  one  of  these  figures — 
an  ecclesiastic  in  the  attitude  of 
preaching.  The  sacred  book  lies 
open  upon  the  ambo,  or  reading- 
desk,  and  the  two  forefingers  of 
the  right  hand  indicate  the  oftice 
of  the  teacher.  The  attitude  of 
the  figure  itself  is  constrained, 
Avhile  the  whole  artistic  treat- 
ment, from  the  head  to  the  san- 
dals upon  the  feet,  is  stiff  and 
inmatural.  This  and  other  like 
figures  are  specially  helpful  as  a 
means  of  ascertaining  the  vest- 
ments of  the  clergy  and  their 
position  in  preaching,  as  w^ell  as 
suggesting  the  quality  of  the 
church  furniture  then  in  use. 

In  a  few  instances  ancient 
ivory  boxes,  or  pixes,  are  still 
preserved.^  They  were  gener- 
ally placed  upon  the  altar  to  con- 
tain the  consecrated  eucharistic 
elements  which  were  to  be  dis- 
tributed to  the  sick.  Garrucci 
claims  that  the  siibjects  dejiicted 
upon  fourteen  of  the  fifteen 
known  sacred  pixes  relate  directly  to  the  eucharist.  The  only  excej)- 
tion  is  an  ivory  pix  from  the  earh^  part  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, which  is  now  in  the  British  Museum.  Upon  it  are 
represented  the  martyrdom  and  glorification  of  the  Egyptian  saint, 
Menas.  This  circumstance  has  therefore  suggested  another  use  of 
these  sacred  pixes;  namely,  to  contain  relics  of  saints  and  martja-s.'* 
This  St.  Menas  was  held  in  highest  veneration  by  the  Egyptian 

'  V.  Halm:  Filnf  Elfenhein-Geflisse  des  friihesten  Mittd-alkrs.  Hanover,  1862. 
Lebarte :  Histoire  des  arts  industriels. 

*  V.  Garrucci  and  Nesbitt,  Lii  the  Archceologia,  vol.  xliv,  pp.  320-330,  and  plates 
X  and  xi. 


ML 

Fig.  63. — Ivory  carving  from  the  cathedra  of 
Bishop  Maximianus,  in  the  Duomo  of  Ravenna. 


Ivory    pixes. 


EARLY   CUKISTIAN    SCULPTl'IU:. 


155 


Christians,  and  also  in  Koini'.  llo  is  often  ivitrcscntiMl  upon  tlic 
flattened  flasks  or  bottles  wliieh  are  found  in  eoiisi.lerable  numbers 
in  E<xypt. 

Another  interestini::  class  of  anti(iuities  are  tin-  Ciiristian  lamps. 
They  are  numerous  and  of  dilTerent  nuiterials,  as  terra  sruipiurcd 
cotta,  bronze,  silvi-r,  and  ambir.  They  are  of  various  lamps, 
forms,  and  contain  a  yieat  variety  of  symbols,  as  the  dovi-,  the 
cross,  the  Constantinian  monogram,  A  i2,  etc.  The  Christians  used 
these   lamps   imt    only  to  lii^diten  the  (jtherwise   irjoomy  recesses  of 


Fig.  64.— A  Ciiristian  liiiiip,  with  Constantinian  monojjrani. 

the  catacombs,  but,  in  coinmon  with  the  licatlicn  peoples,  attached 
to  them  a  symbolic  si^iiilica'ire,  e-;i)ecially  when  used  in  comiection 
with  the  burial  of  the  dead.  Some  of  these  lamps  are  works  of 
liigh  art,  and  show  an  exquisite  taste  in  matters  of  form  as  well  as 
in  respect  to  workmanship  and  symbolic  import.  Fiii^.  04  is  one  of 
the  Hnest  of  the  han^^iuLr  lamps  in  bronze.  It  contains  three  orifices 
for  lii^htinu^,  and  its  handle  is  wroui^ht  out  in  an  elaborate  -^  and  the 
rei)resentation  of  Jonah  reelinini;;  under  the  shadow  of  the  ^ouid. 

For  over  two  hundred  years  j^reat  interest  has  attached   Ampulla?,     or 
to  a  class  of  relics  foun<l  more  especially   in  the  Roman    i«i.H>ipiiinK 
catacombs  and  crypts  of  churches;  these  are  the  so-called  Uinpulloi, 


156 


ARCHEOLOGY   OF    CHRISTIAN  ART. 


or  blood-phials,  Fig. 
continued  respecting 


65.  An  almost  acriniouious  controversj^  has 
the  uses  of  these  clay  and  glass  phials  and 
their  contents.  One  cause  of 
this  controversy  was  a  decree 
of  the  Gongregatio  Mituum  et 
Heliqicarum,  issued  in  1668,  to 
the  effect  that  the  marks  of 
true  relics  of  the  martja-s,  as 
distinguished  from  the  false  or 
doul)tful,  shall  be  the  presence 
of  the  palm-branch  and  a  vessel 
coloured  with  their  blood.  This 
test  was  maintained  as  decisive 
by  nearly  all  the  old  archaeolo- 
gists, and  has  been  very  vigour- 
ously  defended  by  many  in  the 
present  centur3^  Two  opinions  of  the  contents  of  these  phials  have 
been  held:  one,  that  the}^  contained  the  blood  of  martyrs;  the  other, 
that  the  colouring  matter  found  in  them  was  due  to  wine  used  for 
eucharistic  purposes.  The  question  is  not  yet  satisfactorily  settled. 
Man}^  other  interesting  and  instructive  objects  of  antiquity  are 
found  in  museums  and  private  collections.  The  subject  of  seals  and 
rings  has  received  careful  attention.  Numismatics  has  become  a 
special  science,  also  gl3q3tic  art  has  contributed  much  toward  a 
knowledge  of  Christian  thought  during  the  first  six  centuries. 
The  special  examination  of  these  archieological  remains  is,  however, 
precluded  b}'  the  limits  of  this  hand-book. 


Fig.  65.— A  so-called  Blood-phial 
catacombs. 


From  Roman 


KAHLV   CIIHISTIAX   ARCHITECTURE.  157 


CIIAPTEP.   VI. 

EARLY     CIIIUSTIAX     A  II  (J  HI  T  K  CT  U  R  H 

SECTIO:^    I. 

THE    CHRISTIAN    BASILICA. 

§  1.    Origin  of  the  Cliristian  BttHilica. 

TiiK  origin  of  the  spi'cios  of  Cliristian  thurcli  calh'd   Ixtsilica  has 

hi'on   most  earnestly   investigate*!.       The  answer    to    the    ([uestion, 

"  Whenee  arose  Christian  architecture  ?"  would  also  fur-       ,  .       ,    ^ 

Orljrm   of    the 
nish  a  partial  answer  to  the  relate(l  (juestions  of  the  eon-    chhstiaii     ba- 

(lition  of  art  feeling  in  the  early  Church,  the  originality   *'"'™- 

of  monuments  usually  called  Christian,  and  the  connection  of   the 

Roman  Christian  and  Gothic  architecture  with   tin- tarly  Christian 

basilica  in  a  process  of   organic  art  develoi)ment.'     The  subject  is 

one  of   great  ditticulty,    on    account  of   the  fewness   of   surviving 

monuments   from    the    first  three  centuries,  and    from  the  meagre 

references  to  this  subject  in  the  writings  of   the  Christian  fathers, 

or  in  Vitruvius,  the  only  architect  of  the  first  century  whose  works 

have  come  down  to  our  tiine.     It  is  not,  therefore,  surprising  tliat 

able    writers  should   have   differed   in  their  account  of  tlu'  origin  of 

the  Christian  basilica. 

Various  opinions  have  divided  the  arclnvologists.      1.  I'lie  first  is 

that  advocated  in  the  latter  i)art  of  the  fifteenth  centurv    Aiberti's   the- 

bv  Alberti,*  which  claims  that  the  early  Christian  basilica  "•"'  ^'''""  /"^ 

...  .  .  _         R  <)  in  a  n    b  a- 

is  a  close  imitation  of  the  Roman  pagan  basilica,  with  silica, 
unimportant  dei)artures  from  the  original.  By  jdacing  the 
plan  of  each  side  by  side,  to  the  superficial  observer  this  simi- 
larity apj)ears  quite  striking  and  the  theory  plausible.  Thiso])inion 
was  accepted  by  leading  archaeologists  for  three  and  a  half  centuries.' 
'1.   It  remained   almost   uiichallenge<l   until    subjected  to  a  most  rig- 

'  •'  Witli  respect  to  iho  tliscovory  of  now  perms  (of  art)  in  the  period  of  the  clown- 
fill),  the  following  qnostions  especially  would  come  inidcr  examination:  First,  the 
qnestion  in  how  far  Christianity  had  a  share  therein?  '  etc.  v.  Mothes:  Die  Bau- 
knnst  des  Mitlelalfers.  etc.,  Bd.  i,  ss.  2,  3. 

^  De  Re  .EdUicdloria.  Fiorentiis,  1485. 

"The  Knplish  authorities  seem  to  know  no  othor  theory  of  the  oritfin  of  the  (Christ- 
ian basilica  (?'.  article  Basilica,  in  Enajdnpcedia  Brilannica,  and  in  Dictionary  of  Chi'isU 
ian  Antiquities);  this  also  prevails  in  America. 


158  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

idly  critical  examination  by  Zestermann '  in  1847.  This  writer  con- 
cedes that  the  resemblance  of  the  churches  of  the  fourth  century  to 
the  Roman  basilicas  in  respect  to  the  rows  of  columns  on  either  side, 
zestermann's  the  lean-to  roof,  the  enclosing  wall,  and  the  windows  rest- 
theory,  ing  uj)on  the  columns  beneath,  justifies  the  classification 
of  such  Christian  churches  under  the  term  basilica;  but  these  are 
insufficient  to  establish  an  organic  connection  between  the  Christian 
and  the  heathen  structures.  He  argues  that  the  Christian  basilica 
A  development  ^'^^  chiefly  developed  through  the  needs  and  spirit  of 
from  the  the  Christian  church  itself,  and  is,  therefore,  a  distinct 
orum.  style  of  architecture.  In  the  solution  of  this  question 
the  stoa  basilica  and  the  agora,  found  at  Athens  in  the  time  of 
Pericles,  ai'e  successively  examined  with  an  earnestness  and  learning 
truly  praiseworthy.  The  first  of  the  so-called  basilicas  at  Rome  Avas 
built  by  Marcus  Porcius  Cato  in  B.  C.  184.  After  this  folloAved 
others,  the  most  noted  of  which  were  the  Basilicas  Emilia,  Fulvia, 
Julia,  and  Ulpia.  From  Rome  these  buildings  were  extended 
throughout  the  entire  empire.  Zestermann  claims  that  they 
Zestermann's  ^^^^  under  four  general  classes,  according  to  the  purposes 
four  classes.  which  they  served;  namely,  the  law  basilicas,  the  private 
basilicas,  the  basilicas  for  pedestrian  exercises,  and  the  wine  basilicas. 
Each  of  these  had  pectiliar  features  adapting  it  to  its  specific  uses. 
All  alike  appear  to  have  been  suggested  by  the  Roman  forum,  this 
general  type  being  modified  only  so  far  as  might  be  necessary 
by  the  greater  or  smaller  building  area.  This  author  rejects 
the  derivation  of  the  word  from  the  Greek,  in  the  sense  of  "  a 
house  of  the  king,"  or  "  a  royal  habitation,"  but  claims  that  even 
in  the  time  of  Plautus  the  word  hasilicus  had  already  become  a  dis- 
tinctively Roman  adjective,  meaning  "  magnificent,"  "  imposing," 
"  grand."  Hence,  to  distinguish  it  from  other  porticos,  the  building 
of  Cato  was  called  "porticics  baslUcini,''''  the  magnificent  house,  and 
afterward  simply  "basilica." 

The  Christians  applied  the  term  basilica  to  an  imposing  building 
used  only  for  ecclesiastical  purposes.  Zestermann  claims  that  the 
groundplan  and  the  arrangement  and  development  of  all  its  parts 
Sole  reference  had  sole  reference  to  the  purposes  and  needs  of  Christ- 
to  the  needs  of   -g^^^    worship,    and    no   relation    whatever    to    Roman 

Christian  wor-  t  ' 

ship.  pagan  buildings  of  like   name.     He  sees  the  progres- 

sive growth  of  the  Christian  society  revealing  itself  in  the  basilica, 
slowly  transforming  and  perfecting  it,  as  new  wants  arise,  itntil  the 

'  Die  antiken  u.  die  cliristllchen  Basiliken  nach  ihren  Entsteliuvg,  Au-fbildung,  u.  Bezie- 
hung  zu  einander.  This  was  crowned  as  the  prize  essay  by  the  Belgian  Academy  of 
Arts,  Literature,  and  the  Fine  Arts. 


EARLY    CIIKISTIAX    ARCHITKCTUHE.  159 

imposiiiLj  stnu-turc'sor  t!u'  fourtli,  filtli,  ami  sixlli  ceiittirics  wi-rc  tlu- 
oiitcoiiu'.     Ill  liarmoiiy   with   tliis  opinion    he  jtroiV'sscs 
to  be  able  to  ij^roiip  the  i-arly  ( Imichts  into  five  chisses,    [,f'|?,i|"y"y,',"^^^ 
eaeli  one  of  whic-li  represents  a  slaLi^c'   in  thi'  attempt  to    ian  iimiciics. 
pro]»erIy  adapt  them  to  tlie  lU'eds  of  Cliristiaii  worship  : 

(l.'^    Buiklinj^.s  of  an  oblon<jj  form  witli  a  mi(hlle  and   side  naves. 

(2.)  Those  of  obU)ng  form  witli  mitldle  and  side  naves  and  an 
apse. 

(;?.)  Tliose  of  obh)ni;  form,  middle  and  side  naves,  apse,  and  tran- 
sept. 

(4.)  Those  of  obloni;  foini,  middU'  and  si(U'  naves,  apse,  and  tran- 
si'pt;  but  witliout  an  atrium,  and  havinL!;  thi-  poreh  leaning  on  tlie 
main  bnildiiiL;:. 

(5.)  Those  liaving  thi'  characteristics  of  tlie  hist  chiss,  Imt  liaving 
several  apses. 

This  writer  defends  Iiis  tlieoi-y  witli  great  learning,  and  coiic-lu  les 
that  "the  origination  and  development  of  the  Christian  l)asilica  ;ire 
completely  explained  by,  and  find  their  jnstitication  in,  the  activities 
and  needs  of  the  Christian  spirit." ' 

3.  A  third  oi)inion  has  been  defended  with  much  earnestness  nn<l 
with  great  wealth  of  learning.  It  holds  that  the  early  Christian  ba- 
silica was  developed  from  the  ancient  private  house  and  the  Greek  hy- 
pnpthral  temple.^  The  following  considerations  are  urged  in  favor 
of  this  origin  :  After  their  complete  separation  from  HypaMhrui 
the  Jewish  Church  the  Christians  assem]»led  in  i)rivate  t«"ipi«- 
houses  for  worship.     ''J''his   is  distinctly  stated  in  the  Acts  of  the 

A])Ostles,  in    the   Epistles,  and   by  the   early  Christian 

Private  house, 
fathers.     The  accepted  and  regular  form  of  the  Roman 

house  at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era  can  be  well  ascertained, 

and  the  adaptation  or  adjustment  of  such  a  i-oom  to  the  purposes  of 

a  Cliristian  assembly  can  be  easily  traced.      The  re.H'iid»Iaiice  of  these 

'  Zostormiinn  liiis  a  zealous  (li*ciple  in  J.  Kronscr:  ChristUcher  Kirchenbau,  IS'jI 
iuul  1860;  iind  still  more  positively  in  iiis  Wud^erum  C/tristlicher  Kirchenbau,  18G8. 
This  author  holds.  1.  That  the  Christian  basilicas  had  nothinp:  to  do  with  the  attic  royal 
hall.  U.  Under  the  lerni,  hypitthral  temple,  lie  can  undersfcmd  nothing  more  nor 
k'33  than  a  building  that  is  open  and  free  to  the  light  and  air.  Diogeucs's  tub  in  the 
street  might  be  an  extmiplc  of  a  hypjpthral  building.  .3.  Zcstermann  is  the  foremost 
and  best  author  wlio  has  written  on  the  basilica,  and  his  explanation  of  its  origin  is 
the  only  correct  one.  4.  Kgypt  had  the  first  basilica.  From  two  passages  in  the 
Tnhnud  it  is  evident  that  this  name  was  peculiar  to  Kgyptian  works  of  architecture, 
o.  Tlie  Kgyptian,  or,  more  strictly,  the  Africano-ralestinc.  mcthnd  of  building  was 
copied  in  Rome,  and  from  these  arose  the  basilicas  for  hoMing  the  courts  of  law. 

'  W.  Wcinuartner  :  Urspiu:i<j  imd  Entwickelung  dts  chriMichtn  Kirchengebaudea. 
L?ipzig,  18j8. 


IGO  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

to  the  early  Christian  churches  is  seen  in  the  peristyle,  and  the  so- 
called  oeci  lying  behind  it.  These  two  rooms  were  related  to  each 
other  both  in  space  and  situation  very  nearly  as  Avere  the  parts  of 
Herod's  temple  at  Jerusalem,  which  was  built  in  the  Grecian  style. 
After  the  destruction  of  this  temple,  and  the  spread  of  Christianity 
over  the  known  world,  it  was  natural  that  the  Christians,  wdien  erect- 
ing independent  houses  of  worship,  should  take  their  suggestions  from 
the  Grjeco-Roman  temples,  Avhich  contained  all  the  essential  parts  of 
a  Christian  church.  It  was  also  natural  that  the  form  should  be 
selected  which  had  been  most  perfected,  and  most  nearly  satisfied 
the  demand  for  the  observance  of  their  own  religious  services. 
This  was  the  hypoethral  temple.  It  was  open  to  the  sky,  thus 
giving  abundance  of  light,  and  had  a  recess,  the  cella,  where  could 
stand  the  high  altar  for  the  celebration  of  the  eucharist.  This 
cella,  which  was  taken  from  the  circular  or  polygonal  burial  temples, 
was  demanded  by  the  Christian  societies,  since  soon  afterward  a 
ulace  of  worship,  and  a  place  of  burial  for  the  martyr  or  saint 
M  Avhom  the  church  was  dedicated,  were  combined  in  the  same 
building.  With  the  exception  of  the  greater  elevation  of  the 
middle  nave,  the  outer  form  of  the  hypoethral  temple  corresponded 
to  that  of  the  Christian  church.  Still  more  close  was  the  likeness 
of  their  interior  arrangement.  This  influence  of  the  pagan  temple 
upon  the  Christian  building  was  most  apparent  in  the  time  of 
Constantine.  It  was  seen  in  the  use  of  like  terms,  in  the  adoption 
of  the  circular  or  polygonal  groundplan,  and  in  working  out  the 
details  of  the  interior.  The  ground  outline,  the  rows  of  columns, 
and  the  consequent  division  of  the  interior  space  into  naves,  the 
lower  porticos,  the  choir  and  its  general  arrangement,  the  sacra- 
mental table,  the  baldachin,  the  place  of  burial  for  the  martyr, 
the  crypts  beneath,  the  apse,  and,  later,  the  amhos,  or  reading 
desks  near  the  front  railing,  are  all  prefigured  in  the  Roman  pagan 
temples.  The  purest  form  of  the  continuation  of  the  antique 
temples  were  the  Roman  basilicas,  which  maintained  their  peculiar 
characteristics  as  late  as  the  twelfth  century.' 

This  writer  thus  attempts  to  show  the  intimate  relation  and 
dependence  of  the  earl}^  Christian  churches  on  the  private  house, 
and  especially  on  the  hypajthral  temple,  both  in  external  form 
and  interior  arrangement.  He  holds  that  the  law  basilicas  of 
the  Romans  were  so  entirely  different  from  the  Christian  that  it 
is  unscientific  to  regard  the  latter  as  the  continuation  and  per- 
fection of  the  former,  and  claims  that  the  Christian  church  could 
only  be  derived  from  the  ancient  private  house,  with  such  sug- 
'  V  Weingarliier :    Op.  cit,  pp.  136,  137. 


EAIJLY    ("IIKISTIAX    AllCniTECTrKi:.  lOt 

S^estions     as     wrre      ;in"oiiU'<l     l»y     \hr     liyi>:i'tlii:il     tciri[il('     of     tin- 
(irt'C'ks. 

4.  A  fourth  thoorv  of  till- ori^^iu  niid  (h-vi'Iopincnt  of  llic  ( "lirist- 
ian  basilica  has  bocii  suufifi-stod  aiid  very  ably  (k-fciidcd  mussiiuts  tiie- 
by  Dr.  J.  A.  Mcssmer.'  lie  starts  from  the  well  at-  wy 
tested  fact  that  the  earliest  C'liristian  societies  were  accustomed  to 
assemble  in  the  private  house  of  some  one  of  their  number,  and  in 
the  rooju  most  spacious  and  convenient  for  their  services,  and  wiiii  !i 
aMhe  same  time  would  best  affoi'd  protection  from  su<lden  interrup- 
tions by  their  enemies.  Plaiidy  this  would  be  the  triclinium,  or 
baii(pu'ting*-room.  Amonnr  the  Romans  this  was  a  rec-  From  the  tri- 
tani,de,  whose  lenu^th  was  twice  the  breadth.  The  <i'">u">- 
more  wealthy  the  owner  of  the  house  the  more  spacious  and  elei^ant 
Avas  this  room,  and  the  more  nearly  did  it  resemble  the  forin  of  the 
basilicas  which  were  found  in  the  palaces  of  the  more  noted  Ro- 
mans. These  dinins^-rooms  of  the  nobles  are  so  minutely  described 
bv  \'itruvius  that  we  cannot  be  in  doubt  with  regard  to  their  form, 
ari'an<icnu'ni,  and  decoration  (/'.  Fi<jr.  7s).  Rows  of  columns,  both 
Corintliian  and  E^■y])tian,  olti^n  su])ported  architraves  and  beams  on 
wliich  a  place  for  ])romenadini^  was  constructed,  while  above  were 
other  columns  supportinu'  a  roof  or  a  wall  pierced  with  windows  for 
lii,'litinu:  the  interior.  In  tlicse  rooms  public  business  was  fre- 
(|uently  transacted  and  lei^al  causes  delermined.  We  also  read  of 
a  tliurch  in  the  houses  of  wealthy  i)ublic  mcji  who  had  accepted 
Christianity,  as  in  the  case  of  Pudens  aiul  Aquila.^ 

Jerome  assures  us  tliat  the  noble  Lateranus  opem-d  his  ])rivate 
f  basilica  for  the  assembly  of  the  Christians,  and  that  it  pj^^j^p,,.,  ^f 
afterward  was  transformed  into  one  of  the  most  noiiu^  ciirisi- 
splendid  churi-hes  of  Rome.  Ammianus  ^Nlarcellinus  ^  '''"''• 
savs  that  a  like  ass;'inbly  found  a  stated  jilace  of  meeting;  in  the 
r>asilica  of  8icinianus,  another  iu>ted  Roman.  There  is  trustworthy 
evidence  that  such  change  froni  the  triclinium  of  the  house  of 
a  wealthy  citizen,  nametl  Theojdiilus,  to  a  Christian  church  took 
place  at  Antioch  in  the  first  half  of  the  third  century;  and  it 
seems  incredible  tliat  the  pseudo-Clement  could  lU'-ntiou  in  his  i-o- 
ni  nice  these  transformations  of  private  basilicas  intc*  Christian 
•  liurches  unless  the  fact  was  well  known.     Thus,  while  the  triclin- 

'  Ueher  den  Urspr'ing,  die  Entwicfcehtn^j,  nnd  Bedtuhmg  der  Basifikn  in  dn-  rhrist- 
lichen  Baukunst.  Loipzijj,  18r)4.  Also  and  more  tlioioii<rlily  in  an  article.  Utber  den 
Untprunrj  der  chriatlichen  Basilika,  in  llie  Z'-.iMirifl  jiir  chribtUche  Aiclamilo'jie  und 
Kuntst.  1859,  vol.  ii. 

»  I  Cor.  xvi,  10.     V.  iilso  p.  30. 

'  Ammian.  Marcellin.,  x.xvii,  -i.     "  Et  in  coiicert^iione,"  etc. 
11 


162  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 

inra  of  the  private  house  and  the  private  basilicas  of  the  more 
wealthy  were  used  for  the  assembl}^  and  worship  of  the  early  Christ- 
ians, it  was  found  that  they  combined,  more  fully  than  any  others, 
elements  of  architecture  which  were  afterward  developed  into 
the  distinctive  edifice  known  by  the  generic  name  of  Christian  ba- 
silica. While  the  Roman  name  was  retained,  the  building  Avas  trans- 
formed by  the  peculiar  power  of  the  new  religion.  Thus  was  pro- 
vided a  type  of  church  architecture  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  genius 
of  Christianity',  and  in  many  respects  the  most  convenient  ever 
devised.  Christianity  became  the  heir  to  the  late  Roman  art,  but 
its  inlieritance  was  improved  and  perfected  by  a  new  and  living 
spirit. 

5.  A  fifth  theory,  very  ably  advocated  by  Dehio,'  finds  the  germs 
Dehio's  theory  ^^  ^^^^  Christian  basilica  in  the  private  house,  in  Avhicli 
from  the  pri-  for  two  centuries  the  early  Church  was  accustomed  to 
vate  house.  i^qqi  for  worship.  He  attempts  to  trace  this  develop- 
ment, step  by  step,  from  the  simplest  structure  of  the  common  Ro- 
man dwelling-house  to  its  perfected  form  in  the  imposing  basilicas 
of  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries. 

(3.  The  latest  theory  is  that  recently  advanced  by  Professor  Lange, 
From  the  scho-  ^f  Ilalle,'^  and  substantial!}'-  accepted  by  Professor  G. 
•*•  Baldwin  Brown, ^  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh.    This 

theory  traces  the  beginnings  of  Christian  architecture  to  the  pa- 
gan scholft.  While  the  architectural  evidence  cited  in  support  of 
this  view  is  not  decisive,  it  is  believed  that  from  the  outward  resem- 
/blance  of  the  Christian  communities  to  the  various  religious  organi- 
Arsued  from  ^^''^tions  and  clubs  of  the  heathen  world,*  and  from  the 
the  likeness  of  confounding  of  thcse  by  the  legal  authorities,  it  would 
other  organiza-  natui'ally  follow  that  their  places  of  assembly  must 
*'°"^-  have  been  similar  in  outward  appearance  and  in   in- 

ternal arrangement.  The  adaptation  of  these  schoke  to  the  needs 
of  Christian  worship  is  pointed  out,  and  the  fact  that  the  protection 
of  government  given  to  the  clubs  would  thus  be  extended  to  the 
Christian  assemblies  is  emphasized. 

These  different  theories  of  the  origin  of  the  Christian  basilica 
An  eclectic  illustrate  the  difiieulties  of  the  subject.  It  seems  prob- 
^'6^^'-  able  that  each  contains  a  partial  truth,  and  that  by  a 

judicious  eclecticism  a  juster  view  of  the  beginnings  and  growth 

'  Die  Genesis  der  christlirJien  JBasilika.     Miinchen,  1 883. 

2  Hans  unci  H'lUe.     Leipzig,  1885. 

3  From  Schola  to  Cathedral.     Edinhurgli,  1886. 

■•  Hatch:  Organization  of  the  Early  Christian  Churches,  London,  1882,  has  devel- 
oped ihis  subject,  using  witli  great  effect  the  mouumerital  evidence. 


EARLY   (  IIKISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE.  163 

of  early  Christian  aithili'ctiirr  may  lie  LjaiiUMl.  I.ci  us  look  at  sonic 
WH'll-c'stablisluMl  facts. 

The  first  C'liristians  assemhhMl  for  worsliii)  in  tlic  temple,'  in  pri- 
vate houses,*  in  uj»i)er  rooms,  throuujh  fear  of  disturbanee  and  perse- 
cution from  their  enemies,'  in  the  synagotjucs  of  the  Jews,*  and  by 
the  river  side.*  In  the  synagogues,  which  hail  been  founded  in 
ivcry  chief  eity  of  the  empire,  the  apostk'S  could  ad-  Advantaires  of 
dress  a  multitude  composed  of  Jewish  and  non-Ji'wish  "'"  w'laK'ojrue. 
elements."  Doubtless  the  free  republican  spirit  which  charactcii/.(«l 
the  service,  in  marked  contrast  witi)  the  exclusiveness  of  the  temple, 
was  another  reason  for  the  assend)ling  of  the  apostles  and  first 
('luistians  in  these  Iniildings.  Moreover,  the  synagogues  were 
places  for  consultation,  and  for  discussion  of  questions  upon  which 
the  opinions  of  the  rabbis  were  divided;  so  that  persons  of  vigorous 
intellect  and  of  intpiiring  spirit  were  often  attracted  to  them. 
This  is  manifest  from  the  accounts  given  of  the  Berean  Jews,' 
as  well  as  from  the  fact  that  Paul  could  speak  freely  in  the  synagogue 
at  Ephesus  "  for  the  space  of  three  months,  reasoning  and  jiersuad- 
ing  as  to  the  things  concernini;  the  kin^^dom  of  God." 

The  fact  that  some  of  the  Judaizing  sects,  as  the  Ebionites,  still 

resorted  to  the  synagogues  for  worship"  may  suggest  one  reason 

why,  during  the  first  centurv,  the  naucan  world  re<;arded   „^    . 

''..^  -'  '=  »  Christians 

the  Christians  as  only  a  sect  of  Jews,  and  why  the  fierce  judged  a  sect 
opposition  of  the  latter  to  the  Christians  was  judged  by  ^'  ^^*^  '^*^^^'^' 
the  Roman  governors  to  be  of  little  importance  in  the  eye  of  the 
civil  laAV.'"     While  des)»ised  by  the  pagan  Avorld,  the  Jews  had,  nev- 
ertheless, received  at  the  hands  of  some  of  the  emperors   Privileges     of 
very  favorable  regard,  and  were  granted  some  most  val-  ^^^  J^^s. 
uable  immunities.     The  inscriptions  and  art  remains  of  the  Jewish 
catacombs  at  Rome  entirely  confirm  the  testimony  of     incidentally 
the  literary  monuments  touching  this  point.     With  this     Jj'X"in'f*am 
erroneous    concej>tion    respecting    the    true    nature    of     cimicii. 
Christianity  was  connected  a  decided  advantage  to  its  first  adherents. 
There  can  be  little  doubt  that  thereby  the  early  Church  secured 
exemption  from  sweeping  persecution  just  at  the  time  of  its  great- 
est need.      Even    at  the   close  of   the   second  century  a  Christian 
fatlu'r  of  eminent  ability  recognises  this  obligation." 

'   Acts  iii,  1;  v,  12.  '  Acts  xii,  12,  seq. 

»  Acts  i,  13;  XX,  7-9.  *  Acts  ix.  20;  xiii,  5,  16,  et  al. 

*  Acts  xvi,  13.  «  Acts  xiii,  16,  26,  44,  46,  48;  xiv,  1 ;  xvlii,  4, 

'  Acts  xvii,  11.  «  Acts  xix,  8. 

'  Irenjeus:  Adv.  ffceres,  lib.  i,  c.  26.  '<•  Acts  xviii,  12-17. 

"  Tertuilian:  Apologtt.,  c.  21. 


164  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

But  from  the  first  it  was  manifest  that  Christ  had  established  a 
Church  whose  spirit  coukl  not  be  confined  within  the  narrow  limits 
of  Judaism.  The  events  at  Ephesus  are  instructive.  The  awakened 
hostility  compelled  the  withdrawal  of  the  Christians  from  the  syna- 
gogue, and  they  assembled  in  the  school  of  one  Tyrannus/  where 
these  meetings  were  "  continued  by  a  space  of  two  years."  A  some- 
what similar  state  of  things  existed  in  Corinth.'*  Various  pas- 
sages in  the  history  of  the  apostolic  Church  clearly  prove  that  the 
A  separate   customary  places  of  meeting  were  in  upper  rooms'  or 

place  of  Rather-   j^  private  houses."     This  was  the  case  at  Troas;'  and 
ing  in  private  -i  _  '  _ 

houses.  Aquila    and   Priscilla,*^    "  with    the    church    that   is   in 

their  house,"  send  salutations  to  the  Corinthian  brethren.      Also 

Paul  sends  greetings  to  "  Nymphas  and  the  church   which  is  in 

his  house," '  and  to  Philemon  and   "  the  church  in  thy  house."  * 

His  own  custom  for  two  years  was  to  receive  all  who  came  unto 

him  in  his  own  private  house  at  Rome,  "  preaching  the  kingdom 

of  God  and  teaching  those  things  which  concern  the  Lord  Jesus 

Christ." ' 

The  continuance  of  the  custom  of  gathering  in  private  houses 
The  custom  after  the  apostolic  age  is  clearly  evidenced  from  the 
continued.  literary  monuments  both  Christian  and  pagan.  It  is 
well-nigh  demonstrable  that  the  worship  of  the  Christian  Church  for 
nearly  two  hundred  years  was  chiefly  a  private  service,  avoiding 
the  publicity  permitted  to  a  religion  already  recognised  and  pro- 
tected by  the  state.'"  So  far  as  can  be  known,  to  the  close  of  the 
second  century  no  stately  or  characteristic  buildings  for  the  cere- 
monies of  Christian  worship  had  been  erected.  Probably  some 
houses  had  already  been  erected  and  set  apart  for  Christian 
services,  but  they  must  have  been  unpretentious,  and  probably 
mostly  of  the  nature  of  private  halls,  or  of  the  class  of  buildings 
called  scholm,  which  Avere  either  given  by  the  wealthier 
members,  statedly  thrown  open  for  the  use  of  the 
societies,"  or  built  by  means  of  a  common  fund.  Doubtless,  how- 
ever, these  unpretentious  buildings  contained  evidences  of  the  art 
susceptibility  which  had  already  found  expression  in  the  earlier 
pictures  of  the  catacombs. 

In  consequence  of  the  high  esteem  felt  for  the  confessors  and 

'  Acts  xix,  9.  2  Acts  xviii,  7.  ^  Acts  i,  13. 

•»  Acts  vii,  15.  5  ^cts  xx,  7,  8.  «  1  Cor.  xvi,  19. 

'  Col.  iv,  15.  «  Philem.  2.  »  Acts  xxviii,  30,  31. 

'»  Pliny :  EpisL,  lib.  x,  ep.  96. 

"  The  houses  of  Pudentiana  and  of  Lucina  at  Rome,  and  of  Briccius  and  Euto- 
chius  at  Tours,  are  familiar  examples. 


EARLY    C'lIHISTIAN    AHCIIITIXvrURE.  165 

martyrs,   tlio    itractici-   of    l)urial    (Vasts    and    IVslivals    Hoon    arosf;. 

( 'i'k'l)rate'(l     in     tlu'     houses,     and    duriiii;    seasons     of    nuriai  fcstiviiis 

|»i'rsoc'Ution  in  the  eatacond)s,  tliese  exerted  a  powerful   uuii ^•l•ilI»•l^*■ 

intluence  on  the  architectural  arranijenient  of  the  i>laces  of  meeting, 

and   on   the    furniture    and    art  of   the    churcli.     Feasts   in   honor 

of  the  dead  were  very  common  amoiiiif  the  jJaLjan  peo-    pagan  suRges- 

|)les,   and   tliere  can   be  no   reasonable   doubt   that  the    i'""- 

('liiisti;nis  found  in  them  many  suggestions  for  tluir  own   practices. 

From  the   ri-ign   of   Marcus  Aurelius  burial  festivals   became  esjte- 

cially   fre(picnt,  on  account  of  the  great  number  of   devoted   men 

and  women    who  were  victims  of  the  terrible  persecutions.     It  is 

plain  that   the  arrangement  of  the  meetingdiouses  and   ,  „ 

'  ^    ,  _  >^  Influence      of 

the  nature  of  tl'.e  services  were  moditied  through  the   the   tombs  of 
great  reverence  for  those  whose  remains  were  deposited    'i"^'''> •"=*• 
in  crypts  beneath  the  altars  of  the  churches,  or  in  the  small  chapels 
where  the  hunted  Church  gathered  for  the  celebration  of   the  meal 
in  memory  of  the  sainted  dead. 

'I'here  isal)undant  evidence  that  at  the  beginning  of  the  third  cen- 
tury private  houses  were  still  in  general  use  for  divine  worship,  and 
for  the  meetings  of  the  (Christian  societies.  Optatus  is  very  specific 
in    his   information   touching   this  subject,    speaking   of    Meetings      in 

various  mendjers  in  whose  houses  such  assemblies  were   f"^**!®  '^^uf*^ 

In    the     third 

accustomed  to  be  held.'     But  the  changed  social  con-  century, 
dition  of  the  Church,  which  now  reckoned  among  its  adherents  some 
of  the   noted   fannlies  of  the  cai)ital  and  of   the  empire,  was  more 
favorable  to  the  erection  of  buildings  devoted  exclusively  to  Chris- 
tian  uses.     It   is   impossible   to   determine   their   num]»er,  size,  and 

degree    of    elegance.     Oi)tatus     informs    ns    that    the   „  ,,  , 

~_  ~  •  Notices     of 

schismatics  destroyed  forty  churches  which  had  been  churches  in  the 
the  property  of  the  orthodox  party  at  Rome.  lie  calls  th''^ ^■•^'"'"'•.v 
them  "basilicas,"  but  their  peculiar  character  he  does  not  indi- 
cate. We  also  have  the  account  of  the  erection  of  a  very  im])os- 
ing  structure  at  Nicomedia  in  the  last  i)art  of  the  third  century," 
as  well  as  of  its  destruction  at  the  beginning  of  tlie  execution  of 
Diocletian's  edict  to  raze  all  the  Christian  churches  and  burn  the 
sacred  books. 

It  must,  however,  be  remend>ered  that  not  until  the  reign  of 
Conimodus  did  entire  families  of  the  l^mian  aristocracy  pass  over 
to  the  Christian  Church,  and  that,  two  generations  after  Con- 
st antine,  Christianity  could  claim  hardly  a  majority  of  the  ])rom- 
ineut  families  of   Rome.      For  the  first  two  hundred  and  lifty  years 

'  De  schism.  Donat.,  i,  14,  2:{ ;  v.  also  Ada  Martyruin,  cc.  8,  9. 
'  Eusebius:  Ilitt.  Eccksim,  lib,  viii,  cc.  1,  2. 


166 


ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 


the  adherents  of  Christianity  were  largely  of  the  middle  and  lower 

classes,  and  were,  therefore,  accustomed  to  the   simple  ^^        ■^,      ^ 
,  ^         Few  noble  and 

Roman  dwelling-house,  or  Avere  crowded  together  in  the  wealthy  chnst- 
many-storied  tenant  houses  of  Rome  and  of  the  larger  ^'^'^^^ 
towns.  While  there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that,  from  the  second 
century,  converts  from  noble  families  opened  or  devoted  their  spacious 
dwellings  to  the  Church  for  Christian  worship,  this  number  must, 
nevertheless,  have  been  comparatively  insignificant.  In  times  of 
peace  the  common  dwelling-house  was  the  usual  place  for  the  cele- 
bration of  the  sacraments,  and  for  the  instruction  and  edification  of 
believers.     It  is  incredible  that  these  forty  so-called  basilicas  at 

Rome,  near  the  close  of  the  third  cen- 
tury, were  elegant  dwellings  furnished 
by  the  richer  and  nobler  Eeiations  of 
members.     Rather    must   l"^  p^Vh" 

houses    to   the 

we  suppose  that  the  main  churches. 
features  of  the  rooms  in  which  the 
Christians  were  accustomed  to  as- 
semble, and  of  the  service  which  had 
been  adjusted  to  this  environment  for 
two  and  one  half  centuries,  would  im- 
press themselves  upon  the  more  impos- 
ing churches  which  were  erected  during 
the  peaceful  interval  of  forty  years  be- 
between  the  reigns  of  Decius  antl 
Diocletian,  and  after  final  exemption 
from  persecution  had  been  ensured. 
It  is,  therefore,  important  to  examine 
the  form  and  arrangement  of  the  or- 
dinary dwelling-house  of  the  empire. 
There  was  a  general  uniformity  in 
the  internal  arrangement  of  the  early 
Greek  and  the  Italian  private  house.' 
The  chief  sources  of  information  are  Vitruvius,  the  Capitoline 
Fragments,  and  the  houses  which  have  been  disinterred  ^^^^  Roman 
on  various  sites,  as  Pom})oii,  Herculaneum,  etc.  From  dweiung- 
these  we  infer  the  most  important  portions  of  the  Ro- 
man house.  First  was  the  vestibulum,  which  was  a  vacant  space 
before  the  door,  forming  a  kind  of  court,  one  side  of  ns  arrange- 
which  opened  upon  the  street,  the  other  sides  bounded  '"^°'^^- 
by  the  house  itself.  From  the  vestibule  a  passage  or  hall,  called 
the  ostium  {v.  Fig.  66,  A),  led  to  the  main  room  of  the  interior,  which 
^Mommsen:  History  of  Rome,  vol.  i,  pp.46  and  307. 


Fig.  66.— The  House  of  Pansa  (Cttsa  di 
Pansa),  Pompeii.  An  elegant  Roman 
house. 


EAIU.Y    ClIinSTIAX    AUClHrKC  FUKE. 


167 


went  under  tlie  names  of  (lif  aln'a/n  ;inJ  aicoidinin,  1>  {i-tivntn 
CBiliiiiii).  This  was  roofed  over,  with  the  exeeption  of  an  openin/r 
ill  the  eenter,  the  comphiviniii,  toward  whicli  the  I'oof  slopcil  to 
eonduet  the  rain  into  a  eistern  in  the  floor,  the  iuij)luvi//iji,  I.  In 
the  rear  of  tlie  atrium  was  the  fahli/nnn,  E,  and  riiifht  and  k-ft  the 
«/'/,  1)1).  On  the  sides  of  the  atrium  were  found  tlic  slei'pint^- 
rooms,  cuhicaUi,  CC,  and  beliind  aiul  on  eitlier  side  the  trielinium 
were  the  servants  rooms,  CC,  The  trielinium  is  open,  and  allows 
an  uninterrupted  view  of  the  other  parts  of  the  house.  Vitruvius 
refers  to  five  kinds  of  atria,'  representing  as  many  stages  in  the 
development  of  the  Roman  Infuse.  The  atrium  Ttis-  Five  classes  of 
ciaii'cuin  was  the  earliest  and  most  simple  (Fig.  07).  tii« i^niuiii. 
In  this  the  roof  was  supported  by  four  beams,  erossing  at  right 
angles,  thus  forming  the 
compluvium.  It  is  plain 
that  this  construction  was 
available  only  in  the  smaller 
houses.  The  atrium  tetra- 
sti/lu))i  differed  from  the  first 
in  that  the  beams  were  sup- 
ported at  their  intersection 
by  columns,  instead  of  ex- 
tending to  the  walls  of  the 
house.  This  would  admit 
of  an  enlargement  of  the 
atrium.  In  the  atrium 
corinthium  the  beams  were 
sujtported  by  rows  of  col- 
umns, thus  giving  opportu- 
nity of  farther  enlargement.'  In  tlie  atrium  <J!s)>luriatum  the  roof 
sloped  outward  toward  the  walls,  instead  of  inward  to- 
ward the  compluvium — thus  carrying  the  water  away 
from  the  interior  impluvium  (v.  Fig.  68).  The  atrium  testudina- 
i«/M  was  entirely  roofed  over,  and  lacked  the  compluvium,  and  con- 
sequently the  interior  impluvium  (y.  Fig.  09).  The  atrium  was  the 
chief  room.  In  the  ordinary  dwellings  it  was  devoted  to  uses  for  tim 
a  variety  of  uses,  to  the  customary  intercourse  and  the  "'rium. 
festivities  of  the  family;  in  the  liouses  of  the  wealthy  it  was  fitte(l 
up  with  magniHcence,  an<l  was  the  rece))tion  room  where  the  jiatron 
"was  accustomed  to  meet  clients,  hear  petitions,  and  dispense*  favors. 

'  vi,  ■^. 

*In  tig.  67  these  columns  and  the  changed  iuterior  thus  resulting  can  be  c.i.sily  sup- 
plied by  the  imagination. 


Fig.  67. — Atrium  Tiisfaniouni. 


Dcsoription. 


168 


ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 


Fig.  G8.— Allium  clispluviatiim. 


At  the  further  end  of  the  atrium,  opposite  the  entrance,  was  the  deep 
recess  or  room,  called  the  tahlinimi,  which  could  be  made  private 
by  means  of  folding  doors  or  hangings.  It  Avas  the  place  of  lionoi', 
In  the  repubii-  the  seat  of  the  householder.  On  either  side  of  the  atrium, 
can  period.  leading  right  and  left,  were  small  recesses  or  rooms, 
called  alee  (v.  Fig.  67).    Such  seems  to  have  been  the  simple  arnmge- 

ment  of  the  Roman  house 
at  the  end  of  the  re]iubliei;i. 
period.  In  the  countiy,  r,i.d 
during  the  early  history  of 
the  cities,  it  was  of  one  story, 
or,  at  most,  it  added  a  second 
story  in  which  were  the  ctihi- 
cula,  or  bed-chambers,  whose 
breadth  and  height  to  the 
cross  beams  M'ere  one  third 
or  one  fourth  the  length  of 
the  atrium. 

But  in  the  period  of  the 
empire,  when  the  crowded 
condition  of  the  tOAvns  made 
building  sites  expensive,  and  the  increasing  wealth  of  leading 
families  created  a  demand  for  more  elegant  dwellings,  the  con- 
struction of  the  Roman  house  underwent  an  important  change 
which  is  connected  with  the  history  of  early  Christian  architecture. 
The  enlargement  of  the  dwelling  could  be  attained  only  by  in- 
Enlarged  in  f'l'easing  its  length;  hence  the  more  elegant  Roman 
Imperial  houses,  after  the  manner  of  the  Greeks,  added  to  the 
simple  atrium  a  large  space  in  the  rear.  This,  the  peri- 
sti/le,  (Fig.  60,  GG),  was  a  court  open  to  the  sky  in  the  center, 
which  was  surrounded  by  columns,  and  was  somewhat  larger  than 
The  peristyle  the  compluvium  of  the  atrium.  In  the  center  of  this 
and  tr-uiinium.  peristyle  was  a  })lot  for  grass  and  flowers,  and  at  the 
I- ides  the  tridhiio,  KK,  or  rooms  in  Avhich  the  couches  and  tables 
were  usuall}^  placed  for  social  or  religious  feasts."  At  the  rear  of 
the  peristyle  in  the  larger  and  more  imposing  houses  was  found  the 
ieciis,  L,  which  held  the  same  relation  to  the  peristyle  as  did  the 

'  Fortunately  tlio  excavations  have  reveiiled  examples  of  each  class  of  the  Roman 

„         ,      ,  house.     The  so-called  casa  di  Sallw^tio  CSailust's  house),  in  Pompeii, 

Examples  from  ^  /i  r     ' 

Pompeii.  "''■'^  '''   gfoundphin  almost  preciselj'  answerin<>'  to  our  description  of 

the  ntriiun,  with  its  a'aj  raised  to  admit  the  light;  while  the  casa  di 
Pansa  (Fijr.  Cii)  is  n  tine  example  of  the  more  pretentious  houses,  with  the  peristyle 
and  its  architectural  accompaniments. 


the 
period 


E.VRI,V    rilUISTIAX    AKCIHTEOTURE.  109 

t:il)linum  to  the  atrium.  It  was  sorm'tiines  scinicircular.'  From  tin; 
(I'C'iis  a  passage  led  to  the  poreli,  PP,  whence  was  a  way  to  tin-  L;ar- 
den  ill  the  rear. 

l)oiil)fli'ss  the  ))rivate  basilicas  of  the  more  wealthy  familic^'  tliat 
had  cmliraci'<l  Christ iaiiity  coiitaiiud  arcliitcct iiral  elements  wiiieh 
afterward  found  exiiression  in  the  ciiurches  of  the  Constaiitinian 
;uid  itost-Constantine  ju'riods,  but  it  is  diilicult  to  l)elieve  that  they 
furnished  all  the  essential  norms  of  the  Christian  archittclure  of 
tlie  fourth  and  tifth  centuries." 

Tlie  lighting  of  the  dwelling-house  is  connected  directly  with  the 
history  of  Christian  ecclesiastical  architecture.  In  the  simj)lest 
Konian  house  the  atrium  was  lighted  from  the  vestibide.  At  a 
lati'r  stage  of  the  development,  the  ake  were  extended  Li^riiiinjr  tiio 
to  the  roof  and  sides,  thus  adnutting  abundant  light  to  intcnor. 
the  interior.  When  the  houses  in  the  towns  became  '■ontinuous, 
and  the  sides  were  bounded  by  continuous  walls,  a  new  method  of 
lighting  the  inner  rooms  was  re<juiied.  The  most  obvious  way  was 
to  admit  light  through  the  compluviuin.  IJut  the  defence  against 
moisture  and  cold  required  that  this  central  opening  be  protected, 
while  light  might  still  be  admitted.  The  construction  Guuiding  the 
of  a  gabled  roof,  supported  by  columns  above  the  com-  iDnii-iiivium. 
pluvium,  thus  shielding  the  interior  from  cold  and  rain  and  yet 
allowing  a  free  admission  of  light,  was  tlie  next  step  in  the  solution 
of  the  problem.  This  gave  rise  to  a  structure  rej)resented  by 
Fig.  08,  which  is  a  conjectural  reproduction  of  the  form  which 
the  atrium  displuviatum  would  thus  assume.  From  this  figure 
it  may  be  seen  liow  the  spaces  on  the  enclosing  walls,  as  well  as 
on  those  separating  the  atrium  from  the  lateral  apartments,  wi're 
preserved,  and  Avhich  afterward  furnished  opportunity  for  the 
extended  ornamentation  introduceil  into  tlu'  churches. 

The  more  recent  excavations  in  Koine,  Syria,  and  North  Africa 
have  brought  into  prominence  other  architectural  forms  which  had 
manifest  influence  on  the  development  of  the  Christian  basilica. 
'I'hey  ari' the  ('«r«V/,  the  rv/A/,  and  the  .sv//oA^  These  terms  -ph,,  p,.]|n  ami 
wt-re  applied  to  the  meeting-houses  of  associations,where  8<^hoia. 
tlu-   members  were   accustonuMl   to   assemble   for  business  purposes 

'The  celebrated  villa  of  Ilcrciilaneiiiu.  tlie  largest  ami  riclicst  which  lias  j'ct  been 

excaviited.  lacks  the  oeciis.     The  villa  in  the  Farnese  ^'iinlen  anil  the 

lioii-e  of  Livia  on  the  Palatine  have  no  neristvle;  while  the  recently  ^''"'"  Hercu- 
,.  ,      .  .  <■    -.T  ,  .   ,     .  ■       „     ,  ,  larieiim      and 

•tiscovereu   atrinm   ot    Vesta,    which    is   one   of  the    most    elejrant     uyme 

jAelling-honses  j'et  excavate'!  in  Rome,  has  a  very  spacious  oecns, 

Init  lacks  the  peristyle. 

'  This  is  virlnally  the  theory  of  Messmer. 


170 


ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAX   ART. 


or  for  advancing  the  interests  of  their  organization.  These  socie- 
ties were  very  numerous,  and  were  carefully  guarded  b}^  legal 
enactments.     The  places  of  gathering  were  called  curia;,  or  scholse, 


Fig.  69. 


-Atrium  displuviatum  with  covered  compluvium. 


according  to  the  dignity  and  importance  of  the  body  therein 
assembling;  usually  the  term  curiae  being  applied  to  halls  of  greater 
size  which  were  used  for  public  business,  the  term  scholoe  to  build- 
ings occupied  by  pi-ivate  clubs.  Among  the  more  important  of 
such  organizations  were  the  burial  guilds.  On  account  of  the  great 
regard  of  the  Romans  for  their  dead,  special  privileges  The  burial 
were  granted  to  these  associations  to  hold  groundplots  K^iids. 
for  the  interment  of  their  deceased  members.      On  them  (which 

Owere  beyond  the  city  walls)  a  building 
was  erected  for  the  celebration  of  the 
memorial  feasts,  and  still  others  f(jr  the 
occupancy  of  the  persons  specially  charged 
with  the  care  of  the  cemeteries.  This 
space,  having  the  technical 
name  of  area,  usually  enclosed 
by  walls  and  often  embellished  with  stat- 
ues, flowers,  etc.,  was  a  spot  of  peculiar 
privacy  and  sacredness. 

On  the  "Via  A])pia  are  found  the  remains 
of  these  schohB  of  heathen  origin.    Fig.  69 
is  the  groundplan  of  such  a  one.'     It  was  a  building  of  square  form, 
with  three  semicircular  niches,  fronted  by  a  columned  portico. 
'  V.  Cauiiia :   Via  Appia,  Tav".  xx. 


The  area. 


m  m  m  m 


Fig.  70.— Heathen  schula,  Via  Appia, 
Rome. 


EARLY   CIIRISTTAX   AKCIIITECTURE, 


171 


Heutlu'ii  sfliola.  Via  Ap- 
lila,  Home. 


One  ropri'si'iitc'd  l»y  Fii;.  71  is  likewise  on  llu'  Via  Appia.  Here 
are  six  niehes,  and  tlie  tendeney  is  to  tlie  eireular  form.  This  por- 
tico is  lac-kinn"  in  i-olunins."  Some  wliose 
ontlines  eloscly  ri'si-mble  those  of  the  earli- 
est Christian  ehurrhes  have  also  been  exea- 
vated  at  PomiH'ii.  Moreover,  the  testimony 
Testimony  of  <*^  ^1'*^'  inscriptions  is  full  and 
tusiTiptious.  explieit  respecting  these  struc- 
tures. i\Iuch  information  is  given  con- 
cerning their  legal  tcnui-e,  the  donors  of 
the  grounds  and  of  the  buildings  erected 
thereon,  the  ])urposes  to  which  they  were 
devoted,  the  character  of  the  feasts,  etc. 

Structures  of    like  form    and   used    for  liki'    ])urposes  have  also 

.     .   been  discovered  in  connection  ^\•ith  Christian  cemeteries 
Connect  I)  d_ 

with  Christian  in  various  i)arts  of  the  Enij)ire.  Two  such  celhv,  nieas- 
oemeteries.  uriiig  al)out  thirty  feet  on  each  side  of  the  squaie,  have 
been  found  in  the  open-air  portion  of  the  cata- 
comb of  San  Calisto  in  Rome''  (Fig.  72);  also 
the  oratories  in  the  cemetery  of  San  Pretestate 
are  of  like  general  character. 

^lany  suggestions  relative  to  the  forms  and 
arrangement  of  these  earlier  Christian  meeting- 
iilaccs  are  found   ui»on  the  sarcoi»hau;i,   in  the  ^  , 

I  ...  *      ,       .         ,  .        ,  Fig.  72.  —  Christian  s(JioIa 

buddings  which  are  depicted  in  the  great  mo-    above  San  caiisto,  Rome. 

sales  of  Rome,  Ravenna,  and  Thessaloniea,  and 

sometimes  in  objects  of  less  striking  character.    Fig.  13  represents  a 


Fig.  73.— Form  of  an  t-arly  basilica,  a  broiizi-  l;iiii|)  fouiui  in  .Africa. 

'  Canina:    Op.  cit.,  t.  ix. 

^  Do  Rossi:  I^oma  Sotterranea,  iii.  p.  468.     Rittcr  calls  tlicm  "the  first  early  Christ- 
ian cbuiclies  built  above  ground." 


172 


ARCIL^OLOGY  OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 


bronze  lamp  discovered  in  Africa.'  It  is  in  the  form  of  a  primitive 
basilica  or  schola.  Almost  precisely  the  same  form  is  met  in  the 
great  mosaics  of  St.  George,  Thessalonica.^  B}^  a  comparison  of  these 
with  the  plans  and  outlines  of  buildings  found  in  the  Capitoline 
fragments  and  at  Pompeii,  little  doubt  can  be  felt  relative  to  the 
resemblance  of  the  early  Christian  meeting-houses  to  the  scholae  and 
curiae  of  pagan  Rome.  By  a  comparison  of  Figs.  70  and  72  the 
likeness  of  the  heathen  burial  chapel  to  the  Christian  cella  will  be 
obvious.  That  like  principles  of  construction  and  arrangement  held 
in  each  must  be  manifest. 

The  cella  of  San  Sisto  at  Rome,  situated  in  the  midst  of  an  open 
Cella  of  San  ail*  Cemetery  (Fig,  74),  affords  a  good  illustration  of  the 
Sisto.  form  of  these  burial  chapels,  and  of  their  relation  to  the 

places  of  sepulture  and  the  enclosed  area.     It  was  a  principle,  hold- 


LI 


Fig.  74.— Cella  and  arrangement  of  graves  above  San  Sisto,  Rome. 

ing  in  the  arrangement  of  the  cemeteries  controlled  by  the  burial 
clubs,  that  the  area  of  the  open-air  plot  should  exactly  correspond 
to  that  of  the  subterranean  space.  Great  care  was  observed  that  no 
society  should  intrude  u]>on  the  rights  of  another.  It  will  be  seen 
that  this  cella  terminates  in  a  semicircular  apse,  whose  upper  por- 
tion suggests  the  beginning  of  the  semidomical  or  conchoidal  style. 
It  also  shows  the  probable  location  of  the  altar,  and  the  space  for 
the  distribution  of  the  couches,  etc.,  in  the  celebration  of  the  burial 


'  de  Rossi:   BtiUetH7io  di  Archeolor/ia  cristiana,  \8QS. 
*Texier  et  PiiUan:  Arch.  Byzantine,  pL.xxx-xxxiv. 


EARLY    {"IIltlSTIAN    AIK'IHTFXTURK. 


173 


feasts.  The  priiiciiilc  <»1"  tlu'  wUa,  onitorv,  or  sch(»l:i  fiiuls  fuitlu'r 
illustralion  in  the  looiii  (liscovt'ird  in  isos  in  the  ct'incttTy  ol'  Suntu 
GiMKTOt'a,  ni'ar  Jiitinc  (I'^iLJ.  75).  Tlu'  apsi-  is  almost  santa  Ueno- 
pertVct.  In  the  extreme  rear  part  is  round  another  '■"^• 
smaller  recess  or  apse  For  the  cathedra  of  the  l)is]io]»;  hack  of  this 
is  a  wimlow.  Further  excavations  heliind  the  window  revealed  a 
cubiculum  on  whose  walls  were  frescos,  the  style  of  which  ))oints 
to  tlie  s(>venth  centnrv  as  the  time  of  their  <»riLrin. 


n 


I-'if<.  75.-- Basilica  in  Santa  (icnerosa,  Uome.  ' 

Another  interestinu^  example  of  an  excavated  Christian  basilica, 
ilhistratinrj  the  same  structural  arranji^ement,  is  Santa  Petronilla, 
at  Il(tme,  Fi<fs.  76  and  77.  The  vestibule,  the  four  rows  of  col- 
umns, dividiniT  the  interior  space  into  tive  naves,  the  terminal 
semicircular  apse,  are  clearly  i)reserved.  Moreover,  the  mural 
paintinirs,  of  a  style  not  inferior  to  the  V)est  contem])orary  art, 
the  ornamentation  in  stucco,  crypts  of  ijreat  extent,  not  hewn 
in  the  rock  as  elsewhere,  but  carefully  an<l  eleiLrantly  constructed 
out  of  terra-cotta  and  building  stone,  with  pilasters  and  other 
architectural  details,  show  that  the  Church  was  not  opposed  to  art, 
nor  in  a  condition  of  extreme  jioverty  and  persecution,  but  all  the 
reverse.  Also  a  larije  number  of  inscriptions,  not  materially  differ- 
ent in  form  from  the  best  heathen  work,  whose  dates  in  some  cases 
reach  back  to  the  second  century,  further  confirm   this  view.'     De 

*  Kruus:  Roma  Soltei-ranea,  S3.  87,  88. 


174  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

Ros.i'  has  shown  that  this  Petronilla  belonged  to  the  Flavian 
family,  and  lived  in  the  first  century.  The  groundplan  (Fig.  76) 
shows  the  complexity  of  the  structure. 


Fig.  76.— Groundplan  of  basilica  in  Santa  Petronilla,  Rome. 

De  rJossi'   reported  a  most   important  discovery   made    at   the 
entrance  of  the  most  ancient  catacomb  at  Rome,  Santa  Pomitilla. 

'  V.  BulMtino  Arch,  crist,  1874,  1875. 
2  Bulldtino  Cristiano,  1865. 


EARLY    CHRISTIAN    AI{(IHTE(TURE.  175 

The  use  of  the  interior  spuee  was  suggested  by  the  stone  beiieh 
whieli  runs  ahmg  the  walls  ;  "  an  iniinense  trieliniuni  for  a  gn-at 
number  of  guests;  in  line,  a  scliold  fnidti/t'/t/n  mtv  liki-  sanu  Domi- 
to  those  of  the  pagan  hrotlu-rlioods  founded  for  burial  i'"'i- 
purposes."  Somewhat  similar  trielinia  have  been  discovered  at 
Pompeii,  whose  internal  arrangements  bear  a  very  ^,j^  ^^  ,,yiii_ 
close  resemblance  to  this  anteroom  to  the  cemetery  peii. 
of  Santa  Domitilla. 

We  must  here  consi(h>r  the  structure  of  the  pagan  basilicas, 
and  determine  their  inlluence  upon  early  Christian  ar-  o^i^jin  ^r  the 
chitecture.  They  are  believed  to  have  been  derived  iMn-^n  uoimm 
immediately  from  the  Greeks,  but  had  been  brought 
to  their  greatest  })erfection  at  Rome  during  the  later  period  of  the 
republic,  and  the  reign  of  the  first  emperors.  The  resemblance  of 
the  Roman  basilica  to  the  Roman  forum  is  well  known.  Their 
uses,  also,  somewhat  corresponded. 

The  opinion  that  the  basilica  derived  its  form  from  the  forum 
has  good  foundation.  Vitruvius  connects  the  basilicas  with  the 
markets,  and  says  they  should  be  built  in  the  warmest  ]>laces  in 
order  that  the  traders  might  there  meet  in  Avinter.'  In  this  state- 
ment he  seems  to  mistake  the  object  of  these  buildings,  since  among 
the  Romans,  as  among  the  Greeks,  they  were  certainly  used  as  halls 
of  justice."  So  far  as  can  be  known  the  first  basilica  was  built  at 
Rome,  i>.  C  184,  by  Marcus  Porcius  Cato,  from  whom  it  was 
named  the  Basilica  Porcia.  Seven  of  rare  magnificence  are  men- 
tioned during  the  republic. 

The  law  basilicas  of  Rome  were  oblong,  rectangular  buildings, 
Avhose  lengtli  was  usually  twice  their  breadth.  They  porm  of  the 
were  of  one,  three,  or  five  naves,  were  usually  wnthout  '"^^  imsiiica. 
roof ,  and  open  to  the  sky.  The  rectangular  space  was  inclosed 
by  a  wall.  This  has  been  (piestioned  by  some  winters'  An  enclosing 
who  believe  that  the  early  basilica  lacked  the  full  en-  *'""• 
closing  wall.  This  opinion  is  chielly  sui>ported  by  the  remark  of 
Plutarch, that  the  Roman  knights  and  armed  men  stormed  through 
the  Basilica  of  Paulus.  But  the  jtassage  can  be  easily  explained  by 
the  existence  of  numerous  doorwa3's  or  openings  in  the  side  walls, 
while   the  positive    testimony  of  equally  trustworthy  *  writers   in- 

'  I.  C. 

'  Ilirt :  Die  Geschichie  der  Baukunst  lei  den  Alkn,  1827,  Bd.  iii,  ss.  180,  131. 

*  f.  Scliiiaase  :    Gesddchte  d.  bihlende  Kiinste. 

*  Vitruvius,  Qiiiniili.'in.  and  Senec;i  iimon^' tlio  jincicius.  Among  modern  writers 
"oe  Ottfiied  Miillcr.  Biinscn.  Zcsternmnn.  and  Mfssiner.  Tiic  excavations  make  it 
oroba'ile  that  llie  Biisilica  Julia  laclted  tlii.s  outer  bounding  wall. 


EAKLY    CIIUISTIAX    ARCIIITErTlTvE. 


177 


Ttif  apse. 


•luces  tlic  Lclic'f  tli:it   tlir   Kdmkiii   law  Icisilicas  generally  lia<l   the 
enelosiiig  wall. 

The  early  Itoinan  Itasilica  tcnniiiati'il  o|t]»osite  the  entrance  in  a 
semieireular  niehe,  ealleil  the  apsi'  or  tribune  (see  Fig. 
78).'  This  was  not  an  unusual  tonn  for  other  Roman 
luiihlings.  It  is  seen  in  the  batlis  of  Titus  ami  of  DioeletiaTi,  w  liil< 
in  the  baths  of  Ponipey 
the  long  hall  terminated 
in  a  clearly  defined  semi- 
circular niche,  whi<-h 
foruu'd  a  half-domed  re- 
cess above.  A  like  ar- 
rangement is  noticed  in 
many  of  the  temjdcs, 
where  the  semicircular 
niche  was  often  occupied 
by  a  pedestal,  on  which 
was  a  statue  of  the  god.* 
Vitruvius  distinctly  men- 
tions this  recess  or  apse 
as  connected  with  the 
llomaii  basilicas,  and  his 
<lescription  of  the  tribuiu' 
leaves  no  doubt  as  to  its 
location  and  ]>urposc. 
The  semicircular  termi- 
nation of  the  pagan  ba- 
silica' corresponded  to  its 
jturpose,  and  to  its  deii- 
vation  from  the  forum. 
The  latter  structure  has 
clearly  preserved  this  ar- 
rancrement  in  a  semicircu- 


Fit(.  78.— riiin  of  basilica  from  the  villa  of  QuliiUlian. 


lar  portico  supported  by  C(dumns.     To  the  san\e  result  wouM  ]>oinl 

the  representation  of  the   Dasilica   l'li)ia,  found  on  the  CapitoliiU' 

Fragments,    where    a    like    outline    of    the    tribune   is   „   ,„      ,.,  , 

^  ^  ^  Baslllpa   I  Ipla 

clearly  seen.     Ihe    Basilica  of  Constantine   the  Great  and   of    con- 

also  contains  the  same  form.     The  latter  momiment  is   stantine. 

of  great  value  for  the  di'termination  of  this  cpiestion,  since  its  loca- 

'  V.  Canina  ;    Via  Appio,  t.  x.xxii. 

*  V.  Otlfr.  Miillcr:  Archceologie  der  Kumt,  ss.  344-.14G. 

^  Contra,  v.  Zestcrniimn  ami  Kreuscr:   "The  old  basilica  had  no  apse."     Kreuser  : 
Christlichen  KircJienbau,  s.  23. 
12 


178  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHKISTIAN   ART. 

tion,  the  time  of  its  erection,  and  its  founder  are  well  known.  Its 
rnins  are  also  so  well  preserved  that  it  may  be  regarded  as  a  fair  ex- 
ample of  an  ancient  basilica,  and  one,  too,  which  probably  w^as  after- 
ward devoted  to  Christian  purposes.  Also  the  Basilica  of  Otricoli 
entirely  corresponds  to  this  form.  From  all  the  evidence  to  be 
gathered  from  baths,  halls,  curia*,  temples,  and  even  from  porticos, 
the  conclusion  may  be  safely  reached  that  the  semicircular  termi- 
nation was  a  peculiarity  of  this  stvle  of  Roman  archi- 
Conclusion.  tt-  •  i     ' 

tecture.      History,    ancient    authors,    and    monuments 

unitedl}''  furnish  good  reason  for  concluding  that  the  public  basilicas 
of  the  Romans  often,  if  not  generally,  terminated  in  a  semicircular 
apse.' 

Upon  an  elevated  platform,  opposite  to  the  entrance,  the  high 
judge,  surrounded  by  his  assistants,  presided.  Below  and  on  either 
To  what  uses  side  w^ere  the  judges  ;  in  front  were  the  witnesses  and 
devoted.  advocates,  while  the  remaining  space  of  the  apse  was 

for  the  use  of  the  people  Avho  gathered  to  hear  the  causes.  On  the 
rows  of  columns, dividing  the  interior  into  three  or  five  naves,  rested 
either  entablatures  or  that  type  of  round  arch  seen  in  the  palace  of 
Diocletian  at  Spolatro,  on  the  coast  of  Dalmatia^  {^ig.  '79).  Above, 
Constructive  ^  second  row  of  columns  supported  a  wall,  on  which 
elements.  rested  the  rafter-work  and  the  ceiling  supports.     Ac- 

cording to  Pausanius  the  ceiling  of  the  Basilica  Ulpia  was  bronzed. 
The  ceiling  of  the  temple  at  Ephesus  was  wrought  out  most  elabo- 
rately in  cedar,  while  the  interiors  of  some  of  the  public  buildings  of 
the  west  were  made  most  beautiful  and  impressive  by  the  rich 
carving  and  gilding  of  the  ceilings.  The  portico  was  quite  the 
ordinary  arrangement  in  the  more  ])retentious  public  buildings  of 
Rome,  such  as  palaces,  temples,  and  basilicas,  and  in  some  private 
houses.^ 

The  Christian  basilica  of  the  fourth  century  w'as  evidently  the 
result  of  growth.  The  theory  which  attributes  its  immediate  origin 
Erroneous  to  the  toleration  of  Christianity  granted  by  Constan- 
theories.  tine  and  his  sons,  or  M'hich  supposes  a  direct  and  slavish 

adoption  of  the  Roman  law  basilica,  or  claims  a  widespread  conver- 

'  Of  many  who  substantially  agree  witli  this  view  may  be  cited  Ottfried  Miiller: 
Arcliceologie  der  Kunst,  §  291.  Kugler:  Geschichte  der  Bankunst,  1856,  Bd.  i,  ss.  280, 
281,  354.  Schnaase:  Geschichte  d.  hildenden  Z'wnsfe,  Bd.  iii,  ss.  44,45.  Carriere: 
Die  Kunst  im  Zii^ammenhang  der  Cultureiitiuickelung,  Bd.  iii,  s.  96. 

-  Schnaase :  Op.  ciL,  iii,  2?,,  24.  "  The  long  rows  of  columns  no  longer  support 
an  architrave,  but  arches;  the  wide  wall  surfaces  are  ornamented  with  rows  of 
round  windows,  or  niches,  between  loft)*  columns  which  support  corbels."  Compare 
Mothes:  Die  Baukunst  des  Mittelalters,  Bd.  i,  ss.  12-24. 

*  V.  Ottfr.  Miiller :   Op.  cit,  s.  384. 


\  mr^^^ 


2 


183  ARCILEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

sion  of  the  heathen  Law  basilicas  into  Christian  churches,  lacks 
historic  foundation.  The  main  elements  of  the  Christian  basilica 
had  been  well  known  from  the  first,  and  the  churches  which  are  met 
in  the  fourth  century  are  the  result  of  two  and  a  half  centuries 
of  growth  and  seemingly  unconscious  appropriation  to  its  wants 
of  whatever  was  useful. 

On  comparison  of  the  Roman  law  basilica  with  the  Christian 
Uenerai  re-  Church  of  the  same  period,  certain  general  rcsem- 
semwances   of  blanccs  arc  noticed,  ffivino"  rise  to  a  theory  of  its  orio^in 

R  o  m  a  n   a  n  (1  .  ,     ,.  -i        i     i  .^  ? 

Christian  ba-  whicli  was  unquestioned  tor  two  and  a  half  centuries, 
silicas.  and  is   Still  embraced  by  a  large  class  of  writers  on 

archfeology.' 

There  is  no  earlier  notice  of  the  use  of  the  basilica  for  distinctively 
Earliest  no-  Christian  purposes  than  that  in  a  letter  written  to  Ma- 
^^^'^^-  carius  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Emperor  Constantine,  whose 

attention  had  been  directed  to  the  peculiar  beauty  and  magnificence 
of  a  Christian  basilica  in  that  city.  The  theory  that  the  name 
{iaoiXiKr]  Avas  derived  from  the  Emperor  Constantine,  (iaaiXevc,  is 
untenable.  The  letter  of  Constantine  Avould  show  that  the  peculiar 
class  of  buildings  to  which  he  refers  was  well  known  to  Macarius 
himself,  hence  must  have  been  widely  diffused  at  the  time.*  More- 
over, the  statement  of  Optatus  regarding  the  forty  basilicas  at  Rome 
at  the  time  of  Diocletian  strengthens  this  o[)inion.  It  is  noteworthy 
that  no  attempt  to  trace  the  derivation  of  the  word  is  met  before 
the  seventh  century.  When  Isodorus  Hispanus  says,  "  Formerly  ba- 
silicas were  called  dwelling  places  of  kings,  hence  the  name,  since 
paaiXevg  is  a  king  and  basilicas  are  royal  habitations;  but  now  di- 
vine temples  are  named  basilicas  because  therein  are  offered  service 
and  sacrifice  to  God,  the  King  of  all,"  we  may  find  a  useful  sugges- 
tion to  the  later  Christians,  but  it  scarcely  affords  a  satisfactory 
explanation  of  the  origin  of  a  name  which  had  characterized  a 
Avhole  class  of  structures  from  the  fourth  centuiy.  That  the 
same  name  was  attached  to  the  heathen  building  and  to  the  Christ- 
ian is  probably  owing  to  their  partial  resemblance  and  likeness  of 
arrangement.^ 

'v.  J.  Richtcr:  Christliche  Architecture  u.  Flastik  in  Rom  vor  Constantine  clem 
Grossen.  "Notwithstanding  tlie  most  thorough  investigations  it  cannot  be  posi- 
tively denied  tliat  tho  Cliristian  basilica  was  derived  from  the  pagan  liall  of  justice." 

'  We  cannot,  with  Konrad  Lange,  Ilawi  unci  Ilalle,  s.  324,  understand  this  to  re- 
fer to  the  then  existing  basilicas  which  were  iised  as  halls  of  exchange,  or  to  some 
modifications  of  tiles'^*  to  adapt  them  to  tho  purposes  of  Christian  worship,  but  to 
churches  which  had  previously  existed. 

^Messmer:  Ueber  den  Ursprung,  die  Eniwickelimg,  und  Bedeutung  der  Basilika  in  der 
christlichen  Baukunst,  Leipzig,  1854,  ss.  15,  16. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE.  181 

The  navod    ami  coliimii.'.l    clinri-li   ivsc-inl)lfil  the   licailun   basil- 
ica in  bfiiiLC  an  ohlou'j:  rci-taii'ir'.ar  strurtiiiv,  wliost-  in- 

^^  _    _  "  -^  _  '  RfS(Miil)lance 

tcrior  was  divided   into  tlii'i'c  or  iive  navL'>s  l»y  two  or   to    pajrau  ba- 

I'oiir  rows  of  columns  cxtcndin^j:  throughout  its  length.  **'"*''• 
In  some  of  the  older  churches  these  columns  were  taken  directly 
from  heathen  monuments,  thus  introducing  into  the  composition  an 
element  of  strange  ineongi'uousness.'  The  columned  arrangenu'nt 
wouKl  be  as  readily  suggested  by  the  baiKjueting  hall  of  the  mo;v 
wealthy  Romans  as  by  the  law  l)a>ilicas  themselves.  In  this  case 
the  result  would  be  a  three-iuned  building,  which  was  the  more 
usual  form. 

The  Christian  Church  was  a  body  of  believers,  an  organism,  in 
which  the  dependence  of  each  i)art  on  every  other  was  y,,^,  ciiristian 
so  vital  that  "  whether  one  member  suffer,  all  the  mem-  cimrtii  an  or- 
bers  suffer  with  it"  (1  Cor.  xii,  20).  In  it  there  must  *^''"'""- 
be  cliDsen  men  to  minister  in  holy  things.  The  sacerdotal  character 
of  this  ministry  had  already  been  recognized.  The  Church  of  the 
fourth  century,  tlierefore,  re(piired  a  place  of  assembly,  and  a  high 
altar  where  the  sacrifice  of  the  holy  eucharist  could  be  made,  and 
wlicnce  till'  divine  will  and  purpose  could  be  declared.  In  the  Con- 
stant inian  cliurches,  the  thouglit  of  the  worshipper  was  directed 
toward  the  s]»ot  where  communication  was  believed  to  be  established 
between  the  invisible,  eternal,  all-wise  God  and  the  body  of  believ- 
ers, through  the  ministrations  of  the  priesthood.  In  the  Christian 
basilica  this  spot  was  the  semicircular  niche  opposite  the  entrance, 
where  stood  the  high  altar  with  its  accompanying  furniture,  and 
whei'e  the  bishop  and  his  attendants  conducted  the  iniiiosing  cere- 
monial.    In  Christian  literature  this  niche  is  calU'd  the   ^, 

Tlip  np«o    the 

ajise.       The    term    is    found    m    common    use    by    the   uniiyiiijr  mem- 
carly  Christian  writers,  and  always  in  the  same  sense.'   *^''"' 
The  name  was  evidently  of  Roman  origin,  and  is  important  in  the 
study  of  the  development  of  Christian  architecture. 

We  have  alreaily  seen  that  the  law  basilica  likewise  termi- 
nated in  an  apse.  Hut  the  iirincijdes  governing  the  two  Diffprent  prin- 
structures  are  entirely  different.  While  business  of  di-  «■''•''■''  »-"'^''''" 
verse  character  might  be  transacted  in  various  parts  ,,nj  ciiristian 
of  the  heathen    basilica,  in    the  Christian   church   the   basiHi"i- 

'Sclinnaso:  Op.  cit.,  Bd.  iii.  8.  4S.  "Tlie  columns  taken  from  hnililinsis  of  ilio 
pagan  period  are  very  seMom  ont.irel}'  alike,  but  often  of  diflereiil  materials  and 
various  dimensions.  In  order  to  have  tlie  lioiglit  of  the  capitals  equal,  the  colnmus 
which  are  too  hiph  are  shortened  or  sunk  into  the  earth ;  such  as  arc  too  short  are 
placed  upon  a  higher  base." 

'  For  numerous  authorities  cnnfi  m  itury  of  this  sialcmcnt  see  especially  Kreuser: 
Cfirlstlicht  Kirc/ienbau.  si.  84-87. 


183 


ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


interest  of  the  entire  assembly  was  one  and  common.  In  the  heathen 
basilica,  therefore,  the  apse  assumed  no  such  importance  as  in  the 
Christian  church.  This  is  manifest  from  the  difference  in  the  col- 
umnar structure.  In  the  heathen  basilica  the  columns  were  extended 
across  the  side  opposite  to  the  main  entrance,  making  the  colonnade 
continous  on  the  ground  floor  and  in  the  galleries,  thereby  obscuring 
the  view  of  the  apse;  in  the  Christian  basilica,  on  the  contrary,  the 
columnar  arrangement  is  absent  from  the  apsidal  termination,  its 
vlace  being  often  supplied  by  the  triumphal  arch  (v.  Fig.  82).  Thus 
*vas  secured  an  uninterrupted  view  of  the  apse,  which  was  the  center 
of  all  religious  interest,  toward  which  all  lines  of  the  building  con- 
verged and  the  thought  of  all  worshippers  was  directed.  Here  was 
the  throne  of  the  bishop,  Avho  was  supported  on  either  side  by  his 
presbyters,  while  near  at  hand  were  the  deacons  ready  for  service. 
Facing  the  east  the  bishop  officiated  at  the  altar  in  front  of  his 
chair,  while  the  attention  of  the  entire  congregation  was  concen- 
trated on  this  point  of  supreme  interest,  without  architectural  hin- 
drance. For  this  reason  a  class  of  writers  have  found  the  origin 
The  apse  sug-  ^f  the  apse  in  the  cella  of  the  burial  chapels.^  But  it 
gested  by  the  would  seem  to  have  an  earlier  suggestion  in  the  tab- 
linti/ji  of  the  private  house,  where  the  householder 
was  wont  to  preside,  and  where,  without  doubt,  was  the  seat 
--^  of  the  officiating  bishop  durint»  the  period  when  Christ- 
V=^  ian  worship  retained  its  household  character.  The  fact 
that  in  a  few  structures  the  rectangu- 
lar form  of  the  apse,  especially  in  its 
exterior  outline,  is  still  retained  would 
seem  to  further  strengthen  this  ojiin- 
ion.^  This  is  seen  in  the  basilica  pre- 
served in  the  ruins  of  the  villa  of 
Hadrian,  at  Tivoli  (Fig.  80),  whose 
apse  is  rectangular  with  a  breadth  of  more  than 
sixteen  feet.  Another  room  connected  with  this 
villa  is  single-naved  and  terminates  in  a  semicir- 
cular apse  (Fig.  81). 

In  the  heathen  basilica  the  second  story  was 
usually  a  place  of  promenade  from  which  the  visitor  gained  a  view 
of  the  business  transacted  on  the  ground  floor.  The  columnar 
an-angement  corresponded  to  that  of  the  first  floor.  This  is  seen 
in  the  Basilica  Sessoriana  (Fig.  88),  and  in  the  palace  of  Diocletian 

'  See  tlie  nhle  article  "  Basilika  "  by  Kraiis  in  the  Eeal-Encyklopddie  der  cliristlichen 
Alferthiimer,  pp.  118-120. 

^v.  Deliio:  Die  kirchliche  Baukunst,  Ite  Lief.,  s.  336. 


Fig.  80.— Ba- 
silica from  villa 
of  Hadrian, 
Tivoli. 


Fig.  81.— Basilica  from 
villa  of  Hadrian,  Tivoli. 


EARLY  riTinSTIAX    AIK'IIITECTUHE.  is:! 

(FIlt.  to),  iiiul  si'cms  to  have  hi'i'ii  pivstTvc'l  iu  a  few  o1»loii^- 
Cliristiau  basilicas,  as  in  the  Hvc-iiavod  cliuivh  .St.  Dt'iiu'trius  at 
'riii'ssaloiiica  (/".  V'l'j;.  luo).  Uiit  this  was  iidt  the  law  LjoverniiiLf 
tho  second  story  of  the  Christian  church.  Instead  of  a  [jjailerv 
for  the  free  intercourse  of  visitors,  or  for  promenade,  as  in 
tile  law  basilicas,  in  the  Christian  churches  above  the  first  row 
of  (((luiuus  was  usually  a  contiinious  wall  whose  upper  part  was 
{lierccd  with  windows  for  linhtiiiL;-  the  interior.  IJy  this  con- 
struction opportunity  was  afforded  ftjr  more  extendetl  decora- 
tion, as  is  iiotict'd  in  Santa  Maria  Maii^i^iore,  San  Apollinare  in 
Classe,  and  other  churches  of  tlie  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  centuries. 
It   hardly  seems  credible   that  so  imi>ortant  a  moditica-   This      ratliiai 

tit)n   could   have   occurred    suddenly  on   the    transition   ''''^'■'■'*"<'e  n..t 

suddenly  rcal- 

of  tlie  Cluirch  from  a  condition  of  persecution  to  that  tzed. 
of  toleration.  Rather,  may  not  this  wall  expanse  be  but  a 
sli<fht  modification  of  the  essential  features  of  the  atrium  dlspluola- 
tuin  (Fig.  08),  where  the  walls  of  the  lower  portions  are  changed  to 
columns,  while  the  upper  portions  are  preserved  as  wall  expanses  ■:* 
Also  the  arrangement  of  the  roof  of  the  three  and  five  naved 
churc'hes  seems  to  be  derived  from  the  private  house  and  tlie  private 
basilica,  rather  than  from  the  perfected  law  basilicas  of  Koine. 

Moreover,  the  construction  of  the  ceiling  in  the  two  classes  of  build- 
ings was  at  times  widely  different.  The  heathen  basilica  _  ,,_ 
very  uniformly  preserves  a  .symmetrical  division  of  the  in  a-iiinp  con- 
si)ace  into  square's,  with  rosette  ornaments.  The  ceiling  strucuou. 
of  the  main  nave  of  the  early  Christian  church,  while  sometimes 
adhering  to  this  classical  type,'  more  frequently  consisted  of  o]ien 
rafter-work  and  beams  ornamented  with  gilt,  bronze,  and  colors,  to 
inspire  the  feeling  of  ho})e  and  aspiration^  (San  Pietro  in  Vaticano, 
see  Fig.  92),  or  were  of  the  cyliudrically  vaulted  type,  as  in  the 
churches  of  Egypt  and  Syria. 

We  therefore  regard  the  oblong  Christian  basilica  as  a  gr<»wth 
from  elements  with  which  the  Church  had  been  familiar  during 
the  first  two  and  one  half  centuries  of  its  varied  history.  The 
ordinary  private  dwelling-house,  the  triclinia  of  the 
more  elegant  houses  of  the  nobler  families  that  had  em- 
braced Christianity,  the  lodge-rooms,  the  celhe  of  the  burial  chap- 
I  Is,  and  the  imposing  interior  arrangement  of  colonnades  in  the  hea- 
then law  basilicas,  are  the  sources  whence  are  derived  the  germs 
which,  under  the  fostering  and  inspiring   spirit  of   the  new  religion 

'  In  Santa  Maria  Maggiore  at  Rome  the  ceiling  is  of  inter  origin. 
•Old  San  Pietro  was  a  flue  example  of  tliis  open  nificr-worlv.     v.  Schnaase:  Op, 
.7.,  Bd.  iii,  ss.  48,  49. 


184  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

during  periods  of  toleration  and  j^eace,  were  developed  into  a 
distinctively  Christian  architecture,  whose  chief  characteristics 
continued  for  a  thousand  years.' 

§  2.    Tlie  Parts  of  the  Basilica. 

The  adaptation  of  the  basilica  to  Christian  needs  will  appear 
from  a  more  full  description  of  its  parts,  and  of  the  particular  uses 
to  which  they  were  devoted. 

The  unifying  power  of  the  apse  has  alread}^  been  noticed.     The 

tendency  of  all  lines  of  the  building  toward  the  semicircular  niche 

was  indicative  of  the  concentration  of  attention  on  this  focal  point 

of  interest  to  the  worshipers.     So,  also,  the  transformations  which 

we  have  already  noticed  show  the  supreme  importance 

The    moulding  .,  ,  . 

power  of  Chris-  of  the  tribune  and  of  its  attendant  parts.  As  the  new 
tianiiy.  wine  of  the  Gospel  could  not  be  contained  in  the  old 

bottles  of  Roman  thought  and  life,  so  the  Christian  spirit  was  not 
content  to  simply  enter  into  existing  structures  and  use  them  for 
worship,  but  by  its  superior  power  it  moulded  these  heathen  elements 
into  forms  essentially  new.  The  symbolic  chai-acter  of  much  of  the 
ritual  demanded  fit  means  for  its  embodiment.  From  a  general 
adaptation  the  basilica  was  adjusted  in  all  its  details  to  the  needs 
of  the  church. 

The  simple  semicircular  recess  of  the  pagan  basilica  was,  in  the 
The  furinture  Christian,  elevated  and  covered  by  the  conchoidal  or 
of  the  apse.  vaulted  roof;  the  altar  Avas  protected  by  a  baldachin, 
supported  by  four  columns,  from  whose  under  side,  in  the  form  of 
a  dove  descending-  upon  the  altar,  hung  the  vessel  containing  the 
eucharistic  elements.  Somewhat  further  toAvard  the  middle  nave  a 
space  was  cut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  building  \)y  railing  for  the 
use  of  the  lesser  clergy  and  the  singers.*  On  the  north  side  of  this 
space  stood  the  Tectorium  (ambo),  or  reading-desk,  for 
the  gospel;  on  the  south  side,  that  for  the  epistle.  The 
apse  and  the  triumphal  arch  were  highly  decorated;  the  pavement 
was  wrought  out  in  marble  mosaic;  the  rafter  work  of  the  ceiling 

'  The  conclusion  reached  by  Konrad  Lanj^,  Haus  unci  Halle,  s.  323,  "  that  the 
Lange's  opin-  Edict  of  Milan  is  the  determinate  event  for  the  introduction  of  the 
ion.  basilica  form  in  place  of  the  single-naved  church  winch  had  before  pre- 

vailed, and  that  the  year  313  (and,  in  a  broader  sense,  the  year  323)  is  the  birth-year 
of  the  Christian  basilica,  whose  introduction  is  the  monumental  expression  of  the 
elevation  of  Ciiristianity  to  be  the  religion  of  the  state."  seems  to  us  untenable. 
It  disregards  the  great  law  of  historic  development,  and  does  not  accord  with  the 
monumental  and  literary  evidence. 

^  To  aid  in  gaining  a  clearer  conception  of  the  parts  of  the  basilica,  consult 
Figs.  82  and  83. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN   ARCIIITECTUUE. 


1S5 


addvd  i)icturc"S(iiU'ness  to  the  iiiti'iior  space  (f.  Fig.  82).  Fol- 
lowing outward  Irom  the  altar,  the  main  nave  was  entered,  at 
wliosL^ farther  end  doors  led  to  the  vestibule  or  entrance  portieo. 
In  the  earlier  form,  this  vestibule  was  an  open  space  ^^^^  ^_^^^^^^^^ 
bounded  V»v  rows  of  columns,  in  whose  center  stood 
the  fountain  (cantharus)  for  the  purification  of  the  entering  wor- 


Fi).'.  ^■•.'.     Inliiii.r  (if  Sua  Clcuicnti',  Knim 


shippers  {v.  Fig.  83).  In  later  structures  this  open  space  was  covered, 
and  became  an  appropriate  spot  for  meditation  and  penitence-,  or 
was  more  thorouirhly  incoriiorated  into  the  main  structure,  as  in 
San  Lorenzo  (v.  Fig."  04).  The  vestibule  was  always  i)resent  in  the 
eastern  churehes  ;  in  some  of  the  western  it  was  lacking.  From 
this  circumstance  some  writers  have  belicve.l  that  in  the  portico 
were  found  traces  of  the  Jewish  spirit  and  iutlueiuc. 

While  a  careful  comparison  of  the  K<.man  with  the  early  Christ- 
ian liasilica  reveals  a  general  resemblance,  there  is  an  almost  total 


18G 


ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 


want  of  likeness  in  the  details,  and  in  individual  members  of  the 
buildings.  In  outline  each  old  Roman  basilica  had  a  contrast  be- 
marked  individuality;  the  oblong  Christian  basilicas,  ^^^^^^l^yd^chrSt- 
however,  with  wide  liberty  resjjecting  minute  details,  ian  basilica, 
have  a  stereotyped  plan  which  controls  the  entire  development.'  So 
in  the  Christian  basilica,  the  form,  the  gar- 
ment, were  Roman;  but  the  dedication  of 
the  building  to  a  distinct  purpose,  by  making 
the  sanctuary  the  central  and  controlling 
thought  of  the  entire  structure,  caused  it 
to  lay  aside  the  old  and  assume  a  new  and 
distinctive  character.  The  whole  building 
now  had  a  richer  significance.  From  a  tribu- 
nal of  justice  and  place  of  business  it  became 
the  house  of  the  King  of  kings,  the  Victor 
over  the  world  and  the  grave.  This  com- 
pletes the  transformation  of  the  xhe  complete 
Roman  into  the  Christian  basili-  transformation. 
ca.  Now  for  the  first  time  the  earlier  expla- 
nations of  its  meaning  seem  appropriate.  It 
is  now,  indeed,  the  dwelling-place  of  the 
one  eternal  King — the  only  wise  Lord  God 
Almighty.  The  tribunal  of  the  imperial 
prtetor  has  lost  its  significance;  it  has  now 
y  f]  been  transformed  into  the  seat  of  concord 

H  H  and  unity,  where  Christ,  the  Mediator,  in- 

sures the  truest  and  highest  peace  between 
God  and  man.'^ 

In  the    earlier  and    smaller   basilicas  the 
^.    oo    r.        ,  >       f  c      southern  nave   was   usually   set  xhe  separation 

Fig.  83.— Grouudplan  of  San  *'  , 

ciemente,  Rome.  Vestibule  and  apart  for  the  men,  the  northern   of  the  sexes, 
cantharus  in  front.  f^j.  ^]^p  women  ;  in  such  cases  the  middle 

nave  was  occupied  by  the  clergy  for  the  responsive  and  choral 
service.  In  the  more  spacious  and  elegant  basilicas  this  arrange- 
ment was  no  longer  necessary,  since  the  tribune  itself  was  of  sufii- 
cient  capacity  to  accommodate  all  the  officiary.  In  the  western 
church  the  separation  of  the  sexes  gradually  fell  into  disuse,  but 
continued  in  the  East. 

The  middle  nave  with  its  independent  and  loftier  roof-construc- 
tion, and  the  side  naves  with  their  lower  ceilings  and   The  principle  of 
dependent  roof,  constitute  a  harmonious  balancing  of  balancing  parts. 
the  parts.     The  side  naves  become  the  complementary  numbers  of 
»  Stockbauer:  Der  christliclie  Kirchenbau,  a.  4.  -^  Messmer:   Op.  cit,  p.  61. 


EARLY   CIIKISTIAX    ARCHITECTURE.  187 

the   main    u,i\v   ri^ht   aiid    Ii'lt,   as   do   the  ai>se   ami    tlic   I'liliaiic*' 
portico  in  the  dirt'clion  tA'  the  k'Mnlli. 

The  early  Christian  basilica  ini|»resses  by  its  chaste  yet  noble 
simplicity  ;  in  it  the  student  of  delicate  art  sensibility  may  discover 
the  germs  of  that  riclier  and  fuller  develo|)ment  whicJi  was  after- 
ward realizAHl  in  tlie  Gothic  cathedral.  Here  is  seen  'jik;  problem 
tlie  solution  of  tlu'  most  important  problem  of  sacred  ar-  s»>ivfd. 
cliiti'cture;  namely,  to  develop  tlie  form  throuijh  the. influence  of  the 
relii^ion  whose  rites  were  tlierein  to  be  celebrated;  in  other  words,  to 
effect  a  harmony  between  the  containinLT  material  and  the  contained 
and  inspirini;  spirit.'  Tliis  significant  victory  was  achieved  by  tlie 
Christian  religion.  Herein  is  noticed  the  difference  between  the 
(4reek  and  the  Christian  idea  of  architecture.''  Thespir-  ^^^^  christian 
itual  significance  of  the  interior  of  the  Christian  basilica  iv<.  the  oru«k 
is  in  strong  contrast  with  the  imposing  grandeur  of  the  *"'""  ' 
exterior  of  the  Greek  temple.  Subjective  truth  and  beauty  are  here 
shown  to  be  of  more  worth  tlian  material  splendor.  Instead  of 
}»assing  from  a  perfect  exterior  to  an  unmeaning  interior,  the  basiliea 
()l)eys  tlie  law  of  all  true  develoi>ment  and  growth  in  first  invigo- 
rating and  purifying  the  subjective  spirit,  and  then,  by  virtue  of  the 
transforming  power  of  truth,  subordinating  to  this  the  exterior  form. 

It  was  not  to  be  expected,  therefore,  that  the  somewhat  conglom- 
erate character  of  the  earliest  Christian  basilica  would  remain  un- 
changed. By  degrees  the  heterogeneous  elements  disappeared,  and 
from  the  original  form  was  developed  a  new  type  of  Christian 
arcliitecture. 

The  most  important  dejiarture  from  the  fundamental  form  re- 
sulted from  the  introduction  of  the  transept.  The  The  later  de- 
monotony  caused  by  the  long  extent  of  unbroken  space  veiopment. 
in  the  naves  was  relieved  by  opposing  to  it  the  transept  of  equal 
height  and  breadth  of  the  middle  nave.  This  would  furnish  an 
appropriate  termination  to  the  longitudinal  extension,  and  give  to 

tlie  sanctuarium  still  greater  dignitv  and  impressiveness. 
rill  1  p  "  1  -  1  •  1  1        p     ,  The  transept. 

1  hv  enlargement  or    tlie  transept  to   tlie  width  of  the 

entire  church  soon  followed.     At  length  the  walls  of  the  cross  nave 

were  projected  beyond  those  of  the  main  structure,  giving  to  the 

foundation  the  form  of  the  Latin  cross. ^     The  transept  thus  became 

'  Mossnior:    Op.  cit.,  p.  G3. 

'  '•  At  all  times  the  riiliut^  idea  in  arcliitoctiiral  art  has  been  essentially  dcterniiiipd 
by  tlio  prcvailinjr  position  of  relipon  in  the  general  spiritual  life  of  a  people.'' 
I'.  Dehio:  Die  kirchliche  Baukunsl  d*:s  Abendlaiule.s,  s.  15. 

'  This  is  seen  in  the  noted  Basilica  of  St.  Paul,  and  also  in  that  of  St.  rotor's,  at 
Rome.     V.  Fig.  92. 


188  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

an  intermediate  member  between  the  apse  and  the  middle  nave, 
and  connected  the  sanctnarium  with  the  space  occupied  by  the 
body  of  Avorshippers.  At  the  place  of  intersection  of  the  transept 
The  triumphal  a^^tl  main  nave,  a  lofty  arch,  reaching  from  one  Avail  to 
^rch.  tiie  other,  spanned  the  intermediate  space  (see  Fig.  81). 

This  so  called  triumphal  arch  rested  npon  two  columns  at  the 
terminus  of  the  middle  nave,  and  constituted  a  most  important 
feature  of  the  later  and  more  elaborate  basilicas.  The  s})aces 
on  the  ceilings  Avere  generally  ornamented  Avith  forms  of  Christ  and 
his  apostles,  of  saints  and  of  angels  Avrought  out  in  painting  or 
rich  mosaics,  while  imposing  pictures  of  Christ  usually  filled  the 
altar  niche.'  At  a  still  later  period  the  naves  Avere  intersected  by 
two  or  more  transepts,  B}^  this  means  tAvo  or  more  trium|)lial 
arches  resulted,  and  an  increased  Avail  and  ceiling  surface  Avas 
secured  for  more  elaborate  ornamentation.  The  Avide  departure 
from  the  simplicity  of  the  early  Christian  basilica  during  the  later 
mediaeval  period  resulted  in  serious  architectural  decadence. 

§  3.    Tlie  Influence  of  the   Christian  Basilica    on    other  forms  of  Chrintian 

Architecture. 

The  parts  of  the  basilica  Avere  brought  into  still  more  harmo- 
nious relations  by  means  of  the  A'aulted  roof,  Avhile  the  Avhole 
Avas  unified  in  idea  by  the  sanctuarium.  This  marks  the  further 
transition  from  the  earlier  form  of  the  Christian  basilica  to  the 
round-A^aulted  or  Roman  style  of  church  architecture.  The  dcA'cl- 
opment  of  the  basilica  did  not  at  first  admit  of  the  round-arched 
The  provision  vaulting,  but  of  that  Avhich  resulted  from  the  intersection 
for      pressure     £  ^|      j^^^^-^^   ^^^^,^^   ^^,-^1^  ^j^^,  transei)t.     The   thrust   or 

upon  the  outer  i 

walls.  pressure  upon  the  lateral  walls  Avas  too  great  to   allow 

of  a  cylindrical  A'aulting  OA'er  the  middle  nave,  except  Avlicre  these 
walls  Avere  of  unusual  thickness,  Avhereas  the  arches  resting  upon  the 
terminal  columns  of  the  middle  nave,  and  extending  diagonally  to 
like  columns  or  pilasters  at  the  boundar}'"  of  the  apse,  would  dis- 
tribute one  half  of  the  pressure  from  the  imposed  mass  in  the 
direction  of  the  line  of  the  Avail  (y.  Fig.  84).'-*  Thus  the  supjiort 
of  the  trium})hal  arch  would  be  secured  Avithout  unduly  increasing 
the  thickness  of  the  enclosing  Avail, 

The  intersection  of  the  vaulted  roof  of  the  main  nave  Avith 
that  of  the  transept  necessaril}'-  so  diAuded  the  space  as  to  compel 
the  use  of  the  cross  vaulting  rather  than  the  cylindrical.     A  like- 

'  V.  Scluiaase,  Kiig'ler,  Quast,  and  others  on  this  transformation. 
^  Messraer:    Op.  cit.,  pp.  77,  78. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


18'J 


necessit}''  to  distribute  the  thrust  of  the  supported  roof  in  tlie  di- 
rection of  tlie  series  of  cohinins  led  to  the  construction  of  diaj^onal 
ribbed  arches,  and  the  conse(iuent  transformation  of  the  pirst  Rerma  of 
eylindrically  vaulted  ceilini^  into  a  series  of  cross-vaulted  ^^*^  (Gothic, 
spaces,  which  nuvrk  the  tirst  stages  in  the  development  of  Gothic 
architecture.' 


Flp.  84.— Showlnp  the  clcvelopinent  of  the  oross-ribbod  arches,  and  distribution  of  the  pressure. 

Thus  by  successive  chantjcs  and  transformations  the  contradic- 
tions and  incongruities  of  the  early  Christian  basilica  were  removed, 
the  various  parts  were  brought  more  and  more  into  harmony,  until 
the  richer,  more  comj)lete,  and  glorious  Gothic  style  was  the  final 
outcome  of  all  the  struggle  of  the  preceding  centuries. 

In  the  simple  basilica  were  contained  those  germs  which,  under 
the  quickening  influence  of  the  Christian  religion,  develojied  into 
the  style  of  architecture  which  may  be  called  preeminently  Christ- 
ian, in  which  every  minutest  part  Cfpially  with  every  xhe  unifyinc 
necessary  member  finds  its  truest  significance  in  being  spirit, 
included  in  a  richer  and  more  complete  organism.  This  is  in  exact 
iccordance  with  the  ]ihilos()phy  <>f  the  spiritual  edifice  "built  upon 

'  Rmlolpli  ■\Vio!.'m;inn  :    Lytcr  d.-n  [Trymii'j  i.hs  Spitzbojeiislib,  s.  28.    A  careful  com- 
■  irison  oC  Fit's.  84  .-ind  86  with  Fi'.'-'.  91  iiml  05  will  help  to  nn  adequate  conception 
of  the  process  of  transformation   fron)  tlie  early  Christian  basilica  to  the  Gothic 
cathedral. 


190  ARCHAEOLOGY  •  OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 

the  foundation  of  the  apostles  and  j^rophets,  Jesus  Christ  himself 
being  the  chief  cornerstone  ;  in  whom  all  the  building  fitly  framed 
together  groweth  unto  a  holy  temple  in  the  Lord  :  in  whom  ye 
also  are  builded  together  for  an  habitation  of  God  through  the 
Spirit"  (Eph,  ii,  20-22)  ;  or  of  the  bodily  organism  which  sug- 
gested the  other  :  "  For  as  the  body  is  one,  and  hath  many  mem- 
bers, and  all  the  members  of  that  one  body,  being  many,  are  one 
body:  so  also  is  Christ,  For  by  one  Spirit  are  we  all  baptized 
into  one  body,  whether  we  be  Jews  or  Gentiles,  whether  we  be 
bond  or  free  ;  and  have  been  all  made  to  drink  into  one  Spirit. 
1  Cor.  12,  13. 

What  the  ancient  basilica  contained  in  itself  as  a  possibility  the 
Gothic  cathedral  realized  in  its  rich  efflorescence  and  crowning  unity. 
This  interior  unity  first  appeared  in  the  pointed  arch,  and  in  the 
architectural  style  which  it  originated.  In  the  j^ointed  style  the 
basilica,  which  was  the  normal  type  of  Christian  architecture,  was 
developed  into  the  greatest  beauty,  the  richest  variety,  yet  the 
purest  simplicity.  The  essential  features  of  the  original  groundplan 
and  outline  were  retained  and  brought  to  their  highest  possibilities. 
The  longitudinal  extension,  and  the  tendency  of  the  whole  intarior 
toward  the  sanctuarium,  were  not  changed,  but  rather  found  in  the 
polygonal  termination  of  the  choir  of  the  Gothic  cathedral  their 
structural  unification  and  goal.  The  simple  apse  was  transformed 
into  the  unifying  choir;  the  vestibule  was  closely  and  constructively 
joined  to  the  main  and  side  naves,  and  as  the  supporting  member  of 
the  towers  it  became  the  real  entrance  to  the  sanctuarj^,  the  point 
of  transition  from  secular  thought  to  genuine  worship.  Thus,  in 
no  way  had  the  original  portico  been  dispensed  with,  but  by  its 
completeness  of  development  it  became  a  constituent  part  of  the 
structural  whole.  The  threefold  western  entrance  into  the  basilica 
was  thus  transformed  into  those  enchanting  portals  which,  by 
Further  trans-  their  deep  oblique  recesses  and  glorious  crowning  of 
formation.  gables,  SO  greatly  contributed  to  the  majesty  of  the 
mediaeval  cathedral.  The  supporting  and  enclosing  walls  no  longer 
constituted  the  essential  mass  of  the  structure,  as  in  the  original 
basilica.  The  wall  is  no  longer  continuous;  the  parts  are  bound 
together  by  opposing  buttresses;  while  all  is  spiritualized  and 
transfigured  by  the  lofty  painted  windows  in  the  main  and  side 
naves.'  The  columns,  as  well  as  the  intervening  pilasters,  have 
noAV  a  deeper  significance.  The  germinal  form  was  circiilar. 
These,  however,  by  the  necessities  of  connecting  the  main  and 
side  naves,  and  of  supporting  the  vaulted  roof,  were  developed 
'  Messmer:   Oi^.  cit.^  p.  85. 


FiR.  85.— A  clusieifd  coluinn. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE.  191 

into  polyjTonal  or  cliistcivd  forius  (Fi.u:.  >^5).  On  tlicso  rest  tin- 
sloiuU-r  ribs  that  connect  tlie  ceiling  with  the  wall.  Witli  this  tinal 
connection  of  all  parts  of  the  ceiling  structure  by  means  <jf  the  ribs 
with   pointed  arch,  was  completed  the  inte-  jir-irfTv-is.-. 

rior  unitication,  just  as  in  the  ancient  gable-  .  ♦^'''^'"^^^'^'^^^ 
roof  of  the  basilica  was  round  the  external 
c(^inpletion  of  that  budding  (i\  Fig.  86). 
What  at  the  beginning  was  only  an  archi- 
tectural germ  was  thus  developed  into  a  rich, 
beautiful,  and  unified  style.  In  this  respect, 
therefore,  is  the  basilica  entitled  to  be  called 
a  Christian  form,  emi)hatically  (he  Christian 
temple,  since  it  has  been  unfolded  by  a 
living    Christian  principle    to  meet  the   wants  of  tlie    How  fur  was 

Church  in  the  celebration  of  its  i)erfected  worship.     .Just    •'"-'    C'rWian 

;     _      _  _  '  biisllica  a  crea- 

lierein  lies  the  triumph  of  Christianity.     IJy  interpene-   tionv 

trating  indifferent  foreign  forms  with  its  own  si)irit  it  developed  a 

style  of  such  perfect  artistic  harmonies  that  further  improvement 

Uiay  wel>  be  despaired  of.    In  this  respect  can  Christian  architecture 

be  justly  called  original. 

§  4,  Some  of  the  Earliest  Christian  Churches. 

Unfortunately,  not  a  single  early  Christian  basilica  has  been  pre- 
served in  its  integrity.  Numerous  additions  and  transformations, 
which  the  misdirected  zeal  of  princes  and  popes  effected,  have,  in 
many  instances,  entirely  destroyed  the  original  features  p^^  remsiins 
of  these  churches.  Their  reconstruction  frojii  the  few  of  prf-Consiiin- 
reraaining  portions,  from  tlie  meagre  notices  of  eai-ly  '•"•'*' i"""^' '*''^- 
Christian  writers,  and  from  comparative  studies,  is  a  work  of  extreme 
<litlicult)\  Even  the  remains  of  these  early  l)asilicas  are  few  and 
([uestionable.  Some  fell  into  decay,  others  wei'e  destroyed  by  the 
enemies  of  Christianity,'  while  still  others  were  sujierseded  by  more 
imposing  edifices  during  the  reigns  of  Constantine  and  his  suc- 
cessors. 

Ciampini^  has  given  a  very  full  description  of  tlu'  IJasilica  Sicin- 
iana  as  it  remained  in  the  seventeenth  century.  This  was  probably 
the  most  j)erfect  example  of  a  heathen  basilica  transformed  into  a 
Christian  church  ^  whose  description  has  been  preserved.  From 
Ciampini's  drawings*  a  good  knowle<lge  of  the  original  form  and 
decorations  can  be  gained.     'J'he  ])lans  show  an  oblong,  rectangular 

'  Especially  durin<^  the  Deeian  and  Diocletian  persccutious. 

'  Vetera  Jlonimeuta,  Pars  i,  pp.  9,  10. 

^  Probably  San  Andrea  in  Barbara.  ■•  Tab.  x.\i-.\.xv. 


193 


ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 


structure  with  a  portico  and  broad  apse,  without  interior  columnar 
division;  hence  a  single-naved  basilica.'  Its  walls  were  adorned 
with  mosaics  and  paintings  which  commemorated,  as  many  believe, 
the  triumph  of  Anthony.  These  mural  decorations  preclude  the 
supposition  that  it  was  originally  used  for  Christian  purposes;  but 


FiR.  86.— A  Gothic  Interior.    To  show  the  uniflcation  of  the  supporting  and  supported  members. 

they  plainly  point  to  a  Roman  monument.  It  is  believed  to  have 
been  built  by  Junius  Bassus,  A.  D.  317.^  The  mosaics  of  the  apse 
were  introduced  after  its  dedication  as  a  Christian  church.  A.  D. 
470. 

'  de  Vogiie;  Syrie  Oentrale,  plate  67,   gives  the  groundplan  of  a  similar  church 
iu  Bahouda.     It  is  from  the  fifth  century. 
*  Dehio ;  Die  kircJdiche  Baukunsi  des  Abendlandes, "  p.  82. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN    ARCHITECTURE. 


193 


AnotlitT  oritrinul  )»rivati'  basilica  avus  Sail  C'k'iiK'iitc,  at  Konie. 
Ill  tlu'  ninth  fc-n- 
tiirv  lope  .Jolm 
\'III,  introdiUH'd  the  marble 
balustnules  of  the  ]»resby- 
terium,  tosjether  witli  llie 
chancels,  iiinh  altar,  and 
seats.  Excavations'  sliow 
that  tlie  present  chui-ch  is 
a  reduction  of  a  larsj^er  one, 
wliich,  in  turn,  stood  partly 
upon  a  very  ancient  wall 
of  binding  n\asonrv  of  tufa 
(possibly  from  the  tinu' 
of  the  kinujs),  and  i»artly 
upon  a  brick  wall  tliat  ])rob- 
alily  belonged  to  tlie  dwell- 
ing-house of  Clement  him- 
self (n.  Figs.  82,  83,  and  87). 
This  foun<hxtion  furnishes  a 
good  example  of  the  form  of 
the  private  Roman  basilica.^ 

A    third    example    is    the 
church    of   Santa    Croce    in 


Fig.  8". — San  riomontp.  Romp.    Groundplan.  show- 
in:^  variety  of  structures. 


Gerusalemrae,  in  Ronie.     At  the  request  of  Helena,  mother  of  Con- 

stantine,  the  pagan  liasilica 
Sessoriana  was  changed,  as 
tradition  says,  into  a  deposi- 
tory for  a  piece  of  the  true 
cross.  This  building  (Figs. 
88  and  89)  is  three-naved,  and 
preserves  more  nearly  than 
others  the  peculiar  features  of 
the  Roman  law  basilica.  The 
galleries,  from  wliich  a  view  of 
the  lower  floor  covdd  be  had 
through  the  spaces  bi'tween 
riana.  or  ^^'''  eolumns,  are  conformable 
to  the  original   tyjie,  and  tlie 


Fii;.  88.  --  Cross-swtion  of  Uasilica  S 

Santa  Croce  in  Geniaalemme,  Romfi 


'  '.  de  Rossi:   BulMtino  Arrh.  crisf.,  April,  186.1. 

■  Tlic  sinsle-linorl  parts  of  Fif?.  86  prive  tlie  form  of  tlic  ori.Lrin.il  rlinrch ;  tlio  tlonhlc- 
liiK'd  represent  tlie  oM  tiifii  wall  from  the  time  of  the  kings;  the  black  porlions  show 
the  remiiins  of  the  Clementine  palace,  while  the  blank  outline  is  the  modern  church. 
13 


194 


ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 


equal  height  of  the  ceiling  of  the  main  and  side  naves  also  suggests 
its  pagan  origin.  According  to  the  restorations,  as  given  by 
Hiibsch  (Fig.  89),  the  vestibule  was  decorated  with  six  columns; 
the  apse  was  of  unusual  breadth,  reaching  almost  to  the  outer 
enclosing  walls,  leaving  only  a  narrow  passage-way  to  rooms  at 
the  extremity  of  the  church;  the  outer  boundary  walls  were  rec- 
tangular, thus  giving  no  suggestion 
of  the  spacious  semicircular  apse 
within. 

Among  the  very  earliest  and  most 
noteworthy  monuments  santa  Pudenzi- 
of  Christian  architec-  ^i^*^- 
ture,  Hiibsch '  ranks  the  Church  of 
Santa  Pudenziana,  at  Rome.  Its  tra- 
ditions reach  back  to  the  apostolic 
times.  It  is  said  that  the  senator 
Pudens  lodged  the  aj^ostle  Peter  in 
his  palace  on  this  very  site,  that  his 
sons  built  baths  therein,  and  that 
at  the  earnest  request  of  St.  Prex- 
edes.  Pope  Pius  I.,  about  A.  D.  145, 
in  honour  of  St.  Pudentiana,  con- 
verted this  palace  and  the  baths  into 
a  Christian  church,  under  the  title 
of  SS.  Pastor  and  Pudens.'  With- 
out being  able  to  account  for  all  the 
motives,  it  is  plain  that  the  transfor- 
mation of  a  secular  building  into  a 
place  of  Christian  worship  lay  at  the 
foundation  of  this  tradition.'  The 
opinion  expressed  by  Hiibsch  that 
this  refers  only  to  the  small  chapel 
of  the  church,  Santa  Pudenziana,  in 
which,  at  present,  the  altar  of  St. 
Peter  is  pointed  out,  is  entitled  to 
respectful  attention."  This  church  (Fig.  90) '  is  an  oblong  parallel- 
1  Altchristliche  KircJien,  Carlsruhe,  1862,  fol.,  s.  6,  taf.  vii,  viii.  de  Rossi  lias  ex- 
amined this  cliurch  with  mucli  care,  and  lias  also  traced  the  argument  for  its  great 
age.     V.  Bullettino crisL,  1864,  1867.  1869.  1875. 

*  V.  J.  H.  Parker:    The  House  of  Pude^is  in   Eome,  in  ArcJiceological  Journal,   vol. 
xxviii,  1871,  pp.  42,  43. 

3  Stockbauer :  Der  christlidie  Kirchenbau,  s.  48.  ^  Op.  ciL,  s.  7. 

*  The  dark  lines  mark  tlic  boundary  of  the  church;  the  other  hues  are  the  outline 
of  vaulted  rooms  adjacent,  and  very  ancient. 


Ground  plan  of  Fig.  ( 


EARLY    (  IIHISTIAN    ARCHITECTURE. 


105 


Ofifrani,  of  about  the  saiiu'  size  as  tlio  Bd^iillcd  Sirinidiin  (San 
Aiuliva  in  Jiarbaia).  It  lias  boiMi  made  u.tj:Iy  througli  recent 
restorations.  The  iiiteiior  is  tliree  naved  witli  a  portico.  'I'lie 
vaulted  space  behind  the  apse  is 
very  ancient,  also  the  bef(»re-nientioned 
cliajtel,  whose  apse  appears  t<»  be  con- 
nected with  till'  wall  of  an  ancient 
foundation  which  belonu^s  to  the  best 
period  of  lionian  architecture.  With 
little  doubt  it  may  be  regarded  as 
a  portion  of  the  ancient  senatorial  pal- 
ace." The  side  naves  were  one-storied, 
whose  roof  was  a  lean-to,  but  which,  by 
the  unusual  elevation  (»f  the  enclosing 
wall,  became  nearly  e(pial  in  height  to 
that  of  the  middle  nave.  In  front  of 
the  present  entrance  is  found  a  very  an- 
cient portal  with  twisted  columns.  The 
shafts  of  the  columns  bounding  the  mid- 
dle nave,  of  dark  gray  marble,  have  been 
taken  from  some  ancient  monument, 
while  the  capitals  and  bases  seem  to 
have  been  wrought  out  expressly  for 
their  present  use."  For  the  study  of 
the  original  derivation  and  structure  of 
the  Christian  basilica  this  church  is  of 
first  importance.  Its  arrangement  en- 
ables the  archa?ologist  to  distinifuish  the  chansres  which  Tiasran 
buildings  underwent  to  adapt  them  to  the  puri)oses  of  Christian 
worship.  The  resemblance  of  the  apse  of  this  church  to  that 
of  Santa  Croce  in  Gerusalemme  is  most  striking  and  suggestive 
(/;.  Fig.  89). 

Perhaps  the  most  perfectly  preserved  monument  of  a  pre-Con- 
stantine  Christian  basilica  is  the  crypt  of  Santa  Maria  in  sam^i  Muria  in 
Cosniedin.  It  seems  to  have  bei'ii  built  within  the  en-  Cosmedin. 
closure  of  an  ancient  heathen  temple.  It  is  certain  that  the  present 
church,  founded  by  Hadrian  I.  in  the  eighth  century,  and  enlarged 
and  beautified  by  Calixtus  II.  in  the  twelfth,  contains  several  jiarts 
of  the  original  building.  Noteworthy  are  eight  fluted  columns, 
wliich  are  clearly  of  anticpie  origin.  The  pre-Constantine  portion 
is  subterranean,  having  a  h-ngtli  of  thirty-four  palms  (Roman)  and 
a  breadth  of  seventeen  j)alms.  The  smooth,  vaulted  ceiling  of  large 
'  Stock bauer:   Op.  cit.,  s.  49.  '  Stock baiicr:    C>p.  cit.,  S3.  48,  49. 


■  ■■    I     i    Jh   ■ 


Fiff.  00.— Groundplan  of  Siiuta  Tu- 
denziana,  Rome. 


196  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 

blocks  of  travertine  ^  rests  immediately  upon  capitals  whose  rude- 
ness proves  them  to  be  of  different  origin  from  the  shafts  them- 
selves. The  six  columns  of  marble  and  granite,  standing  in  the 
nave  and  aisles,  were  evidently  taken  from  the  temple  on  whose  site 
the  basilica  was  built.  In  the  wall  are  seen  small  niches,  resem- 
bling a  columbarium,^  which  were  used,  as  the  learned  Crescimbeni 
Pre-Constan-  Conjectures,  as  places  of  prayer  and  meditation.  This 
•-i"^^-  church  was  built,  it  is  believed,  as  early  as  the  third 

quarter  of  the  third  century  by  Dionysius,  Bishop  of  Rome.  Its 
severe  simplicity  of  style  and  arrangement,  as  well  as  its  high 
antiquity,  give  to  it  the  greatest  importance  among  Christian  art 
antiquities.^  The  suggestions  it  furnishes  with  respect  to  the  activ- 
ity of  the  Church  and  the  toleration  of  the  Roman  government 
prior  to  the  Christian  emperors  are  most  valuable. 

§  5.  Basilicas  of  liointtii  Origin  in  the  Time  of  Constanline. 

Amid  the  conflicting  opinions  respecting  the  character  of  Con- 
stantine,  and  the  motives  which  influenced  him  to  make  Christianity 
the  religion  of  the  Roman  state,  there  is  more  substantial  agree- 
ment respecting  the  wonderful  influence  of  his  conversion  on  the 
constantine's  fortunes  of  the  Christian  Church,  on  its  doctrine, 
iufiueuce.  polity,  and  life.     In  many  important  respects  his  reign 

was  epoch-making:  the  more  profoundly  it  is  studied  the  more 
clearly  do  the  high,  statesmanlike  qualities  of  this  great  ruler 
appear.  He  may  justly  take  rank  among  a  score  of  noted  men 
whose  influence  has  been  indelibly  inij)ressed  upon  human  history, 
since  his  clearly  conceived  policy  affected  the  fortunes  of  the  Christ- 
ian Church  for  a  thousand  years. 

To  what  extent  remorse  for  the  fearful  crimes  of  which  he  was 
gnilt}^,  in  causing  the  death  of  Crispus,  of  young  Licinius,  and  of 
liis  own  wife,  Fausta,  may  have  influenced  Constantine  to  favor  the 
C;iurch  and  to  encourage  the  building  of  basilicas,  may  not  be 
known.  Tlie  donation  of  the  Lateran  palace  to  the  Roman  bishops, 
the  building  of  St.  Peter's,  and  the  pilgrimage  of  Helena,  the 
stricken,  suffering  mother,  to  Jerusalem,  and  the  erection  of  the  ba- 
silicas at  Bethlehem,  Jerusalem,  and  on  Olivet,  where  tradition  had 
located  the  three  most  important  events  in  the  life  of  Christ,  appear 
to  have  been  nearly  coincident  with  these  crimes  which  were  per- 
petrated during  his  last  visit  to  Rome.  Our  subject  is  more  directly 
concerned  Avith  the  fact  that  from  this  time  Christian  art  received 
remarkable  encouragement  from  the  emperor. 

'  Forster:  Mittd  u.   Uafer  Tlalim,  s.  2fi4.  '  Forster:  Td.  I.  c. 

*  Hemans:  Ancient  Christianity  and  Sacred  Art.  pp.  8,  9. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCIIITECTUItK.  I'M 

From  till'  C'laui-Ii  ul"  tla'  catacombs  tube  the  Church  i)f  the  ciiiiiirc 

was  ail  imitaralk'k'd  tran.siliuu.      Vet  even  siicli  a  cliaii^c  c()ul(l  but 

sh)\vly  aiitl  i^radually  transform  the  jirt-valrnt  fasliioiis  and  tastes. 

It  is  ut'iu'rallv  true  tliat  "  institutions  hin  bi-hiud  ihi-  cir-   ^, 

■^  •  ...  Tlie     traiisfiir- 

cumstanrt's  that  furnisli  o])|»ortunity  for  their  urowlh  and  mution  kuu\- 
doveh)i)nu'nt."  TIio  soc-ial,  mural,  and  political  inertia  ""'• 
of  an  ai;-e  prevents  it  from  immeilialely  leapini:^  to  the  embrace  of  all 
its  possibilities.  Hence  histt)ry  furnishes  few  violent  catastrophes. 
Kven  barbarian  invasions  can  brini;  but  partial  ruin,  and  the  resist- 
ance to  chan,<;e  wliicli  is  inherent  in  the  race  causes  an  ebb  and  flow 
in  luiman  affairs  rather  than  a  destructive  cataclysm.  Arclutecture 
likewise  obeyed  this  (general  law.  Here,  too,  transitions  were 
gradual.  The  oppcjrtunities  and  demands  for  more  imjiressive  forms 
of  relii^ious  service,  and  the  greater  numbers  that  from  various 
motives  now  crowded  the  places  of  worship,  civated  a  need  for 
further  cliant^es  in  the  interior  of  the  buildings  already  dedicated 
to  Christian  uses,  and  furnished  the  occasion  for  the  new  ami  ira- 
jjosing  structures  erected  d.iring  the  Constantinian  and  post- 
Constantinian  period.  Here,  too,  the  needs  of  woi'ship,  imposing 
and  not  the  demands  of  art,  begat  the  fundamental  <'Juitii«'*- 
form.'  Its  origin  is,  therefore,  due  to  the  religious  feeling  and  to 
the  spirit  of  worship,  rather  than  to  the  nesthetic  feeling."  In  the 
readjustment  of  the  existing  churches,  as  well  as  in  those  newly 
erected,  the  Christian  artists  of  the  fourth  century  were  uncon- 
sciously ))lanning  a  building  that  would,  through  the  efforts  of 
succeeding  centuries,  be  developed  into  the  glory  and  perfection  of 
ecclesiastical  architecture. 

At  first  the  oblong  rectangular  basilica  was  extended  throughout 
the  whole  empire.  Not  uutil  the  fifth  century  did  the  central  s\'s- 
tem  give  lise  to  any  imposing  churches,  while  the  dis-  ^^^^^^  ^^^ 
tinctivelv  HvziUitine  did  not  reach  its  fidl  develojiment  cxinsuintlne's 
till  the  sixtii.  The  west,  however,  adhered  closely  to  time  survives, 
the  basilica  type  for  a  thousand  years.  Rome  furnishes  the  best 
examples;  unfortunately,  however,  of  the  many  churches  built  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Constantine  little  has  bi'cn  preserved. 

The  most  trustworthy  accounts  lead  us  to  believe  that  during  the 
first  five  centuries  more  than  a  liundred  churches  were  built  in  Rome 
and  its  immediate  vicinity.  The  originality  of  tliese  j^pk  of  orftr- 
structures  was  at  first  very  slender.  The  appropriation  ina'ity- 
of  pagan  structures  to  Christian  worsiiij),  and  the  use  of  columns  and 
ready  prepared  materials  for  building  new  churches,  was  not  favor- 

'  Sclinanse:    Op.  n't.,  2te,  Auspabc.  B<1.  iii,  s.  53. 

'  Koseiigarten :  Handbook  of  Archikctiiral  Siyles,  p.  170. 


198 


ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 


able  to  original  production.  At  first  the  new  spiritual  life  only 
Decay  of  the   sanctified  what  was  at  hand.     The  four  hundred  temples 

piet^rnd  WOT-  ^^^^  ^^^^^  ^"  ^^"^  ^®®^  ^  stumbling-block  to  the  purity- 
ship,  of  the  Church,  and  whose  rites  must  have  caused  deep 
regret  to  the  followers  of  Christ,  became  nearly  empty  and  forsaken. 
Upon  their  ruins  were  to  arise  "  the  houses  of  the  Lord."  "  During 
one  portion  of  her  history  Rome  was  as  a  defiling,  putrefying  corpse; 
during  an  equal  period  she  renewed  her  youth.  Thus  she  had  a 
double  being  in  the  history  of  humanity,  whose  capital  she  was 
twice  called  to  be."  ' 

From  historic  notices  we  must  believe  that,  of  all  these  churches, 
San  Pietro  in  San  Pietro  in  Vaticano,  built  upon  the  site  of  the  circus 
vaticano.  of  Nero,  was  the  most  imposing  (Figs.  91,  92).     It  was 

five-naved,  with  a  straight  entablature.     The  naves  were  of  unequal 

height,  the  ceiling  was 
finished  with  open 
rafter-work;  the  roof 
of  the  side  naves 
abutted  against  the 
wall  of  the  main  nave 
so  that  it  was  continu- 
ous above  both  the 
side  naves.  The  height 
of  the  ceiling  of  the 
side  naves  was  deter- 
_[_  mined  by  the  slant  of 

the  roof.    This  (rhurch 

Fig.  91  .—San  Pietro  in  Vaticano,  Rome.    Front  elevation.  ,  i  i  , 

^  was  thoroughly  reno- 

vated and  greatly  enlarged  in  the  ninth  century,  and  continued  to 
be  the  most  conspicuous  example  of  an  early  Christian  basilica 
until  it  was  supplanted  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century 
by  the  present  imposing  church  of  St.  Peter's.  It  was  also  cruciform, 
being  about  351  feet  long,  and  about  190  feet  broad,  the 
middle  nave  being  over  70  feet  wide.  The  twenty-three 
columns  on  each  side  of  the  middle  nave  were  26  feet  V  inches  high.* 
In  many  parts  of  the  structure  were  unmistakable  proofs  of 
Heathen  eie-  ^li©  practice  of  incorporating  heathen  handicraft  into 
ments.  Christian  temples.     The  particolored  fragments  placed 

in  the  walls    showed  the  lack  of  competent  artists  to  guide  the 

'  Gregornvius :   Gescliiclite  der  Stadt  Roms  im  MifMaltpr,  Bii.  i,  p.<5.  5.  6. 

'  Platner  u.  Urlichs:  Die  Bnsilil-en  d.  christlichen  Boms.  TT.  i-i;i.  Plainer  u.  Bun- 
sen:  Bexchreihnnr]  der  Stadt  Roms,  Bd.  ii,  s.  50,  W'?.  Kugler:  Geschichte  derBaukunst, 
Bd.  i,  «.  384. 


ms 

Front  elevation. 


Dimensions. 


200 


ARCHEOLOGY    OF    CHRISTIAN    ART. 


taste  of  Christians  in  the  ornamentation  of  their  public  buildino-s. 
Figure  92  also  shows  the  arrangement  of  the  triumphal  arch 
and  of  the  sanctuarium,  together  with  the  method  of  ornamenta- 
tion with  mosaics,  etc.  From  the  notices  that  have  been  preserved 
it  is  believed  that  in  front  of  the  church  proper  was  a  vestibule, 
or  atrium,  which  was  enclosed  by  a  peristyle.     In  the  center  of  this 

enclosed  space  was  the  fountain, 
around  which  were  seats  for  the 
use  of  those  who  kept  the  burial 
feasts  when  funeral  rites  were 
celebrated.  A  description  of 
such  feasts  in  his  time  has  been 
given  by  Paulinus  of  Nola.  The 
arrangement  very  closely  corre- 
sponds to  that  found  at  the  en- 
trance to  the  Catacomb  of  Dom- 
itilla,  before  referred  to  {v.  pp. 
175,1 75),  and  has  an  almost  exact 
counterpart  in  the  pagan  schola. 
Fig.  93  is  the  representation  of 
Fig.93.-AtriumofSyivanus,ViaAppia,Rome.     ^  ^gchola    from    the    republican 

period.  It  is  known  as  the  Atrium  of  Sylvanus,  discovered  on  the 
Appian  Wa3^  It  has  the  portico,  the  fountain  in  the  center  of  the 
enclosed  square,  and  the  stone  benches  running  around  the  walls, 
which  could  be  used  by  those  who  celebrated  the  burial  feasts.' 

Another  interesting  church  of  its  day  was  San  Giovanni  in  Late- 
san  Giovanni  I'ano,  Otherwise  known  as  the  Basilica  Constantiniana  or 
in  Laterano.  Salvatoris.  It  is  doubtful  whether  any  portion  of  the 
original  survives  in  the  modern  gorgeous  building.  Some  have 
claimed  that  the  octagonal  baptistery,  with  its  eight  antique  por- 
phyry columns,  belongs  to  the  age  of  Constantine;  but  more  ])rob- 
ably  this  was  erected  by  Sixtus  III.  about  the  year  A.  D.  432.  From 
every  account  of  the  historians  this  Lateran  palace,  which  had  be- 
longed to  Fausta,  was  the  gift  of  the  great  emperor  to  the  Bishop 
of  Rome.  The  palace  and  church  of  the  Lateran,  rather  than  St. 
Peter's  and  the  Vatican,  became  the  center  of  Christian  and  papal 
The  cathedral  Rome.  This,  and  not  St.  Peter's,  was  the  cathedral 
church.  church  where  all  the  Roman  councils  have  been  held.* 

It  Avas  the  early  residence  of  the  Roman  pontiffs,  and  is  still  the 
place  where  they  are  enthroned  and  crowned.* 

'  Canina:    Via  Aj'pia,  t.  42,  p.  174. 

2  Tlie  Vatican  Council  assembled  by  Pius  IX.  is  an  exception. 

^  V,  Stanley :  History  of  the  Eastern  Church,  Lecture  vi. 


EAKLY   CIIRISTIAX    ARClIITKCTrUK.  201 

On  tlK'  (^stiaii  Way  just  outside  the  city  walls,  over  tlie  sj>i)t 
where  tradition  says  the  pious  iriatron  Lueina  had  pre-  san  Pimlofuorl 
pared  in  the  subterranean  passages  on  her  estate  a  grave  deiaMuru. 
for  St.  Paul,  C'onstautine  had  huilt  a  small  basilica.'  It  was  soon 
after  (probably  near  the  close  of  the  fourth  century)  displacetl  by 
the  niniiiiiHcent  basilica  of  St.  Paul — the  San  Paolo  fuori  de  la 
ninraof  a  later  day — which,  notwithstanding  luinierous  restorations, 
retained  many  of  its  original  features  till  its  destruction  by  lire  in 
ISi'.?.  Fortunately  full  descriptions  and  jilans  of  this  noble  monu- 
ment have  been  preserved,  from  which  an  ade(piate  notion  of  it 
may  be  gaine(l.  It  was  livc-iiavcMl  wltli  a  transejit,  three  hundred 
and  ninety-two  feet  long  and  two  hundred  and  two  feet  wide.     The 

middle  nave  was  seventy-eight  feet  wide.     Round  arches 

,     ,  ,.'        '  ,  .  ,  Description. 

connected  the  rows  or  twenty  columns  sejjarating  the 
naves.  The  columns  bounding  the  main  nave  well  illustrate  the 
methods  of  churcli  construction  after  Christianity  liad  become  the 
religion  of  the  state:  they  were  tliirty-two  feet  high.  Twenty- 
four  of  the  most  beautiful,  of  Corinthian  order,  were  taken  from 
.some  building  belonging  to  the  best  iieriod  of  Roman  architecture. 
The  others  were  of  very  inferior  workmanship,'  Those  in  the  side 
naves,  seemingly  prepared  ex})ressly  for  this  church,  mark  tlie  sad 
decadence  of  art  in  the  time  of  Constantine  and  of  his  immediate 
successors.  Prudentius  informs  us  that  the  ceiling  was  dei-ctrated 
with  gilt  rafter-work. 3 

Reference  has  already  been  made  (j).  107)  to  the  motives  of 
Constantine  in  building  votive  churches  on  tlie  sacred  sites  in 
Palestine.  He  aimed  to  conciliate  the  East,  which  he  had  con- 
(juered  from  his  rival  Licinius.  Special  privileges  aii(l  aid  for 
church  building  were  granted  to  the  bishoi)s  of  the  most  influential 
dioceses  in  Asia  Minor  and  Syria.  Notices  of  many  of  these  have 
l)een  preserved  by  Christian  writers,  esjiecially  by  Eusebius  and 
Prudentius,  and  the  ruins  of  a  few  still  remain  to  attest  their  mag- 
niticence.  Of  the  beautifid  basilica  built  by  Paulinus  at  Troy, 
and  described  by  Eusebius,^  nothing  survives.  So,  also,  with  the 
Church  of  the  Holy  Sepnlcher  at  Jerusalem,  and  the  Chuivli  of  the 
Asci'iision  on  the  Mount  of  Olives.  Fortunately,  the  church  at 
IJethlehem,  built  over  the  cave  where  tradition  locates  The  ciiuicii  of 
the  birthplace  of  the  Saviour,  has  partially  survived,  the  xmivity. 
It   seems   fairly  established   that    most   of   the   present   structure   is 

'  Foistor:   ^fitfd  ti.  Un'er  HnUm.  s.  275. 

'  H.  (!;illy  Kniirlit,  vol.  i,  plate  iv.  ^  Peristephanon,  Hymn  xii. 

■•  //mY.  Rxles.,  lib.  x,  cjip.  iv.     v.  Quasi :  Die  alt-chrisllichen  Bauinerk  von  liavenna, 
88.  29,  30. 


202  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN    ART. 

original.  It  is  five-naved,  with  Corinthian  columns  supporting  a 
straight  entablature  on  which  rests  the  wall.  On  it  outlines  of 
earlier  paintings  can  still  be  traced.^  At  the  end  of  the  naves  are  a 
spacious  transept,  choir,  and  apses,  well  lighted  by  a  series  of  win- 
dows in  the  upper  part  of  the  church.  One  is  immediately  carried 
back  to  such  a  Roman  basilica  as  was  built  by  Constantine  for 
A.  good  exam-  Christian  worship,  but  which  by  being  developed  and 
pie  of  the  ba-  transformed  became  the  point  of  departure  for  the 
bihca.  religious    architecture    of    the    subsequent    centuries.* 

Few  visitors  to  this  venerable  building  are  not  deeply  impi-essed 
by  its  noble  art  and  massive  grandeur.  It  stands  as  a  mute  yet 
eloquent  witness  to  the  power  of  the  religion  whose  spirit  yet 
finds  expression  in  this  monument  which  has  survived  the  rude 
shocks  of  fifteen  centuries. 

§  6.  Some  Basilicas  of  the  Post-  Constantine  Period. 

The  establishment  of  two  independent  empires,  each  having  its 
Contrasts  of  own  capital,  gave  opportunity  for  the  development 
East  and  West,  of  each  in  harmony  with  its  own  peculiar  genius. 
While  originally  receiving  its  inspiration  from  the  East,  the  Latin 
soon  became  more  purely  and  intensely  Latin;  the  East,  the  mother 
of  all,  became  more  and  more  Oriental.  These  contrasts  reveal 
themselves  alike  in  State  and  Church.  The  Byzantine  empire 
degenerated  into  an  Oriental  absolutism;  the  West  steadily  devel- 
oped a  practical  and  efficient  constitutionalism.  The  Greek  Church 
was  content  with  immobility  in  doctrinal  and  political  forms;  the 
West  was  ever  agitated  by  earnest  struggles  respecting  life,  doc- 
trine, and  polity.  The  practical  mind  of  the  West  aimed  to  keep 
institutions  abreast  with  the  growing  spirit  of  freedom  among  the 
people;  the  speculative  spirit  of  the  East  was  often  content  to  ex- 
haust itself  in  controversies  whose  effect  was  scarcely  felt  beyond 
the  local  church  or  the  cloister. 

A  like  contrast  is  noted  in  the  art  of  the  two  empires.  Each 
pursued  its  own  chosen  course  of  development,  and  each  alike  was 
influenced  by  the  different  conditions  of  social,  political,  and  re- 
ligious life.  The  West  soon  felt  the  modifying  power  of  the  in- 
vading tribes,  while  the  East  produced  its  peculiar  art  forms  almost 
uninfluenced  by  its  neighbours.  Ravenna  formed  a  middle  ground 
where,  through  the  patronage  of  remarkable  rulers,  the  Teutonic  spir- 
it, modifying  both  the  Eastern  and  the  Western  thought,  produced 
some  most  intei-esting  and  instructive  architectural  monuments. 
'  Liitzow  luid  Liibke:  Denkviuler  der  Kunst,  Stuttgart,  1879.  Text,  s.  116. 
"  De  Vogiie:  Lcs  Eglisev  de  la  Terra  Sainte.  Paris,  1860,  ch.  ii. 


EARLY    CIIIUSTIAN    AUCIIITECTrRE.  203 

Exccptiiii;  the  temporary  interference  by  Julian,  Christianity 
in  the  West  enioved  the  patronafre  and  protection  of 

•;  ,'  ,  ,       .'  "^  •      ,         ,.  •  Tho  West. 

troverninent.       Althoui^h    it    was    a    period    or    serious 
art   decadence,   the   ciiurclies   increased   in   number    and   splendour. 
The    decline   of    the    old    faith   and    the    incrcasini;   spread    of    the 
new  contributed  to  these  results.     The  pa^an   temples  were  trans- 
formed into  Christian  basilicas,  while  new  churches  rose 

,  1  1  1  1  ,•        •  1  Art  actlvliv. 

upon  sites  made  sacred  by  the  ashes  ot  saints  and  mar- 
tyrs. The  untrammeled  spirit  of  Christianity  now  further  modified 
the  basilica,  and  fashioned  it  into  forms  tit  for  tiie  expression  of  the 
sublimest  truths.  Herein  is  the  sit^niticance  of  Christianity  in  the 
art  history  of  this  period.  Althou-^li  on  the  one  haiul  a  decayiii<^ 
and  on  the  other  an  embryo  art  contributed  to  their  construction, 
these  Christian  basilicas  produced,  in  the  main,  a  sublime  and  in- 
spirin<T  effect,  which  is  chieHy  attributable  to  the  beautiful  sim[)lic- 
it}'  of  their  essential  features.' 

The   reiLjn   of  (\)nstantine   was  characterized   by  an  aboundini^ 
splendour  and  luxury  in  court-dress  and  eciuipaije.     Its   splendour     of 
mai;iiiticenee  also  appears  in  the  buildini^s  of  his  reign   Constantine's 
and  those  of  his  successors.     But  this  spirit  did  not  at   "''^"' 
first  so  much  effect  a  change  in  the  form  of  tlie  basilicas  as  in  the 
extent  and  magnificence  of  their  decorations  and  furniture. 

Of  the  churches  of  the  fourth  century  still  preserved  in  Rome, 
Santa  Maria  Maggiore  is  among  the  richest  and  most  in-  ga,,^  ^^^1^ 
structive.'  It  was  originally  Iniilt  in  A.  D.  352,  and  Mawiore. 
renewed  in  A.  D.  4.$2.  It  is  believed  to  be  the  first  church  dedi- 
cated to  the  Virgin,  It  is  two  hundred  and  sixty-two  feet  long 
and  ninety-nine  broad.  Notwithstanding  many  attempts  to  mod- 
ernize it,  it  still  retains  parts  of  the  original  structure.  Its  imposing 
ranks  of  columns,  w'ell-i>reserved  ancient  mosaics,  and  horizontal 
entablature  make  it  most  notable  among  the  churches  of  Rome.  Its 
ceiling  follows  the  classical  rather  than  the  early  Christ-  classical  ceii- 
ian  style — being  divided  into  scpiares  and  ornamented  '"k- 
with  rosettes  rather  than  finished  in  rafter  and  timber  work. 

Santa  Maria  in  Trastavere  disputes  with  Santa  Maria  Maggiore  the 
lionor  of  being  the  first  church  dedicated  to  the  Virgin,    santa  Maria  in 
If  we  are  to  accept  the  tradition,  very  early  and  resting   Trastavero. 
upon  some  foundation,  it  was  first  founded  in  A.  D.  .340,  while  Santa 
Maria  Maggiore  was  built  twelve  years  later.     Among  the  most  in- 

'  Rosengaiten:  Arcliiteclural  Fonn.'i,  p.  170. 

'Bnnscn:  Bisiliken  d.  rh.  lioins,  tt.  ix,  x.  Forsler:  Mittd  «.  Unt-^  Ilalien,  p9. 
264.265.  Kiiirlcr:  G'-srhichte  d  Bmkunst,  Bi\.  i,  s  .386.  H.  Gaily  Kiiifflu:  T/u: 
Ecclfsia.slirdl  Buildings  o/  Italy.     Valeatini:  Lm  Paliiacale  Basilica  Libenana. 


204 


ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 


teresting  features  of  the  interior  are  the  twenty-two  granite  columns 
which  divide  the  church  into  three  naves.  They  are  of  different 
heights  and  thickness,  and  surmounted  with  capitals  of  different 
Heathen  eie-  ^t^des,  on  which  are  wrought  out  figures  of  Jupiter, 
meats.  Juuo,  and  other  gods  of  the  Grreeks.     This  arangement 

illustrates  the  entire  freedom  Avith  which  the  Church  of  the  fourth 
century  incorporated  into  its  houses  of  Avorship  materials  already  at 
hand. 

Portions  of  several  basilicas  of  the  fifth  century  remain,  whose 
peculiarities  are  interesting  and  important  in  the  history  of  ecclesi- 
astical architecture.  Among  the  most  noteworthy  in  the  West  is 
Santa  Sabina,  believed  to  have  been  founded  in  the  first 
quarter  of  the  century.  It  is  the  best  example  of  the 
original  basilica  that  has  survived.  It,  too,  has  twentv-two  antique 
columns  of  pagan  origin.  They  are  of  remarkable  beauty,  having 
Classic  col-  Attic  bases,  Corinthian  capitals,  and  somewhat  slender 
umns.  shafts,  fluted  through  one  third  of  their  length.    A  very 

considerable  portion  of  the  pavement  belonging  to  the  original 
structure  is  still  preserved.' 


Santa  Sabina. 


Fig.  94.— San  Lorenzo  fuori  le  inura.    Showing  arrangement  of  vestibule  and  roof. 

Of  considerable  architectural  importance  is  the  church  San  Lo- 
San  Lorenzo  renzo  fuori  le  mura  {v.  Fig.  94).  It  was  begun  in  the 
fuori  le  mura.  fourth  century,  but  underwent  many  changes  in  the 
sixth  and  thirteenth  centuries.  It  is  a  good  representative  of  the 
class  of  Christian  churches  which  preserved  the  side  galleries  in  the 
second  story,  in  imitation  of  the  peculiar  feature  of  the  pagan  law 
basilica  {v.  Fig.  95).  This  w\as  not,  as  we  have  already  seen,  intro- 
duced into  the  earliest  churches,  since,  instead  of  a  gallery,  the  walls 

'  Biinsen:  Basiliken  dtr  christlichen  Boms,  t.  viii,  B.  Forster:  Miitel  u.  Unter 
Italien,  ss.  284,  285. 


EAIU.Y  niUISTTAN   AKrillTKCTrHF:. 


205 


IxHUnliii"^  tlu'  iiiidtlU'  iiuvc  were  continuous  to  the  roof,  tlius  afTord- 
iiig  ijjivalrr  spiice  for  interior  decoration.'  To  the  same  ehiss  l>e- 
longs  Santa  Aijncse  fuori  le  niura  (Fig.  95),  built,  ac- 
cording to  the  tradition,  by  Constantine  above  the  cata- 
combs wliere  the  remains  of  St.  Agnes  were  found.  The  side  galleries 
in  the  second  story  are  well  preserved  in  lliis  cliurch  also. 


Santa  ARneae. 


-SanUi  Agnese  fuori  le  nuini 


Another  extra  mural  church  of  the  fourth  century  is  Santa  Sinfo- 
rosa,  nine  miles  from  the  city  gates.  It  is  of  special  pnnta  sinfo- 
interest,  as  illustrating  the  growth  of  important  chnrches  rosii. 
of  the  basilica  form  from  cellar  beneath  which  the  bones  of  martyrs 
were  supposed  to  rest.  It  has  been  elsewhere  stated  that  the  burial 
feasts  were  celebrated  in  or  near  these  cella',or  in  exedrjr,  and  that 
where  sites  were  of  especial  sacredness  nndtitudcs  wi-re  accustomed 
to  leave  the  city  to  engage  in  these  fi'stivals.     To  accommotlafc  the 

'  Dehin   mid   Bezold:   Die  kirchlkhe  Baulcuii.it  cl-f  A1>endlandfs,  text.  ss.  107,  103; 
laf.  16,  4.     Biinsen:    Op.  cit.,  tt.  xii,  xiii,  xiv.     Foratcr:    Op.  ciL,  as.  237,  258. 


206 


ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 


increasing  numbers  the  simple  cella  in  time  expanded  to  tlie  impos- 
ing church,  and  the  services  assumed  a  character  of  dignity  and 
impressive  grandeur.  The  exploration  of  Santa  Sinfo-  Ymm  a  burial 
rosa  revealed  the  existence  of  a  cella,  of  the  usual  from,  chapei. 
lying  directly  back  of  the  apse  of  the  basilica,  and  connected  with 
it  by  a  passage-way  (v.  Fig.  95).  It  is  be- 
lieved that  this  basilica  originated  in  the 
manner  above  indicated,  and  that  it  was  es- 
pecially hallowed  by  its  immediate  proximity 
to  the  resting-place  of  St.  Sinforosa  and  her 
seven  sons.' 

Like  the  churches  of  San  Lorenzo,  Santa 
Agnese,  and  Santa  Sinforosa,  so,  also,  are  the 
two  most  important  basilicas  of  Rome  —  San 
Pietro  in  Vaticano,  and  San  Paoli  fuori  le 
mura — believed  to  have  originated  in  sacred 
shrines  outside  the  city  walls.  Of  the  fifth 
century  is  also  San  Pietro  in  vin-  gan  pietro  in 
coli,  a  three-naved  basilica,  with  vincou. 
flat  ceiling  of  wood,  and  with  twenty  antique 
columns  of  finest  Parian  marble,  whose  severe 
Doric  style  gives  to  the  interior  an  air  of 
impressive  simplicity. 

Outside  of  Rome  are  found  remains  of  sev- 
eral churches  of  the  basilica  type  of  archi- 
tecture from  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  cen- 
turies. Ravenna  is  among  the  most  rich  and 
instructive  centers.  It  is  a  favorable  circum- 
stance that  their  complete  history  is  found 
\nt\ie  JBiographies  of  the  Bishops  Good  historic 
of  Ravenna,  by  Agnellus.^  These  churches  have  more  ^'entai^ev'i- 
fully  preserved  their  original  form  than  those  of  Rome  dence. 
or  Constantinople,  where  the  unwise  zeal  of  succeeding  popes, 
patriarchs,  or  emperors  has  in  many  instances  modified  nearly 
every  feature  of  the  original  structure.  It  is,  therefore,  highly 
important  to  understand  the  nature  and  teachings  of  these  archi- 
tectural monuments. 

Compared  with  those  of  Rome,  the  oblong  basilica  simple  in  out- 
churches  of  Ravenna  had  usually  a  very  simple  ground 
plan.     They  were  mostly  three-naved,  without  ti-ansept  or  galleries. 

'  Bullettim  cristiano,  1878,  p.  75.     G.  Baldwin  Brown:  From  Schola  to  Cathedral, 
pp.  64,  65.     Dehio  und  Bezold:    Op.  cit.,  text,  s.  104;  taf.  17,  2. 
"  V.  Quast:  Die  aU-clirisUichtn  Bauwerke  von  Ravenna. 


Fiff. 


96.  —  Groundplan   of 
Sauta  Sinforosa. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE.  207 

In  contrast  -willi  must  of  the  ancit'iit  c-Iimvlics  of  Koine,  they  seem 
to  have  been  built  of  materials  specially  jui'paied  for  them.  In- 
stead of  the  curious  conglomeration  of  styles  in  the  columns,  with 
respect  to  order,  diameter,  and  height,  and  of  the  materials  of  the 
buildings,  in  Ravenna  a  general  harmony  and  consist-  Generally  har- 
ency  are  noticed.'  The  style  is,  therefore,  more  distinct,  '"""lous- 
and  the  stage  of  architectural  develo])ment  more  clearly  markc<l. 
The  interior  arrangement  is  likewise  simple  and  harmonious.  The 
architrave  is  entirely  wanting,  the  entablature  being  uniformly  sup- 
ported by  the  round  arch.  The  capitals  do  not  imiucdiatcly  support 
the  arches,  but  are  crowned  with  an  abacus  (y.  Fig.  99).  'J'he  tri- 
bune is  generally  well  defined  and  carefully  decorated.  In  marked 
contrast  with  modern  churches,  the  exterior  was  simple  and  una- 
dorned, the  material  being  usually  l)rick. 

Quast"  divides  the  Christian  architectural  monuments  of  Ravenna 
into  four  periods.  The  first  extends  from  the  introduc-  p^j^^^  gf  ar- 
tion  of  Christianity  to  the  downfall  of  the  Western  cuitecture  in 
Empire  in  A.  D.  47<3;  the  second  from  the  Roman  (b)wn- 
fall  to  the  death  of  Theodoric,  A.  D.  476-526;  the  third  from  the 
death  of  Theodoric  to  the  death  of  the  Archbishop  Agnellus,  A.  1). 
526-566;  the  fourth  period  from  the  death  of  Agiu'Uus  to  the 
termination    of    art    activity   in    Ravenna — A.   D.   566    to    about 

A.  D.  900.     Kugler'  divides  into   three   periods,  cor. 

,  ,  ,  .    -.  •     n         r      1        1  •  f"'*^'  period. 

responding    to    the    three    chief    periods   or    tlie    his- 
tory  of    the   city.       To  the    first    period   belongs    the    cathedral 
church  of  the  town,  the  Ecclesia   Ursiana,  which  was  Ecciesia  Ursi- 
built  near  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century.     Unfor-  ana. 
tunately,  on  its  reconstruction  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century  the  original  structure  was  totally  destroj-ed.  Yet,  from  trust- 
worthy notices  that  have  been  preserved, we  learn  that  it  was  a  five- 
naved  basilica,  which   preeminence  it  enjoyed  with  only  three  of 
the  most  noted  churches  of  Rome.     Certain  expressions  of  Agnellus 
lead  us  to  believe  that  the  entire  church  area  was  covered  with  a 
vaulted  ceiling.    It  was  originally  dedicated  to  the  resur- 
rection of  Christ.    Its  pavements  and  walls  were  adorned 
with  costly  marbles  and   rich   mosaics.     The   arrangement  of    tlie 
choir  resembled  that  of  San  Clemente  at  Rome.'     The  surviving 
baptisterium  is  elsewhere  described. 

'  V.  Quasi:    Op.  dt.,  c.  44.     Kii-lor:    Op.  rit.,  Bd.  i.  ?.  394. 
*  Die  all-christlkhcn  Banwerktn  von  Ravenna,  ss.  2,  17,  27,  40 
^  Geschichte  rf-?-  Bnukumt,  Bd.  i,  s.  395. 

*Quast:  Die  aJt-christlichen  Bauwtrke  von  Ravenna,  Berlin.  1842,  s.  2.    Dehio  und 
Bezold:    Op.  cit,  Taf.  17,  Fig.  4.     D'Agiucourt:  PI.  Ixx,  Fig.  21. 


208 


ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 


Santa  Aeata. 


To  the  same  period  belongs  Santa  Agata,  a  three-naved  church 
closely  conforming  to  the  typical  oblong  basilica,  yet 
possessing  little  of  special  interest. 

The  period  of  civil  commotion  following  the  death  of  Valentinian 
III.  was  unfavorable  to  the  patronage  of  ecclesiastical 
art.     The  fearful   inroads  of  Attila  and   Odoaeer  had   ''  ^^^^^ 

brought  destruction  in  their  pathway  until  the  triumph  of  the  Ostro- 
gothic  king,  Theodoric,  in  A.  D.  495.  This  remarkable  The  policy  of 
ruler  restored  to  Italy  a  measure  of  the  prosperity  Tbeodoric. 
enjoyed  before  her  desperate  struggles  with  the  barbarians.  Though 
unlettered,  he  was  a  patron  of  learning,  and  greatly  beautified 
Ravenna  and  other  cities  of  his  realm  by  the  erection  of  many 
new  churches.  His  task  was  one  of  extreme  diificulty.  An  Ostro- 
gothic  king,  he  must  not  only  reconcile  the  two  fiercely  contend- 
ing peoples,  but  also  pacify  the  orthodox  and  Arian  parties  in 
the  Church.  The  Gothic  tribes  had  largely  embraced  the  Arian 
doctrine,  and  Theodoric  was  himself  its  defender.  His  nobility 
of  character  is  shown  in  his  carefully  refraining  from  persecution 
of  opponents,  and  by  granting  to  the  orthodox  party  the  ^jg  tolerant 
privilege  of  building  and  ov/ning  their  own  churches,   spirit. 

and  of  using  their  own  confession  of 
faith  and  forms  of  worship.  The  archi- 
tectural interest  of  his  reign  is  con- 
nected very  largely  with  the  churches 
of  the  Arian  party,  some  The  Arian 
of  which  were  built  out-  churches. 
side  the  Avails  of  the  city,  and  some  at 
the  port  of  Classe.  Several  within  the 
city  have  been  preserved  to  our  time, 
and  constitute  an  interesting  group  of 
ecclesiastical  monuments.  Among  the 
most  noted  is  San  Apollinare  Nuovo, 
formerly  called  Basilica  gan  Apoinn- 
San  Martini  in  coelo  aureo,  a'e  Nuova. 
so  named  from  its  great  splendour.  It 
was  connected  directly  Avitli  the  royal 
palace,   and    seems  to  have   been  re- 

I'iT.  or.— San  Apollinare  Nuovo,  Ra-     ^  '  .  i  i    i 

venna,  showinff  interior  structure  and    garded  as  Specially  the  court  church. 
decoration.  The  exterior  of  the  upper  part  of  the 

middle  nave  has  been  preserved  entire.     The  same  style  of  round 
arch,  l)uilt  of  brick,  which  we  have  before  met  in    the  churches  of 

'Qiiast:  Op.  ci/.,  s.  19,  Tiif.  vii,  Fig.  1,  2,  3,  4.     Deliin  und  Bezold :  Tnf.  16.  Fig.  5. 
D'Agiucourt:  Plate  x vii,  17-22. 


EARl.V    (  lIKlsriA.N    Ala  11  rnx  TIKE. 


209 


till'  (irst  period  (:i.s  in  Suiitu  Agutu),  is  In  re  ir|tcatiil.  Tlie  coluiims 
of  the  interior  (y.  Fi<^.  97)  have  C'cjiinlliiaii  (  aj»itals  with  a  square 
abacus  <init('  in  the  By/ant ine  style.' 

Thi!  splcinliil  i-hinvhes  l)iiilt  by  the  Catholic  ]>arty  Iti'loni,'  properly 
to  the  third  period.  'I'lie  most  notecl  had  been  eoni- 
nieiK'etl  during  tlu-  dotlue  supremacy,  Ijut  were  nnished 
and  decorated  at  a  hiter  date.  For  the  most  part  they  weic  no 
longer  constructed  under  the  direction  of  kings  and  rulers,  but  of 
the  ecclesiastics  who  held  allegiance  to  Constantinople.  From  this 
time,  therefore,  the  Byzantine  influence  is  much  more  pronounced 
in  the  buildings  of  Ravenna. 

The  Christian  archa'ologist,  in  search  of   new  illustrations  of   the 
life  and  vigor  of  the  early  Church,  meets  few  more  im-   san  Apoiiinare 
pressive  monuments  than  the  Basilica  of  San  Apoiiinare    in  ciasse. 
in   Ciasse  (Fig.   98).      During  the   three-mile   walk   from  liavenna 


Fig.  98.— San  Apoiiinare  In  ("lasse. 

to  Ciasse  amid  scenes  so  full  of  historic  and  literarr  interest,  the 
nu'inories  of  events  decisive  in  the  world's  history  troo])  T)efore  tlie 
visitor  like  specters  from  the  entombed  generations.  This  chnrch 
stands  out  in  its  solitariness,  the  sole  survivor  of  all  the  The  solitary 
edifices  that  crowded  the  busy  port  of  Ciasse,  where  monument. 
Augustus  moored  his  conquering  fleets.  Its  tower  still  stands  to 
point  the  faith  of  men  to  the  Author  of  a  religion  that  shall  never 
know  decay,  while  beneath  it  sleeps  the  ihist  of  forty  generations. 

'  For  description  of  mosaics  see  pp.  125,  127.     Fig.  97  gives  a  good  idea  of  llie  con- 
struction of  the  cohinius,  the  form  o£  arclu?s,  the  rich  mosaic  decorations  of  the 
euiublaUiie,  etc. 
14 


210 


ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 


The  Interior. 


Even  to  the  portico,  the  building  remains  in  all  its  original  integrity. 
Only  a  portion  of  the  marble  which  lined  the  interior 
walls  has  been  removed  [v.  Fig.  99).  It  is  a  three- 
naved  basilica  with  elevated  choir,  to  which  lead  stairs  of  the  entire 
breadth  of  the  middle  nave.  It  is  one  hundred  and  eighty-six  feet 
long  and  one  hundred  feet  broad,  having  on  either  side  twelve  taper- 
ing columns  of  Grecian  marble  with  Corinthian  capitals.* 

The  furniture,  altar,  etc.,  are  still  preserved.  The  original  mosaics 
The  mosaics,  i"  the  tribune  (v.  Fig.  99)  and  on  the  side  walls  remain 
»^'^c-  in  all  their  freshness  to  tell  the  story  of  the  religious 

thought  of  the  sixth   century.     On   the  beautiful  frieze  above  the 


Fig.  99.— San  Apollinare  in  Classe.    Interior  view. 

columns  bounding  the  middle  nave  is  a  series  of  mosaic  medallions 
(y.  Fig.  99)  of  the  bishops  of  this  church  from  the  time  of  St.  Apol- 
linarius.  They  arc  most  noteworthy.  The  capitals  of  the  columns, 
as  of  the  pilasters,  have  much  value  and  interest  in  the  history  of 
architectural  development,  since  they  are  the  first  examples  of  an 
ornamentation  which  was  subsequently  widely  diffused.* 
Ext -rior  con-  The  exterior  of  the  church  is  of  brick,  whose  joints 
struction.  of  mortar  are  nearly  as  thick  as  the  bricks  themselves. 

The  vestibule,  apparently  contemporary  with  the  main  structure,  is 

'Forster:  Mittel  u.  Unt-r  It.aUen,  ss.  389,  390.     Quast:    Op.  cit,  ss.  31-37,  Taf.  ix. 
D'Agincoiirt:  Plates  Ixviii  and  l.\ix.     Dehio  luid  Bezold:    Op.  cit,  Taf.  IG,  Fig.  8. 
2  Quast:    Op.  cit.,  s.  35,  taf.  ix,  Figs.  3,  4. 


EARLY    CIIUISTIAN    AH(IIIT1-:CTURE.  211 

of  great  interest  from  conlainiiig  tlie  n'tiiains  of  many  Ruecessive 
bishops  of  this  churrh.  In  San  Apollinare  in  Classc,  in  common 
W'itli  several  other  eluirehes  of  Ravenna,  a  Lrrowing  Eiternai  beau- 
attention  to  exterior  beauty  and  liarnKJiiy  is  noticed,  ^y- 
Previously  the  basilicas  had  very  broad  and  ojumi  windows;  a  con- 
struction unfavourable  to  tlie  support  of  the  heavy  weiglit  restint,^  on 
tlie  arcliitravcs;  but  wlu'U  the  round  arch  was  generally  introduced 

tills  dlHicultv   no   longer  existed.     The  windows  were 

,      ,  ■    1  1-11  1  11  The   windows. 

nnulv  mirrowcr,  the  light  admitted  became  less  and  less, 

until  the  passion  for   "a   dim   religious   light"    led  to  the  entire  al)- 

sencc  of  windows  in  the  uj)per  part  of  the  middle  nave. 

Of  much  interest  are   the  cathedral  churcii  of  Novara,  from  the 

sixth  century,  and  the  cathedral  of  Parengo,  in  Istria,   cathedrals    of 

from  the  seventh.     They  are  flistinguishcd  by  having  a   NovuraandPa- 

forecourt  and  a  baptistery  very  closely  incorporated  into   '"''''*^"- 

their  architectural   structure.     This  feature  is  l)elieved  by  Iliibsch 

to  have  lieen  first  introduced  during  the  sixth  century.     The  latter 

church  has  been  well  preserved,  is  rich  in  mosaics  and 

,  .  ,  ...  ,  ,  .  Mosaics. 

paintings,  and  retains  the  original  marble  pavement  m 
the  middle  nave.     While  the  mosaics  of  the  fa9ade  are  weather- 
beaten  and  much  faded,  from  their  outlines  a  fair  idea  of  their  sub- 
jects and  style  of  treatment  can  be  gained. 

In  the  non-European  lands  are  still   preserved  many  examples  of 

the  oblong  rectangular  basilica,  whose  original  may  be 

^     f  1         ,.  1  1  -r.  •  St.  Reparatus. 

traced    trom    the    tourtli    century    <lown.       Prominent 

among  these  is  the  Basilica  Rei)aratus,  discovered  on  the  site  of 

the   ancient  Castellum  Tingitanum   (the  modern   OrleansvilU).   in 

Algiers.'     It  was  a  five-naved  church  with  semicircular  apse  which 

projected  toward   the   middle  of  the  <'hurch,  thus   forming  rooms 

on  either  side,  while   the  exterior  boundaries  of  the  church    were 

straight  lines." 

Ruins  of  like  churches  are  also  found  at  Tafaced  (Colonia   Tipa'- 

sa),  at  Annuna,  etc.     Farther  toward  the   East,  at  the  old  port  of 

ApoUonia,  three  ruined  basilicas  have  been  found,  whose  art  remains 

are  interesting  for  showing  the  commingling  of  Christian  and  Egyj)- 

tian  s\'mbolisTn.'     Also  in  manv  iiarts  of  E<;vpt  ruins  of 

,,  I       ^M     •   *•  1  1       ■    r    .1        1        -i-"        r  In  Epvpt,  also. 

these  early  C  hnstian  churches  of  the  l)asilica  form  are 

still   met.      They   are    not    confined   to   the  cities  nor   to   the    Nile 

'  For  tlie  chronology  of  tliis  church  see  p.  33,  note  2. 

'  The  form  of  this  apso  is  very  similar  to  that  of  San  Croce  in  Gcrusalenimo, 
Fig.  81. 

'  Kugler:  Geschicliie  der  Baukunst,  Bd.  i,  ss.  373,  374.  These  have  been  well  de- 
scribed by  II.  Barth,  in  his  Journeys  through  the  Coasilands  of  the  Mediterranean. 


213 


ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


valley,  but  are  found  on  oases  in  the  Lybian  desert,  as  at  El-Hayz, 
EI-Gabuat,  and  El-Zabu. 

In  the  Nile  valley,  extending  far  south,  churches  of  the  fourth 
.  .  and  fifth  centuries  still  preserve  many  very  interesting 
diffused  in  the  and  instructive  features.  Their  number  and  size,  their 
Nile  valley.  j.j^]^  ^^^  remains,  their  connection  in  some  instances 
with  extended  convents  and  religious  communities,  are  confirmatory 
evidence  of  the  widespread  influence  of  Christianity  among  the 
Egyptian  peoples,  while  their  peculiar  architectural  features  seem 
to  furnish  some  foundation  for  the  theory  that  Egypt  was  the  na- 
tive home  of  the  basilica,  being  appropriated  by  the  Greeks,  and 
then,  in  modified  form,  becoming  a  ruling  type  in  the  West-Roman 
Empire. 

Also  the  church  of  St.  ■  Demetrius  (Fig.  100),  at  Thessalonica 
(modern  Salonika),  belongs  to  the  fifth  century.     It  is  a  five-naved 

structure  Avith  a  tran- 
sept. It  departs,  in 
some  respects,  quite 
widely  from  the  usual 
basilica  form.  The 
spaces  between  the 
columns  are  spanned 
by  semicircular  arches 
surmounted  by  an  en- 
tablature covered  with 
paintings.  Above  this 
is  a  second  row  of  col- 
umns with  a  like  entablature,  and  above  this  a  third,  in  which  are 
the  windows  for  lighting  the  interior.  Like  many  of  the  conspicu- 
ous churches  of  the  Orient,  it  is  now  a  Mohammedan  mosque.' 

Contemporary  with  St.  Demetrius  is  another  church  of  Salonika, 
now  called  the  mosque  Eski-Djouma.     It  is  three-naved  with  a  tran- 
sept, and  its  general  features  are  similar  to  those  of  St.  Demetrius. 
Of  still  greater  interest  are  the  churches  of  central  Syria.     These 
have  been  made  better  known  through  the  diligent  re- 
searches of  the  Count  de  Yogiie.''     It  is  evident  from 
his  discoveries  that  during  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries,  while  the 
West  Avas  in  a  condition  of  disruption  and  fearful  decadence.  Christ- 
ian art  in  Syria  was  in  a  state  of  unAvonted  activity.     The  number 

'  Texier  and  Pullan:  L' Architecture  Byzantine,  p.  134,  pi.  xvii-xxvi.  Kiigler: 
GescMchte  d.  Baukunst,  Bd.  i,  s.  433.     Stockbauer:  Der  christlichu  Kirclienhau,  s.  47. 

*  Syrie  Centrale:  Architecture  Civile  et  Religieuse  du  1"  a?t  7"  Steele.  Paris,  1865- 
1877.     2  vols.,  fol. 


Fi{?.  100.— St.  Demetrius,  Thessalonica.    Cross  section. 


EARLY  CIIRISTIAX    AKCIHTKCTrRH.  213 

of  cburclu'8,  the  chaste  siinj)licity  of  their  style,  and  tluir  clusc  ;ul- 
hereiu-e  to  tlie  obloiisj^  basilica  type,  art^ue  a  period  of  peace  and  of 
reniarkal)le  prosperity  of  the  Church.  I'rior  to  tlie  „.  ^  ,,,j  ^^  . 
foiirtli  ceiitury  little  survives,  but  from  the  fourth  to  the  a  state  of  pros- 
seventh  the  Christian  architectural  monuments  are  al-  '^'■'"^y' 
most  innumerable,'  being  built  in  ijreat  measure  of  materials  already 
at  hand.  "We  are  transported,"  says  de  Vogiie,  "into  the  midst, 
of  a  Christian  society.  We  are  surprised  at  its  life:  not  the  covert, 
hidden  life  of  the  catacombs,  not  an  existence  huml)le,  tiiui<l,  sulfer- 
ing,  is  here  geni'rally  represented,  but  a  life  generous,  rich,  artistic; 
spacious  houses  built  of  brown  stone,  conveniently  arranged,  with 
galleries  and  covered  balconies;  beautiful  gardens  planted  with  the 
vine,  presses  for  making  wine,  and  stone  vats  and  casks  for  its  safe 
storage;  immense  subterranean  kitchens,  and  stables  for  the  horses; 
V)eautiful  scjuares,  surrounded  with  porticos  and  elegant  baths;  mag- 
niticent  churches,  adorned  with  columns,  flanked  with  towers  and 
encircled  with  elegant  tombs."" 

In  nearly  all  the  basilicas  of  Africa  and  Syria  there  is  a  departure 
from  the  style  of  the  West  with  respect  to  the  ceiling  The  vaulted 
finish  and  decoration.  Instead  of  the  open  beam-and-  celling, 
rafter  work  so  usual  Avith  Roman  basilicas,  we  find  the  semicylin- 
drical  vaulted  ceiling.  It  is  believed  that  this  peculiar  con- 
struction was  determined  by  the  character  of  the  materials  at 
lumd — the  Egyptian  and  Syrian  lands  being  destitute  of  timber 
suitable  for  the  ceiling  decorations,  while  at  the  same  time  both 
stone  and  brick  were  abundant  and  cheap.  A  like  ceiling  vaulting 
is  sometimes  met  in  southern  France.  While  hewn  stone  was  sel- 
dom used  in  Italy  (l)rick  l)eing  the  material  in  general  use  for  the 
purposes  of  ceiling  vaulting),  it  was  (piite  common  in  Svria  and  the 
East.^ 

Among  the  numerous  monuments  scattered  thus  over  Syria,  those 
of  Kherbet-IIass,  El-lJarah,  and  'Pourmanin  are  very  conspicuous. 
Each  comprises  a  group  of  buildings  for  religious  observances, 
including  one  or  more  churches,  chapels,  and  houses  for  meditation. 
or  convents  for  Christian  orders. 

The   group  at   Kherbet-IIass  consists  of  a  larger  and   a   smaller 

church,  both  three-naved,  with  distinct  internal  semicir- 

,  ,  .  .  I.     •  ,  KliiTbet-Hass. 

cular  apse,  and  opening  u])on  spacious  courts,      nesides 

these  are  found  rooms  for  the  school,  for  the  library,  for  loilging 
the  various  Church  f)fficials,  and  :i  place  of  I>urial  for  tiie  cliief  eccle- 
siastics.* 

'  Op.  cit.,  t  i,  p.  7.  ''Op.  rit.,  I.  i,  p.  <).         ^  Dcliio  u.  Bczold :    Op.  cit.,  s.  130. 

*  De  Vogiie:    Op.  cit.,  t.  i,  [y.  90;   I.  ii,  plates  59,  61. 


EARLY   ClIKISTIAX    AKflllTKCTlKi:. 


21' 


At    El-I>;ir;iii    aic    tlirci'    cliurclK's    in    closi'    juxtaposition.       Fii^. 
101    ivpri'st'nt.s     tliis    follcction     of     ivliifious    nlilic-i's. 

„,,  ....  ,  •    ,       .  ,.  ,  II  El-I!iirali. 

1  ho  prinripal  cliurcli,  with  its  aujacciit  chapi'l,  lias 
on  the  front  aiul  sides  si)at'ious  courts  with  irregular  (•()h)nna(U's. 
Near  to  tliis  church  are  the  school,  tlie  rooms  for  the  various 
servants,  foi-  the  ecclesiastics,  and  for  the  lihrarv.  'i'he  i-ntiri' 
u^roiip  of  l)uihrmii^s  sliown  in  Fii^.  lol  is  coiiiu  cted  with  this 
imposiiii^  ecck'siastical  establislinieiit,  and  well  illustrates  the 
flourishiiiLj  state  of  the  Syrian  cliurches  in  the  fourth  anil  lifth 
centuries. 

Till'  curious  asseinblao^e  of  l)uiIdiiiLjs  at   'rourinanin   comprised  a 
church,  and  an   inimense   slrui^ture    which  seems   to  have  lK*en   an 


Fig.  102.— View  of  the  cliurcli  :il  Tourinaiiln,  Central  Syrhi.    Kcstoreil  from  lln-  niiiis. 

ecclesiastical  hostelry  for  lodirinLr  piluM-ims.  The  church,  restorecl 
from  a  careful  study  of  the  survivin<;  portions  (Fii;.  102),  follows 
the  general  plan  and  arranijfement  of  most  Syrian  churches  of 
the  sixth  century.  TIu-  fariuh'  has  an  imposing;  character,'  w  liilc 
the  dis])Osition  of  the  lines  gives  to  it  a  )>ictures(jue  effect.  The 
careful  balancing  of  jiarts  resulteil  in  a  building  of  gri'at  solid- 
ity, whose  permanence  was  almost  entirely  indi'])endcnt  of  cement. 
The  interior  is  the  usual  oblong  basilica  of  three  naves.  The 
apse  has  the  form  of  a  regular  half-dodecagon.  'I'he  internal 
arraiiirements     and    decorations     show    that    architecture     at     this 


'  V.  De  Vogiie:    Op.  cit..  t.  i.  pp.  1L;8-1-10:  plates  c.\.\.\-c.\,\.\vi. 


216  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 

period  had  attained  a  very  high  order  of  excellence,  and  indicate 
a  very  prosperous  condition  of  the  Syrian  Church  during  tlie  sixth 
centuiy. 

All  the  churches  both  at  Kherbet-ITass,  El  Barah,  and  Tonrmaniii 
The  pure  ba-  ^^''^  ^^  the  pure  oblong  basilica  type  which  so  generally 
silica  form.  prevailed  in  Syria  and  Egypt,  As  before  said,  •  they 
hick  the  wood  rafter  work  in  the  ceilings,  instead  of  Avhich  they 
employ  cut  stone  for  the  vaulting.  These  churches  varied  very 
But  vaulted  little  in  their  general  outline  and  plan,  the  architects 
ceilings.  being  content  to  introduce  variety  into  the  decorations 

and  subordinate  members.  In  the  disposition  of  the  interiors 
there  is  great  uniformity.  The  columns  are  generally  monoliths, 
with  bases  which  remind  us  of  the  classic  style,  while  the  imposed 
mass  is  directly  supported  by  the  capitals  without  the  intervention 
of  the  abacus.' 

The  grandest  monument  of  Central  Syria  are  the  churcli  and  con- 
ciiurch  and  "^^''^^  ^^  ^t-  Simon  the  Stylite.  It  is  now  called  Kalat- 
monastery  of  Sem'an — the  Cliateau  of  Simon.  It  is  situated  in  the 
St.  Simon.  north-east  corner  of  central  Syria,  a  short  distance  north 

of  Djebel  Cheikh  Bereket.  It  M'as  built  in  honor  of  that  most 
singular  character,  Simon  the  Stylite,  who  died  A.  D.  459.  The 
date  of  tlie  church  is  somewhat  uncertain.  From  considerations 
drawn  from  the  stjde  of  the  decorations,  de  Vogiie  is  dis})osed 
to  ])lace  its  erection  in  the  latter  half  of  the  fifth  century.-  It  was 
a  cruciform,  three-naved  basilica,  whose  three  arms  are  of  equal 
length;  the  fourth,  containing  the  apse,  being  thirty-six  feet  longer 
than  the  others.  The  arms  of  the  cross  at  their  inter- 
section form  an  octagonal  court  one  hundred  feet  in 
diameter,  which  was  open  to  the  fiky.  The  longest  arm  terminated 
in  a  semicircular  apse  not  only  for  the  main  but  also  for  the  side 
naves.  The  length  of  the  church  from  east  to  Avest  was  336  feet, 
from  north  to  south  300  feet.  The  width  of  the  main  nave  was  36 
feet,  that  of  the  side  naves  18  feet.  The  principal  entrance  was 
from  the  south  through  a  ])orch  of  imposing  magnificence.  This 
church,  with  its  attendant  chapels,  oratories,  and  sarcophagi,  is  a 
reminder  of  the  best  classical  period.  Although  in  treatment 
it  is  somewhat  bald  and  meagre,  the  st^de  of  the  capitals  is  dc- 
styie  of  cap-  cidedly  original.  The  oblique  direction  given  to  the 
i'^ais.  return   of  the  leaves   is  quite  common   to  the   Byzan- 

tine architecture.  In  this  aiul  other  respects  the  cai)itals  resem- 
ble   those   of   San    Apollinare    in    Classe,    in    Ravenna,    and   those 

'  De  Yosriie:   Op.  cil.,  t.  i.  ii.  i)T :  t.  ii.  pi.  60. 

^  Syiic  Genirale :  t.  i,  pp.  141-154:  t.  ii    plates  145-131. 


EAHI.Y    (IIIMSTIAN    ARCHITECTURE.  217 

emploved  in  the  ]»j'iiici|i;il  cnlraiici'  oi"  tlic  ('Iiiirdi  of  tlic  Holy 
Si']»ulcliiv  at  .IfriisaK'ni.'  Tlu'  iiiU'ri(»r  dccoiatioii  of  lliis  ami 
otluT  Syrian  clmirlu's  of  tlic  fifth  and  tsixtli  centuries  cannot  lie 
ascertained  witli  certainty.  From  a  few  specimens  of  painted  cor- 
nice found  on  tlie  si)ot,  <le  VoufQe  has,  however,  inferred 
,  ,  ,  ,•     1     r  1  1  1      1''"'  <'<'l"nnk'. 

tliat  the  color  was  a])])hed  directly  to  the  stone,  and 
tliat  much  of  the  brilliancy  of  the  classical  buil<lin<;s  iniLilit  have 
belonged  to  these  Syrian  ecclesiastical  structures.'^  lie  does  not 
believe  tliat  these  churches  were  ornamented  to  any  considerable 
extent  with  mosaics  of  gilt  and  glass.  The  smooth,  polished  faces 
of  the  stone  in  the  choir,  whii-li  was  the  only  place  Dcsiiiuie  of 
where  mosaics  could  be  used,  forbid  the  supposition  of  "losiika. 
their  employment  for  ornamentation.  Vet  the  mass  of  pieces  of 
colored  marbles,  found  in  c(nincction  w  itii  tlu-  luins  of  this  church, 
suggests  the  probability  that  the  i»avemcnt  may  have  been  wrought 
out  in  beautiful  mosaic  i)atteriis. 

SECTION  II. 
THE  CENTRAL  OR  DOMED  STYLE. 

Contemporary  %vith  the  oblong,  naved,  rectangular  basilica  was  an- 
other style  of  Christian  architecture,  the  so-called  central  or  domed 
structure.  This  was  not  unfrequent  in  the  West,  but  in  few  if  any 
instances  does  it  seem  to  have  been  used  in  buildings  originally  de- 
signed for  Christian  churches.  It  was  rather  limited  to  those  struc- 
turi's  of  ])agan  origin  which  were  ajipropriated  to  Christian  uses,  or 
to  buildings  subordinate  to  the  main  church  edifice,  as  ^oj  powerful 
burial  or  memorial  cliapels,  baptisteries,^  etc.  Hence  in  the  west, 
in  the  Occident  it  seemed  to  be  wanting  in  ]>ower  of  growth 
and  develoitment;  it  had  at  best  a  feelde,  sickly  life,  and  the  me- 
diaeval architecture  received  from  it  but  a  scanty  inheritance.  In 
the  Orient  it  was  far  otherwise.  Here  the  church  adopted  and 
fashioned  it  to  satisfy  its  own  peculiar  wants.  One  type  j^^  peniiiar 
appeared  in  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  at  homt^  in  the 
Jerusalem,  and  another,  after  a  ra])id  and  brilliant  de-  *^'''''"'- 
velopnu'iit,  attaineil  its  goal  and  highest  perfection  in  St.  Sophia  of 
Constantinople.''  From  the  so-callecl  liy/.antine  architectuit'  was 
probably  derived  the  constructive  principle  which  enal>led  the  me- 

'  Dc  Vogiie:    Op.  cit,  t.  i.  pp.  l.'iO,  151. 
Md.,  t.  i,  p.  152,  plate  151. 

*Schimase:    Gfsch.  d.  hitdend.  Kiimte,  iii,  48:   Deliio  u.  Bezold,  i.  20.  21. 
^  Dehio  mid  Bezold :  Die  kirddicht  Baukunsl  den  Abendlandcs,  Stuttgart,  1884,  lie 
Lief.,?.  21. 


218  APvClLEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

dioeval  architects  to  transform  the  flat  ceiling  of  the  basilica  into 
the  vaulted,  and  ultimately  into  the  beautiful,  soaring,  pointed 
style  of  the  Gothic  cathedral.' 

§1.    Origin  of  the  Domed  Structure. 

The  origin  of  the  domed  principle  in  architecture  is  even  more 
Its  origin  ob-  obscure  than  that  of  the  oblong  rectangular  basilica. 
scure.  While  the  Etruscans  were  famdiar  with  the  vaulted  roof, 

as  this  was  applied  to  the  cloacte  and  aqueducts,  they  have  left  no 
works  of  marked  architectural  character  which  lead  us  to  believe  that 
they  are  the  originators  of  the  dome  structure  as  it  was  found  in  the 
West  just  prior  to  the  Advent.  It  is  very  remarkable  that  the  most 
beautiful  and  complete  dome  of  the  world  is  the  Pantheon  of  Rome, 
a  sort  of  architectural  Melchizedek,  without  father  or  mother,  and 
also  wanting,  so  far  as  can  be  determined,  the  long  antecedent 
process  of  develo2:)nient  which  such  ji^i'f^ction  presupposes.  It 
is  likewise  curious  that  the  oblong  basilica  is  the  most  {persistent 
form  for  the  Christian  church  in  many  parts  of  the  Orient,  which  has 
usually  been  accounted  the  native  land  of  the  so  called  Byzantine 
architecture. 

Of  the  churches  of  central  Syria,  described  by  de  Vogiie,  only  two 

of  importance  are  of  the  domical  form,  and  these  from  the  sixth 

century.^     It  is  claimed  that  they  were  constructed  on  an  entirely 

different  principle  from  that  s^overning  in  St.  Sophia. 
These      differ  ^  ^  .  ,  . 

from   St.    So-  They  were  compact  and  unified;  their  parts  were  mem- 

^  ^^'  bers  of  a  living  organism.     Each  was  firmly  bound  to 

the  other,  each  was  the  natural  and  necessar}^  complement  of  all.  St. 
Sophia,  on  the  other  hand,  was  a  vast  concretion  of  bi'ick  and  mor- 
tar, and  of  rough  blocks  of  stone,  distributed  into  arches,  vaulted 
surfaces,  cupolas,  and  hemicupolas,  whose  expansions,  resting  upon 
fixed  points,  and  balancing  one  part  against  the  other,  were  brought 

,,  ^  ^,     into  a  condition  of  perfect  equilibrium.     The  principle 
Resembled  the  ,  ^  .       ^  .   ^  ' 

Roman  baptis-  of  Construction  was  not  different  from  that  in  the  Ro- 
^'^^'  man   baptistery,  developed,  enlarged,   and  made  more 

light  and  soaring  through  the  boldness  of  two  men  of  eminent  genius, 

'We  believe,  therefore,  that  tlie  coiidudino:  paragraph  of  the  statement  of 
Professor  G.  Baldwin  'Btoww,  From  Scliola  to  Cathedral.  1886,  p.  143,  needs  important 
qualification:  '-Rome  possessed  a  world-famed  cupola  several  centuries  before  tlie 
first  B3-znntine  dome,  and  duriiio:  those  centuries  dome  construction  had  advanced 
on  parallel  lines  in  the  West  and  in  the  East,  so  that  tlie  Middle  Ages  inheriicd  in  the 
West  as  genuine  a  tradition  in  regard  to  the  cupola  as  any  which  flourislied  hi  the 
East." 

*De  Yogiie:  Syrie  Centrale  Architecture  civile  etreligieuse,  plates  21,  23. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


219 


both  of  whom  wore  (4roi'ks.  Tht'ii-  work,  loo,  was  Circok  in  ihc 
sciisi'  that  it  was  the  result  of  the  a]>|ilicatioii  ol"  the  h)!Ufical  sjiirit  of 
ihi"  (4reek  scliool  to  a  new  and  t'orii^ii  |irinci|ih',  whicli  hccaiiif 
most  fruitful  of  results.  These  two  artists  oriiiinated  a  style 
which  completely  sui)))lante(l  the  i»reee(lint>:  in  all  the  countries 
which  were  afterward  submissive  to  IJy/antine  I'ulc.  Yet  <s.s<Mitmiiy 
Till'  opportunity  it  furnished  for  the  employment  <ir<'«'K- 
of  mediocre  workmen,  and  for  utilizing  the  cruder  materials,  as 
brick  and  lime,  as  well  as  tlie  gradual  introduction  of  Oriental 
taste.s,  assured  its  success.  It  cliaracterized  the  IJyzantine  jn-riod, 
properly  so  called,  and  was  the  last  evolution  of  Greek  art,  destined 
in  turn  to  be  absorbed  in  the  Saracenic' 

AVhether  the  central  architecture  of  the  West  was  an  indigenous 
j)roduct,  or  was  the  result  of  (4reek  influence  whose  monumental  ex- 
pression has  i)ei-ished,  or  whether  l)oth  the  Roman  and  the  so-called 
l^yzantine  were  alike  the  revival  of  an  old  eastern  tyi)e  which 
had  falU'ii  into  partial  decay,"  it  may  not  l)e  possible  to  attirm. 
The  subject  is  beset  with  i)e- 
culiar  ditticulties,  and  awaits 
more  thorough  investigation. 
It  is,  however,  evident  that 
the  Christian  baptisteries  and 
burial  chapels  have  a  strong 
resemblance  to  the  eontemi)0- 
rary  pagan  baths  and  m(»rtu- 
ary  monuments.^  An  interest- 
ing e.\amj)leof  this  is  found  in 
a  i)ortion  of  the  baths  of  Dio- 
cletian (Fig.  103).  This  was 
converted, in  thesixteentli  cen- 
tury, into  the  church  San  Uar- 
nardino  de'  Termini.  The 
semicircular  niches  were  ])er- 
j)etuated  in  the  Christian 
structure.      The   more   ))rojni- 

nent    features  of   this   building    recur   from    time    to    time    in    the 
Central  style. 

The  description  of  circular  temples  by  ^'itruvius  would  imply 
tlieir  i>revalence  in  his  day.  In  a  few  Christian  mosaics,  l)oth  in 
Rome  and  Ravenna,  the  domical  form  ajtpears  in  connection  with 

'  De  Vogiie  :   Op.  ciL,  vol.  i,  p|>.  17,  18. 
'  Tlic  Sas.«aniil  domes  of  Por.siiin  palaces. 
*  Roseugarlen  :  Arcfiitectural  Styles,  p.  172. 


Fig.   loa— Ratlis  of  niocletian,  Saii   Hainardlno. 
Uroundplan. 


220  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 

more  imposing  structures  which  are  believed  to  represent  the  build- 
ings for  Christian  assembly,  while  in  Christian  literature  are  found 
quite  detailed  accounts  of  noted  churches  that  have  entirely  disap- 
Centrai  build-  peared.  Of  these  the  circular  domed  building  erected 
ings  m  Con-  -y^  Coustautiue  in  the  early  part  of  the  fourth  century 
time.  over  the  traditional  site  of  the  holy  sepulchre  at  Jerusa- 

lem,' and  the  magnificent  church  at  Antioch  which  Eusebius  has 
described  at  length,  were  among  the  most  notable  and  mfluential. 
He  says:  "At  Antioch,  the  capital  of  the  Orient,  he  (Constantine) 
built  a  thoroughly  characteristic  church.  He  enclosed  the  whole  by 
a  peribolos,  within  which  he  built  an  oratory  of  unprecedented 
height.  It  was  of  octagonal  form.  To  the  exterior  round  about  he 
added  many  chapels  and  exedra,  as  well  as  crypts  and  galleries.  The 
entire  work  was  completed  by  ornamentation  in  gold  as  well  as  in 
ivory  and  other  costly  materials.'"'  The  relation  of  this  and  similar 
structures  to  the  development  of  church  architecture  at  Ravenna 
and  other  centers  is  most  intimate.  It  becomes  of  great  value  in 
interpreting  the  forms  met  in  the  churches  of  San  Vitale  in  Ravenna, 
San  Marco  in  Venice,  SS.  Sergius  et  Bacchus  in  Constantinople,  etc.^ 
The  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  served  as  a  model  for  burial 
,  chapels,  M^iile  that  of  Antioch  was  a  model   for  build- 

Importance   of    _       ^        ' 

the  cimich  of  ings  for  Congregational  assembl3^  The  great  import- 
Aatiocii.  jjj^^.g  q£  ^i^p  latter  in  Christian  architecture  arises  from 

the  circumstance  that  its  chief  features  were  copied  into  other 
structures,  both  East  and  West,  and  gave  an  impetus  to  (if  it  was 
not  the  genesis  of)  the  style  afterward  characterized  by  the  name 
Bj^zantine, 

§  2.    Classification. 

Different  principles  of  classification  of  these  buildings  have  been 
Principles  of  pi'oposed  by  writers  on  the  history  of  architecture, 
ciassiflcatiou.  The  adoption  of  the  simple  rotunda  as  the  normal  foi-m, 
and  the  development  of  the  central  construction  from  this  norm,  has 
much  to  recommend  it."*  According  to  this  view,  the  first  step  in 
the  development  was  the  addition  of  members  in  the  form  of  niches 
Addition  of  ill  the  enclosing  walls.  Both  artistically  as  well  as  con- 
niches,  sti'uctivel}'-  this  was  of  importance.  The  bounding  of  a 
space  within  narrowest  possible  limits,  as  well  as  the  securing  of 
better  architectural  effects,  would  thus  result.  For  the  most  part 
the  number  of  tlxese  niches  does  not  exceed  eight,  being  all  of  the 

'  Eusebius :  De  Vita  Const.,  iii,  31. 

^  Viia  Const,  lib.  iil,  cap.  50. 

^Quast:  Die  AltchristLichen.  Bamoerke  von  Ravenna,  ss.  30,  31. 

*  V.  Deliio  uud  Bezold:  Die  /cirddiche  Baukunst  -des  Abendlandes,  i,  ss.  19,  #. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   AIIfinTE(TL'RE.  221 

same  form  or  liaviiiLj  altiTiiatiiiLj  ivctaiiLTular  aiul  st'iiiicircular  niclics.' 
Soiiu'tiiiu's  tlu'sc  siiii|ik'  rotunda  inti'i-iors  wt-rc  I'urtlu'r  i'iiiiclic(l  l»y 
coliumis  [ilactMl  in  the  niclics,  wliicli  also  sitvciI  a  useful  construc- 
tivi'  |iuri>ose  [v.  Fiij^.  llii).  A  fuitlicr  development  is  noticed  in 
till'  attemjtts  at  enlarijcmenl  of  tJii'se  cinudar  buildin<^s,  by  brc'akin<jf 
tlirouji^h  the  walls  of  the  niches,  tlius  securing  a  series  of  attaclied 
looms  by  means  of  an  outward  enclosing  wall.  This  occurs  in 
Figs.  1  It;  and  120.  It  is  believed  that  this  change  was  first  intro- 
duced into  the  churches  from  liturgical  rather  than  artistic  consider- 
ations— especially  to  secure  more  privacy  for  the  high  altar — but 
by  continuous  modifications  it  became  the  occasion  of  developing 
some  of  the  most  l)eautiful  and  imposing  architectural  effects. 

A  fourth  ty})e  of  the  circular  churi^h  architecture  is  that  in  which 
the  domical  portion,  supported  by  columns,  is  surrounded  The  addition  of 
by  a  corridor  of  lesser  height  than  the  central  structure,  a  corridor. 
This  has  sometimes,  without  sufticient  reason,  been  characterized  as 
an  application  of  the  basilica  princijjle  to  the  central  style — hence 
called  the  circular  basilica — and  has  been  claimed  to  be  the  most 
distinctive  and  original  product  of  the  early  Christian  Church. 
The  claim  seems,  however,  to  lack  firm  supjxirt,  since  some  of  its 
features  manifestly  find  many  suggestions  in  pagan  architecture, 
while  it  is  difficult  on  this  theory  to  account  for  its  somewhat  lim- 
ited dissemination,  and  for  the  fact  that  the  oldest  examples  of  this 
tyi)e  of  buildings  are  the  most  striking,  thus  indicating  a  retrogra- 
dation  rather  than  a  real  development.^ 

Under  the  class  of  the  central  or  domical  architecture  some  writ- 
ers reckon  the  cruciform  buildings,  whether  with  equal  cruciform 
arms,  or,  by  the  lengtliening  of  the  main  axis,  in  the  structures, 
form  of  the  Latin  cross.  While  this  form  was  more  usually  found 
in  burial  chapels,  it  was  also  incorporated  into  other  and  more  im- 
posing buihlings.^ 

§  '.i.   Tlie  Smple  Rotmuli. 

Of  the  simple  rotuncLi  form  but  few  examples  survive.  These  are 
chiefiy  of  baptisteries  attached  to  churches.  A  jilain  hexa-  Kxampies  of 
gonal  building  of  this  kind  is  the  baptistery  of  the  ba-  ^^iniinen'timda. 
silica  in  the  Colli  di  Sto  Stefano  in  Tivoli;  another  is  the  octag- 
onal baptistery  of  the  cathedral  of  Parenzo.*  A  few  chapels  in 
the  catacombs  ai)proach  this  simple  outline.* 

'  For  examples  of  uniform  semicircular  nidies.  see  Fifr.  103:  for  uniformly  rectan- 
gular niclics,  see  Fiir.  105:  and  for  rectangular  aliernatiiis:  with  the  circular  nicho, 
see  Fiar.  104.  »  Dehio  und  Bezold :    Op.  ciL  ss.  .SI,  :?2.  »  Idem,  ss.  43,  44. 

*  Dcliio  und  Bezold:    Op.  rit.,  Ite  Lief.,  s.  24,  t.  1,  Fig.  10.  and  t.  IG,  Fig.  2. 

'  Hiibscii:   Op.  cit.,  I.  i,  Fig.  6.     Peret:  Les  Catacombes  de  Rome,  pp.  3G,  39, 


222 


ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 


§  4.    With  Niches  and  Columns. 

Most  of  the  circulai*  domical  forms  add,  however,  the  niches  and 
cohimns,  and  thus  pass  to  the  second  stage  of  development.  To 
this  general  class  may  be  referred  some  of  the  most  interesting 
Christian  architectural  monuments  of  the  first  six  centuries.     The 

prominent  features  of  the  class  are  likewise  met  in  the   ,,    ,    .  ^  .  . 

^  .  ,     ,         No  slavish  imi- 

pagan  monuments ;  but  to  claim  that  the  Christian  tation  of  hea- 
were  only  a  copy  or  slavish  imitation  of  the  heathen  then  buildings, 
structures  were  unhistorical  and  misleading.  While  it  is  evident 
that  the  Christian  baptisteries  and  burial  monuments  found  sugges- 
tions in  the  baths  and  sepulchral  monuments  of  the  classical  world, 
with  respect  to  this  as  to  other  branches  of  art  the  spirit  of  the 
new  religion  often  modified,  transformed,  and  adjusted  them  to  the 
needs  of  the  Cliurch. 

Fig.  104  is  the  groundplan  of  the  so  called  Temple  of  Romulus, 

son  of  Maxentius,  found  on 
the  Via  Appia,'  Rome. 
Here  are  found  the  cir- 
cular enclosing  Avail,  the 
niches  alternately  rectan- 
gular and  semicircular,  the 
portico  enclosing  the  area 
in  front,  etc.,  most  of  which 
elements  Avere  continued 
in  buildings  of  Christian 
origin. 

Prominent     among     the 

Christian   mon-    san     Giovanni 

uments  of  this  income. 
class    is  the   baptistery'  of 
the  Ecclesia  Ursiana,  in  Ra- 
venna,  now   known    under 
the  name  of  San  Giovanni 
in  Fonte.      It  is  an  octago- 
nal   building,    having    two 
entrances  and   four  niches 
or  tribunes.     The  whole  is 
covered  by  a  somewhat  flat- 
tened  dome.     The  interior   construction  and  decoration  are  note- 
worthy.     The  harmonious    arrangement  of  the  columns,  and  the 
spanning  of  larger  by  smaller  arches,  as  appears  in  the  second  story 
'  Caniua:    Via  Appia,  tav.  x,.pp.  77,  78. 


mm 

## 

mm 

mm 

•»#•## 

Fig.  104.— Temple  of  Romulus,  Via  Appia,  Rome. 
Groundplan. 


EAHI.Y   CHI{ISTIAN    AIRHITPXTURE.  21^ 

of  the  cxtt'rioi',  and  in  t lie  aiTaii-fcnifnt  for  tlic  support  of  llii'  dome 
in  tlio  second  stoiy  of  tin-  inliiior,  si'cni  like  a  proplieey  of  the 
(iothic  architeetuii';  while  the  form  of  the  capitals  and  many  minor 
dt'taiis  cli'arly  point  backward  to  an  earliiT  age  of  Greek  art.'  It 
has  two  stories.  The  lower  part  is  fovnu'd  hy  eight  pihisters  in  tlie 
an^rlcs,  which  are  connei-ti'<l  l»y  scmicircniar  arclies.  Tlie  walls  are 
liiu'd  with  slabs  of  porphyry  and  diffi-rent  colored  marl)les. 

Another  notable  monument  of  this  type  is  Santa  Maria  Rotonda,'' 
in  Kavenna,  called  also  the  mausolcnm  of  Theodoric.  gjmta  Maria 
It  differs  from  otiier  churches  of  Ravenna  in  being  built  R"t*"i<ii'- 
of  hewn  stone  instead  of  brit-k.  The  dome  is  thirty-three  feet  in 
diameter,  consisting  of  a  single  stone  of  more  than  forty-tive  hun- 
dred tons  weight.^  It  must  have  been  bronglit  frcnn  a  great  dis- 
tance by  water.'  It  is  a  work  of  high  art,  and  the  elevation  to  its 
place  is  a  good  proof  of  the  excelh'nt  engineering  of  that  age.^  The 
church  is  a  di'cagon  of  two  stories.  Oiie  half  of  the  lower  part  is 
now  under  water.  Each  side  of  the  exterior  is  relieved 
by  a  niche  produced  by  a  round  arch  that  spans  the  ni- 
termediate  space.  The  arches  are  built  of  dentated  stone,  which 
is  first  met  in  the  later  Roman  architecture,  but  afterward  became 
a  prominent  feature  of  the  Bvzantine  and  Arabian  art.  This  church 
has  given  rise  to  much  speculation  upon  the  influ-  Exrpptionai  ar- 
enc'.'s  under  which  it  was  built.  In  its  chief  members  ciiiii'iiitrau-ie- 
there  is  not  a  trace  of  the  Byzantine  style;  in  its  de- 
tails this  sometimes  appears;  while  in  some  features  it  reveals  a 
decidedly  Gothic  impress.  As  a  whole,  it  seems  to  stand  as  a 
l»rophecy  and  suggestion  of  tlie  style  which  rose  in  such  glory  and 
grandeur  live  hundred  years  later." 

In  this  class  must  also  be  reckoned  the  Church  of  St.  George  of 
Thcssalonica,'  the  modern  Salonika.     The  date  of  its  gt.  Geor?e  of 
erection  has  been  elsewhere  discussed  (y.  p.  110).      It  is   Thossaionica. 
a  biick  structure   of  more   than   seventy  feet   in   dianu'tcr,  having 

'  Qiiast:  Op.  rit.,  ss.  4,  5;  taf.  i.  Deliio  ii.  Bczold:  Die  kirchliche  Baukiinst  des 
Ahendland^s,  lie  Lief.,  s.  25;  t.  3,  Fij?.  9,  10;  taf.  37. 

'  Quast:  Op.  cit..  s.  5:  t,  i,  Fiyjs.  2,  3,  4.  Knglcr:  Gvschirlite  dtr  Buuknmt,  Bd.  i, 
<.  396.     Deliio  uiid  Bezold :    Op.  cit.,  Ito  Lief.,  s.  25;   t.  3,  Figs.  7,  8 ;  t.  37. 

*  Quasi:  Op.  cit.,  ss.  24-2G;  t.  vii,  Figs.  17-28.  P'Agincoiiri:  Architecture,  i>p. 
xviii  ami  .\x\ii.  Deliio  n.  Bezold:  0/).  n7.,  s.  25  ;  t.  3.  Figs.  0.  10.  Rahii :  luiveiuia, 
ss.  38.  .SI/. 

*  Quasi:   Op.  cit,  s.  24,  claims  tliat  it  was  broutrht  from  Istria. 

*  Kugler:    Op.  cit.,  Bd.  i,  s.  398.     H.  Gaily  Kuiglil:    Op.  cit.,  t.  viii. 
«  Quu.st :   Ojy.  cit.,  s.  25. 

^  Kugler:  Geschichte  der  Biukiinst,  Bd.  i,  9.  432.  Te.\ier  and  Pullaii :  X;//('-e5  By- 
zantines, plates  xxxi-x.xxiv.     linger:  lu  Ersch  u.  Gruler's  Encyclopcudia,  laf.  Ixixiv. 


224 


ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 


eight  rectangular,  chapel-like    niches  in  the  wall.     The  enclosing 

wall  is  nearly  twenty 
feet  thick,  but  in  the 
niches  it  is  reduced  by 
the  e  X  t  e  n  t  o  f  their 
depth.  One  of  the  niches 
opens  into  the  extended 
tribune,  while  another 
is  used  for  entrance  to 
the  church  (see  Fig.  1 05). 
About  the  middle  of  the 
perpendicular  height  the 
wall  is  set  back,  giv- 
ing the  impression  to 
the  visitor  that  a  cor- 
ridor is  thus  secured  on 
the  intei'ior  (v.  Fig.  106). 
In  outline  it  has  a  very 
striking  resemblance  to 
the  Roman  Pantheon, 
Its  rich  and  instructive 
mosaics  are  elsewhere 
described  (v.  pp.  116, 
117).  Like  most  sur- 
Fig.  105.— Groundplan  of  St.  George,  Thessalonica.  vivino-   churches   of    the 

East,  it  has  been  converted  into  a  Mohammedan  mosque. 


Fig.  106.— St.  George,  Thessalonica.    Exterior  view. 

In  passing  from  the  simple  rotunda,  with   rectangular  and  semi- 
circular niches,   to  that   further  expansion  of  the  central  style  in 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCIIITFXTURE. 


22.') 


wliich  1)y  a  more  widely  extendiMl  ciu'losiiii^  wall  an  added  space 
was  secured,  and  a  more  complex  construction  and  artistic  Third  siasc  ai 
arrangement  resulted,  we  are  brout^ht  to  the  examina-  (ievfi«MiDiini. 
tion  of  some  of  tlic  most  impressive  and  sii;nificant  churches  of  the 
first  seven  centuries.  Amonu^  these  San  V'itale  of  Iviuctina,  ami  S8. 
Scrij^ius  et  Bacchus  and  St.  Sophia  (llagia  Sofia)  of  (< instant inople, 
are  unrivalled.  They  are  nearly  (tonteniporaneous,  IjclonijinLif  to 
the  reii^ni  of  Justinian,  in  the  first  half  of  the  sixth  t-entury. 


V'.yi-  107.— 6an  Vitalf,  liuveiina.    hiU^rior  view. 

San  Yitalo  was  botrun   in  A.  D.  o-J6,  and  dedicated  in  A.  D.  547. 

It  is  an  octatjonal  buildini;  about   one  hundrc(l  and  two 

,.       ■  .  ,  '    .,  .,  ,  ,  San  Vitale. 

fi'ct  in  diauK'ter,  with  a  tribune  trilateral  on  tiie  exte- 
rior, but  si'iniciri'ular  on  the  interior.  The  second  story  forms  an 
arcade  sui»ported  by  pillars  and  pilasters  below  (r.  V\]f.  1()7);  above 
'.he  pilasters  and  the  arches  restins^  upon  them  the  ddine  rose  to  the 
lieight  of  nearly  eiGfhty  feet.  Some  writers  liave  lield  that  San 
Vitale,  and  San  Marco  at  Venice  as  well,  are  merely  di-  ^ot  a  ropy  of 
niinutive  imitations  of  St.  Sophia  at  Constantinople;  but  Sun  Mim-o. 
the  resemblances  between  San  Vitale  and  San  Marco  are  not  such 
15 


226 


ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 


as  to  jiistif}^  their  reference  to  a  common  model.  In  groundplan,  in- 
terior arrangement,  and  roof  construction  they  differ  very  widely. 
San  Vitale  is  octagonal  and  two-storied ;  San  Marco  is  in  the  form  of 
the  Greek  cross  and  without  galleries.  San  Vitale  groups  the  cen- 
tral spaces  into  one  which  is  covered  by  a  central  dome,  rising  high 
above  the  other  parts  of  the  structure;  San  Marco,  on  the  contrarj^ 
has  five  depressed  domes,  above  each  arm  of  the  cross,  and  over 
the  central  space  where  the  two  arms  intersect. 

On  careful  study  the  diversities  between  St.  Sophia  and  San  Vitale 
will  also  appear  so  great   as  to  set  aside   the   theory   ^or  of  st.  so- 
that  the  one  was  the  model  or  the  copy  of  the  other.   P^ia. 
Their   relation    is   onh^   that  of   the   three   most   noted   surviving 
examples  of  the  architecture  of  the  first  half  of  the  sixth  century.' 

The  long-extended  vestibule,  C, 
(Narthex  or  Ardica),  of  San  Vi- 
tale is  peculiar  to  irregularity  of 
this  church  (Fig.  groundpiau. 
108).  It  is  not  placed  opposite 
or  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of 
the  tribune,  as  is  usual  in  other 
churches,  but  makes  a  wide  de- 
parture from  the  regularity  of 
gi-oundplan  which  might  be  ex- 
pected. Many  conjectures  as 
to  the  reason  of  this  have  been 
made,  but  the  real  cause  is  un- 
known. The  exterior  of  the 
church  is  like  many  other  build- 
ings of  Ravenna,  of  brick  with 
thick  layers  of  mortar.  Most 
of  the  mosaics,  Avliich  formerly 
made  it  one  of  the  most  brilliant  in  Christendom,  have 
unfortunately  disappeared;  yet  the  descriptions  given 
by  the  historians  are  so  full  that  their  artistic  and  dogmatic  signifi- 
cance can  be  easily  determined. 

The  form  of  the  arches  supporting  the  dome,  as  well  as  the  col- 
umnar arrangement  of  the  second  story,  may  be  seen  from  the 
section  given  in  Fig.  109.  Likewise  the  style  of  the  capitals,  and 
the  rich  statuary,  arabesque,  and  mosaic  effects,  in  pavement  and 
ceiling,  making  the  interior  of  this  church  exceptionally  impressive, 

1  Quast:  Op.  at.  s  20.  C  uiipnrG  Fi,?.  108.  .frmunclplan  of  San  Vitale,  with  Fig. 
116,  groundplan  of  St.  Sophia;  the  section  of  San  Vitale,  Fig.  109,  with  that  of  St 
Sophia,  Fig.  117. 


Fifj.  108.— San  Vitale.    Groundplan. 


Mosaics  lost. 


228 


ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 


are  well  shown  in  Fis>s.  107,  109.  Tlie  contrast  between  this  church 
Contrast  with  ^^^*^^  ^^^^  Konum  basilica,  with  its  columns  of  varied  styles, 
Romau  basil-  lengths,  and  diameters,  is  very  marked.  "  Instead  of 
^°""  simple,  long-extended  right  lines,  here  is  found  an  artis- 

tic combination  of  numerous  curves,  which,  while  dej)arting  from 
different  centers,  nevertheless  complement  each  other  and  find  in 
the  dome  the  completest  centralization.  ...  In  all  this  labyrinthian 
arrangement  a  most  magnificent  effect  from  this  development  of 
forms  cannot  be  denied." '  The  church  was  begun  under  the  East 
Not  strictly  Gothic  supremac}'^,  and  finished  under  Byzantine;  it  is, 
Byzantine.  therefore,  generally  classified  under  the  head  of  Byzan- 
tine architecture.  The  propriety  of  such  classification  ma}^,  how- 
ever, be  reasonably  questioned,  since  neither  in  groundplan  nor 
elevation,  but  only  in  decorative  features,  does  it  seem  to  be 
accordant  with  the   Byzantine   style. ^      The  beaut}''  of   the   deco- 


Fig.  110.— rapital  from  San 
Vitale,  Raveuua. 


Fig.  m.-Capital  from  St.  Sophia, 
Constantinople. 


ration  of  the  churches  as  Avell  as  their  likeness  in  details  ma}^  be 
seen  by  comparing  the  capitals  of  columns  from  each  (v.  Figs.  110 
and  111). 

Nearly  contemporaiy  with  San  Vitale  is  SS.  Sergius  et  Bacchus 
ss.  Sergius  et  (Hagios  Sergios)  of  Constantinojile.'  Here,  too,  the 
Bacchus.  dome  rests  ujion  eight  immense  buttresses  connected 

together  in  the  lower  stoiy  by  a  richly  sculj^tured  entablature,  and 
in  the  second  by  arches.  At  the  four  corners  are  semicircular 
niches   (in  which  are  supporting   columns)    that   lead   into  rooms 

'  Schnaase:    Geschichte  chr  Bildende  K'dnste,  Ite  auH.,  Bd.  iii,  ps.  131,  132. 

^  Stockbauer:  Der  christlkhe  Kirclienhau.  s.  89. 

3  Dehio  u.  Bezold:  Op.  cit,  Ite  Lief.,  ss.  28,  29,  taf.  4,  Fi.ijs.  5.  6.  Stockbauer: 
Op.  cit,  s.  90.  Kusler:  Op.  cit,  Bd.  i,  ss.  420-i22.  Salzeubcrg:  AU-christliche 
Baudenkmale  v.  Constantinople. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN    ARCHITKCTURE. 


00() 


bounded  by  tlie  exterior  wall  (y.   Fii^.    1 1-^),  whii-h   is  qnadi-.iTiir»ilai- 

instead  of  oetagoiial,  as  in  San   \'ilale.      Upon   ll»c  interior  faei- 

of  the  entablature,  extendin<j 

around    (lie    entire     nave,    is 

a  fulsome  inseription  to  Jus- 
tinian, and  to  the  martyrs  Ser- 
ial us   and    IJaeeluis,  wlio  were 

in  liii^h  rejMite  ain()nii;the  Dar- 

daniansand  Illyrians.     In  the 

arrangement   of  the    ground- 
plan   and   of    the 

iiency   to   tin-   vaulted   Spaces, 

Byzantine.         ^,,^  characteristic 

development  of  the  Byzantine 

school  is  already  noticed;  Imt 

on    careful    study    of    details 

antique    elcnu'iits     are    found 

to  pretlominate,   so  that   tliis 

church  nnist   be   regarded   as 

l)eIonging    to    tlie    transition 

period  of  architecture  in  the  Greek  Empire.' 

This  form  of  the  Christian  church  docs  not  differ  very  witlcly 
from  some  pagan  buildings.  Fig.  ll;{  is 
the  representation  of  a  hall  in  an  ancient 
Roman  palace.  Here,  too,  the  altern.-ition 
in  the  interior  of  the  rectangular  with  the 
semicircular  niclie,  and  the  enclosure  of  the 
whole  by  a  strong  rectangular  wall,  are  so 
nearly  like  the  arrangement  of  SS.  Sergius 
iitr.  n.i-naii  ill  aiioicnt  <-'t  Bacchus  as  to  suggest  the  same  general 

Uiiiiian  piilaci'.    To  compare    ^+^1,.  ' 
with  SS-SerRliis  and  Baccbus.    '    J 


•r^'liisiiinl  r.;ici  luis,  Constantituiple. 
(iruiiuilplaii. 


§5.    Bt/zantinc  Architecture. 

The  removal  of  the  capital  of  the  Roman  Empire  to  r>y7.antium 

must  be  accounted  among  the  epoch-making  events  of  history.     All 

the   secret  motives    inHiiencing    Constantim*   to  this  decision   may 

„  ,         not   be   known;    some    arc,    however,    well    understood. 

Reasons  of  re-  .       _     _  _        ' 

movaiot  capi-  Heathen   and    C'hiistian    prophecies  alike  had   foretold 
^''  the  approaching  downfall  of  Rome;  the  Trojan  coasts 

were    the    fabled    native    home    <>f    the    l^onian     people;    only    by 

'  Salzonheror:  Text.  aa.  41-45,  Bla'l  v.      Op.  ciL,  Text,  ss.  43,  45. 
*  Stockbauer:  Der  chrhlUchen  Kirchenbau,  s.  90. 


2C0  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

residence  in  the  East  could  tlie  complete  overthrow  of  his  rival, 
Licinius,  be  effected.  The  beauty  of  the  situation  of  Byzantium 
was  proverbial,  and  its  military  and  strategical  importance  man- 
ifest. In  the  East  were  the  sacred  seats,  the  holiest  traditions,  the 
ablest  defenders,  and  the  richest  doctrinal  development  of  the  new  re- 
ligion which  he  had  befriended.  The  Oriental  luxury  and  magnifi- 
cence were  to  him  most  agreeable,  and  the  absolutism  of  the  East, 
unchecked  even  by  the  feeble  apology  for  a  Roman  senate,  com- 
ported best  with  Constantine's  imperious  nature.  The  principle  of 
centralization  was  the  kernel  and  essence  of  his  empire.  He  would 
establish  a  new  court  in  a  place  free  from  hoarj'^  traditions  and  un- 
polluted by  the  crimes  of  a  thousand  j^ears  of  bitter 
struggle.  The  strange  commingling  of  Christian  and 
heathen  elements  in  the  new^  capital  was  only  the  visible  symbol  of 
the  religious  belief  and  character  of  its  great  founder.  Pagan  at 
heart,  and  little  acquainted  with  the  central  truth  of  the  Christian 
system,  he  nevertheless  saw  in  it  the  promise  of  perpetuity.  In  the 
center  of  the  forum  was  set  up  the  noted  porphyry  column,  crowned 
with  the  statue  of  the  all-conquenng  Phidian  Apollo,  and  around  it 
were  clustered  the  gods  of  paganism.  Here,  too,  was  seen  the  statue 
of  the  goddess  of  fortune,  on  whose  head  was  placed  the  cross 
of  Christ,  and  at  whose  dedication  the  people  sang  the  Kyrle  HJlei- 
son.  Opposite  to  this,  the  double  statue  of  the  emperor  and  his 
mother  Helena  bore  a  cross  with  the  inscription,  "  One  is  holy,  one 
is  the  Lord  Christ,  to  the  glory  of  God  the  Father: "  but  in  the 
middle  of  the  cross,  amidst  forms  of  incantation,  Avas  again  affixed 
the  image  of  Fortune.  To  her,  to  Rhea,  mother  of  the  gods,  to 
Castor  and  Pollux,  temples  were  erected,  as  well  as  Christian 
churches  in  great  number  and  magnificence.  The  art  treasures  of 
the  world  were  collected  to  adorn  the  public  squares  and  buildings, 
thus  making  Constantinople  at  the  same  time  a  rich  museum  of 
ancient,  and  a  cradle  of  Christian,  art.' 

The  western  mind  was  mostly  occupied  with  the  consideration  of 
Contrast  of  poetical  questions  of  life.  The  customs  and  morals  of 
East  and  West,  the  people  were  considered;  the  forces  that  measured 
and  controlled  these  were  carefully  estimated.  The  Oriental  mind, 
on  the  contrary,  was  occupied  with  questions  of  dogma  and  abstract 
speculation.  It  did  not  aim  so  much  to  elevate  the  masses  of  the 
people;  rather  by  mingling  the  mysteries  of  religion  with  the 
everyday  affairs  of  life  it  educated  the  populace  to  the  grossest 

'Carriere:  Die  Kunst  im  Zusammenhang  der  Culturentwickelung  und  die  Ideate  der 
jl/ewsc/i/m<,  Bd.  iii,  ss.  113,  114.  Gibbon:  Decline  and  Fall,  ch&^.  x\\\.  Salzenberg: 
Alt-chrisiliche  Baudenkmale  von  CoTistantinople,  ss.  I-IO. 


EAKLY    CIIKISTIAN    AU(  IIITHCTUUE.  2:51 

siiporstitioii.  'VUv  stroma  coiiunon  sense  Socratic  pliilosophy,  wliich 
li:ul  rc'coyiiized  the  di<^iuly  and  tlie  responsibility  ol  tin;  indi- 
\  idual,  had  been  lar<i;ely  siipplanted  by  the  system  of  Neo-Phiton- 
isni,  in  which  the  unity  ol"  liu-  universe  more  than  the  freedom  and 
selfhood  of  the  individual  was  made  pnjminent.  A  littk;  later  the 
spirit  of  Orii'iitalism,  whieh  had  more  or  less  affected  the  entire 
Roman  world,  became  dominant  in  the  Byzantine  Empire. 

Wiihtlie  absolutism   of   ini|)(iial   power  necessarily  resulted  tl»e 
decline  of  individual  riLchts.      The  idea  of  i)ersonal  frec- 

,  ,      ,  ,        r  1-1  1-  Evil  results. 

dom,  and  the  wortii  or  man  as  man,  wliicli  was  a  rulint^ 
element  aiuoiii;  the  Teutonic  peo])K'S,  wellni^'h  dicfl  ont.  Banish- 
ments, imprisonments,  tortures,  and  death  were  indicted  at  tlie  mere 
ea})rice  of  the  sovercitjn.  Hence  all  tended  toward  stai^nation  and 
death.  After  a  sleej)  of  a  thousand  years  the  (Orient  remained  cold 
and  lifeless,  while  the  West  had  been  lieaving  witli  the  throes  of  a 
new  and  progressive  life. 

This  dark  picture  of  the  liyzantine   Empire   is,  however,  relieved 
by  a  few^  briy^ht   li<ilits.      Her  ijood  ofhces  to  the  world    „  ,    ,, 

•'  .  .  Valuable    scr- 

were  neither  few  noi"  unimportant.  She  preserved  the  vices  to  dvii- 
thous^lit  of  unity  in  government,  which  exerted  a  strong  ^i*"""- 
and  salutary  inHuence  U])oJi  the  susceptible  (Tcrman  peoples,  and 
gave  to  them  the  true  idea  of  nationality.  Through  her  best 
ruler,  Justinian,  she  becpieathed  to  the  world  the  body  of  coditiod 
law  which  has  powerfully  iuHuenced  the  jurisprudence  of  Europe 
even  to  the  present  hour.  Througli  all  the  centuries  of  her 
insensibility  and  sloth  Constantinople  was  the  museum  where 
were  collected  and  preserved  to  later  times  most  precious  treasures 
of  ancient  art  and  literatuiv,  which  the  crusades  were  to  diffuse 
throughout  the  West  to  enkindle  a  new  life  and  stimulate  to  higher 
endeavor. 

But  the  decadence  of  n.orals  and  of  art  was  already  so  great 
that  the  attempts  of  Constantine  to  found  schools  for  the  educa- 
tion of  skilled  architects  proved  only  partially  successful.  Dpcay  of  art 
From  this  time  Christian  art  in  the  Orient  came  under  oripinaiuy. 
the  control  and  guiihuu'e  of  nn  imperialism  in  state  and  Church,  and 
crystallized  into  a  fixedness  of  type  that  has  l)een  pi'ri)etuated  t<»  the 
present  day,  A  pomp  ami  stateliness,  a  sj)lendor  and  even  gaudiness 
in  art, were  only  the  reflex  of  a  like  character  in  the  imperial  state. 
Religion  was  no  longer  a  n\atter  of  conscience  and  of  the  inner  life 
of  tlu'  individual,  but  of  state  authority  and  dictation.  The  sym- 
bols of  faith  were  largely  the  creatures  of  the  government,  and  th(^ 
bishops  were  servants  of  tin-  state.  Instead  of  the  former  apotheosis 
of  the  deceased  emperors,  u  divinity  was  made  to  attach  to  the  living 


232  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   AET, 

ruler.  Into  his  presence  the  subject  must  approach  with  signs  of 
deepest  veneration.  The  stately  ceremonial  of  the  court  awed  the 
visitor.  Costliness  took  the  place  of  classic  forms  and  art  istic  beauty. 
Freedom  had  died,  and  with  her  departed  the  soul  and  inspiration 
of  art. 

The  principle  of  centralization  found  its  best  expression  in  the 
strictly  Byzantine  architecture.  It  completed  what  the  Roman 
Byzantine  basilica  had  suggested  and  attempted.  Around  a  cen- 
effect^*^'of"\he  ^^^^  member  was  grouped  the  entire  structure  in  essen- 
orientai  spirit,  tial  unity.  Every  subordinate  part  pointed  toward  the 
dome,  which  ci"owns  the  middle  of  the  Greek  cross,  as  to  the  imperial 
governing  power  of  the  whole.  The  strengthening  Orientalism  caused 
the  architecture  more  and  more  to  depart  from  the  simplicity  and 
unity  of  the  early  Greek,  and  thus  was  developed  a  style  which  may 
be  truly  called  Byzantine. 

The  history  of  Byzantine  architecture  is  usually  divided  into  two 
Two  bistoric  distinct  periods.  The  first  begins  with  the  reign  of 
periods.  Coustantine  and  closes  with  the  rule  of  Justinian,  about 

the  middle  of  the  sixth  century.  The  second  extends  from  the  reign 
of  Justinian  to  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century,  or  to  the  first 
revival  of  art  through  the  influence  of  Cimabue.     Dui-ing  the  latter 

I.   „^  „         f  period  art  forms  were  cast  in  an  iinchanaring^  mould.     In 

rixeciness      or    i  o     o 

art  forms  in  the  eastern  provinces  they  became  still  more  contami- 
secomi  period.  ^^^^^^^  ^^^^  Oriental  influences;  while  in  some  parts  of 
the  West  new  forces  efllected  slight  modifications  of  the  original 
type.  It  has  already  been  noticed  (y.  p.  197)  that  in  the  first  period 
most  of  the  churches  of  the  Orient  preserved  the  Roman  style  of 
the  basilica,  excepting  the  open  rafter  work  and  ornamentation  of 
the  ceiling.  In  a  few  instances  the  intersection  of  the  main  nave  and 
transept  had  been  surmounted  by  a  small  cupola,  but  gradually  this 
was  developed  into  the  complete  and  imposing  dome  structure  cov- 
ering a  square  area:  this  is  the  distinctive  feature  of  the  later  Byz- 
antine architecture.  From  the  age  of  Justinian  this  was  the  pre- 
vailing style  in  the  Eastern  Empire,  while  in  the  West  the  tower 
Avas  developed  to  produce  a  like  effect  in  the  Romanesque  and 
Gothic  churches.'  We  have  already  met  this  form  and  growth  in  the 
churches  of  Ravenna.  The  perfection  of  Byzantine  architecture 
was,  however,  first  attained  in  the  Church  of  St.  Sophia.  It  fur- 
nished a  model  for  all  the  subsequent  churches  of  the  East.  Tlie 
Reason  of  iin-  history  of  the  empire  furnishes  an  easy  solution  of  this 
mobility.  f;^et.     After  Justinian,  stagnation  and  decay  character- 

ized the  Eastern   civilization.     All  turned  backward  to  uis  reign  as 
'  Salzenburg:    Op.  ciL  ss.  14,  15. 


EARFA'   CIIIUSTIAN    ARCHITECTURE. 


233 


St.  Sophia. 


to  the  cjoldon  aixc  i\ii  «';irlii'r  Cliurcli  of  St.  Sopliia,  luiilt  liv 
C'oiistantiiK',  luul  Ihtii  CKiisiiiiiod  \>y  Wrr  (luriiii;  a  jiopii- 
lar  ujtrisiiiL;:.  For  its  rc-huildiiiL;'  .Iiistiiiiaii  drt-w  upon 
llie  R'sourct's  of  the  t'litiiv  (.'m|iiiH'.  Tlic  jtlauiiiiiLC  and  creation 
were  entrusted  to  the  two  most  note(l  architects  of  tlie  atje, 
Isodore  of  Miletus  and  Anthiniius  of  Tralles.  It  is  claimed  by 
a  class  of  writers  on  tlie  history  of  architecture,  and  by  some 
arch  urologists,'  that  these  wise  architects  had  clearly  in  mind  the 


Flp.  114,— Section  of  St.  Sophia.    To  compare  with  the  Basilica  uf  t'oiistaiuiiie,  Koim.-. 

Cluirch  of  SS.  Sergius  et  Bacchus, and  the  so-called  Basilica  of  Con- 
st antine  at  Rome,  as  models  for  their  great  work.  By  careful  eom- 
]iaiison  of  Fig.  112  with  Fig.  110,  and  Fig.  114  with  Fig.  115,  the 
]ioints  of  resemblance  will  be  apparent.  The  general  division  of 
the  enclosed  space  into  nine  parts,  the  use  of  strong  buttresses  to 
support  the  domed  coverings  and  provide  against  the  lateral  thrust, 

•  V.  Stockbauer:    Op.  cit.,  ss.  92,  93,  taf.  v,  Figs.  2,  3,  4,  5.     Dcliio  u.  BozoKl:    Op. 
cit.,  83.  29,  30,  taf.  G,  Fig.  1 :  taf.  39,  Fig.  U. 


234 


ARCHAEOLOGY   OF    CHRISTIAN   ART. 


the  unification  of  the  three  middle  compartments  into  one  grand  and 
most  imposing  room,  etc.,  are  some  elements  of  likeness  in  these 
buildings.  Doubtless,  however,  the  erection  of  one  imposing  dome, 
supported  by  four  massive  buttresses,  over  a  square  space,  is  a  new 
departure,  and  places  upon  St.  Sophia  the  stamp  of  originality. 

The  traditions  connected  with  the  building  of  this  most  noted 
Difficulty  of  the  cliurch  are  numerous  and  interesting.  The  problems 
v^'jrk.  to  be  solved  in  the  suspension  of  a  dome  one  hundred 

feet   in  diameter    a    hundred  feet  in   midair  were    most    difficult. 


Fig.  115.— Section  of  the  Basilica  of  Coustaatine,  Rome.    To  compare  with  St.  Sophia,  Constan- 
tinople. 

The  enormous  weight  was  a  serious  obstacle  to  the  architects  of 
that  day.  The  reputed  revelations  in  dreams,  the  discovery  of 
bricks  in  the  island  of  Rhodes  of  one  fifth  of  the  ordinaiy  weight, 
etc.,  are  only  evidences  of  the  perplexities  felt  by  Justinian  and  his 
architects.  But  the  greatest  cause  of  Avonder,  even  to  builders  of 
modern  times,  is  the  completion  of  this  church  in  the  incredibly 
short  space  of  six  years.  It  was  a  wonder  to  every  beholder,  and  re- 
mains to  our  day  in  many  respects  the  most  remarkable  architectural 


EARLY   CHIilSTIAN    ARCHITECTURE.  2.ir, 

monument  of  CliristtMidoni.  Since  its  tr;insfonn;itioii  into  ji  Turkish 
mosque,  on  the  downfall  of  ConstantinopU'  in  145.'J,  it  has  lost  niucli 
of  its  original  magnificence.  Mohamme«hin  zeal  against  images  in 
their  sacred  jilaces  led  to  the  attempt  to  destroy  the  ui-facemunt  of 
splendid  mosaics  which  had  been  i»resi'rved  in  nmch  "kkwIim- 
of  their  original  integrity,  liiii  happily  tlu'se  havi-  l»een  carefully 
measured  and  copied,  so  that  we  have  the  means  <^f  c()m|)aring  this 
building  and  its  decorations  with  the  descriptions  fouml  in  the 
Byzantine  writers.' 

As  before  remarked  (p.  '21VS),  the  Church  of  St.  Sophia,  built 
by  Constantine,  had  been  burned  in  A.  D.  532,  during  a  fearful 
conflagration  oiiginating  in  a  ])opuIar  outbreak  between  rival 
factions.  Justinian  resolved  to  rebuild  it  on  a  scale  of  magnifi- 
ceiu-e  Morthy  the  first  temple  of  Christendom.  A  man  of  c-om- 
prelu'iisivc  plans,  he  was  also  possessed  of  a  rare  practical  talent  to 
secure  the  means  of  their  accomplishment.  Tradition  says  that  the 
plans  were  ready  within  forty  days  after  the  destruction  vast  pn-pura- 
of  the  first  church.  To  the  governors  of  the  provinces  t'""'*- 
the  emperor  issued  edicts  to  procure  the  most  costly  materials  for 
this  work.  To  beautify  this  churcli  pagan  temples  in  Asia  Minor 
and  Greece  were  plundered  of  their  ricliest  art  treasures."  The  his- 
torians tell  us  that  all  the  available  revenues  of  the  empire  were  laid 
under  contribution,  and  many  new  taxes  were  aftei'ward  levied  foi 
its  completion.  To  make  the  building  tirepr<)()f  was  one  of  the  first 
conditions  imposed  upon  the  architects.  An  imnu'usi'  number  of 
workmen  were  employed.''  Justinian  himself,  by  daily  visitations, 
and  by  encouragements  or  rebukes,  pushed  on  the  work  witli  sncli 
marvelous  rapidity  that  it  was  dedicated  in  December,  537  A.  I). 

The  dangers  from  fire  had  been  averted,  but  those  from  another 
source  had  not  been  foreseen.    Twenty-two  years  after  its  dedication 

'  Oue  of  tlio  best  autlioritio.s  on  tlie  Byzantine  nrchiteclnrt',  as  it  lias  been  pre- 
served t<5  our  time,  is  Saizenberjr,  W. :  Alt-christtiche  Baudenkmale  von  Constimtinople 
vom  V bis  XII  Jalirltundert.  Berlin,  1854.  On  the  occasion  of  the  extensive  repair.i 
of  liie  Clmrcli  of  St.  Sopiiia  in  1847-i8,  tlie  Prussian  government  look  occasion  to 
ilespatcii  Sulzenberg  to  Const:inlinople  to  make  careful  dra\vin,u;s  and  take  accurate 
measurements  of  this  church.  Fortunately  tlie  celebrated  architect,  Fossati,  was 
superintending  those  repairs,  ami  gave  to  Salzeiil)erg  every  aid  to  complete  his  work 
The  extensive  scaftbldings,  reaching  to  the  hiirhest  point  of  the  dome,  gave  opportu- 
nity to  make  all  necessary  measurements,  and  the  removal  of  the  thick  coats  of 
whitewash  revealed  the  mosaics  in  all  their  original  maguitictmce.  Thus  has  been 
preserved  a  complete  descriptiou  of  the  t'onns  and  intoritji  decorations  of  this  mug- 
niliccnt  church. 

'  Salzoiiberg:    Op.  ci(.,  s.  46.     liibbon  :   DecUw  and  Fall,  chap.  xl. 

'  The  Byzantine  chroniclers  claim  that  ten  ihousaud  were  thus  employed. 


336  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 

portions  of  the  dome  and  of  the  furniture  of  the  church  were  ruined 
Injury  by  ^^Y  ^^^  earthquake.  Justinian  hastened  to  strengthen 
eartbquake.  the  supports,  elevated  the  dome  about  twenty-five  feet, 
renovated  the  interior,  and  witliin  five  3^ears  the  church  was  rededi- 
cated.  For  thirteen  centuries  it  has  stood  uninjured  by  repeated 
shocks  of  earthquakes  which  have  toppled  many  other  structures  to 
ruins. 

The  visitor  to  St.  Sophia  first  enters  the  fore-court  of  the  church, 
which  is  bounded  on  three  sides  by  a  row  of  columns, 

DGScriptiOQ. 

and  on  the  fourth  by  the  building  itself  (v.  Figs.  116, 

117).     Passing  by  the  fountain   in    the  middle  of    the   court,    he 

reaches  the  narthex,  the  place  for  the  penitents.     From  this  space 

five  marble  doors,  richly  decorated  with  bronze,  lead  into  a  second 

somewhat  more  extended  and  spacious  vestibule   having  vaulted 

ceilings  richly  adorned  with  variegated  marbles  and  mosaics.     Here 

the  sexes  separated.     The  women  proceeded  to  the  doors  on  either 

side  of  the  vestibule  that  opened  to  the  staircase  leading  to  the 

second  story.     This  was  called  the  gynoeceum,  because  exclusively 

set  apart  for  the  use  of  the  women.     The  men  passed  through  nine 

folding-doors  to  the  groundfloor  of  the  main  nave.' 

The  groundplan    of  this  church  is  nearly  square  (y.  Fig.  116). 

The  inner  lenofth,  exclusive  of  the  tribune,  is  234  feet, 
Dimensions.  ,,  ti^.^,^  ^  i- 

the  breadth  217  leet.      Over  the  central  portion  rises 

the  cupola  to  the  40  windows  in  the  cornice ;  and  thence  a 
dome  reaches  to  the  vertex,  about  180  feet  above  the  pavement 
below.  The  dome  is  supported  by  four  massive  arches  which 
spring  from  immense  buttresses.  Leading  east  and  west  from  the 
square  area  beneath  are  rooms  of  semicircular  outline,  to  each  of 
which  three  colossal  niches  are  connected.  These  immense  semicir- 
cular spaces  ai'e  covered  by  seraidomes,  which  partly  lean  upon  the 
main  arches  which  support  the  central  dome,  and  are  partly  sup- 
ported by  the  cylindrically  vaulted  ceiling  of  the  three  niches 
(y.  Fig.  117). 
The  two  side  niches,  called  exedra,  are  also  semicircular  and  cov- 
ered with  smaller  semidomes.^  The  two  center  niches 
have,  however,  cylindrically  vaulted  ceilings.  The 
east  one  terminates  in  a  semicircle,  covered  by  a  concha  which 
rises  from  the  enclosing  wall,  and  forms  the  apse  or  tribune.     All 

'  Sclmaase:   Ito  Aiifl.,  Bd.  iii,  ss.  137,  138. 

2  Distinction  must  be  made  in  the  plan  between  the  church  proper  and  the  annexed 
portions.     The  dome,  a  b,  covers  tlie  central  part  of  the  church  proper. 

3  The  arrangement  of  tlie  parts  of  this   remarkable  ^';/kUng-  cvn  be  understood  by 
frequent  reference  to  the  vertical  section  (Fig.  117). 


FlR.  116.— St.  Sophia.    Groundplan. 


11 


EARLY   rnRTSTTAX   ARr'TITTECTURE.  230 

of  those  spaces  taken  toilet  lu-r  form  the  udos,  or  temple  proper. 
IJetween  tliis  and  tlie  t'iich)sin<jf  walls  on  the  north  and  south  sides 
t'Xtend  the  two-storied  side  halls,  each  of  wliich  is  divided  int(j  three 

parts.      Four  colossal   pillars  furnish  tlii'  foundation  for 

-11  111111  Dome  support, 

the  arches  sup[)ortiULj  the  dome,  while  beiuud  these  to- 
ward the  north  and  south,  in  the  enclosing  wall,  are  four  buttresses 
connected  with  these  pillars  by  arches.  Uy  a  series  of  buttresses 
and  connectiuf;  arches  firm  suj)ports  are  secured  for  the  conchas  and 
the  cylindrically  vaulti-d  ceilin<^s.  Thus  the  entire  buildin<r,  while 
iiossessin*"-  this  divi-rsitv  of  outline,  is  bound  tosjrether  into  a  lieauti- 
ful  and  haniionioiis  unity.  All  ceiliuLj  spaces  are  cylindric-al  or 
domed.  In  addition  to  the  enclosiiit^  walls  and  the  system  of  but- 
tresses these  are  supjjorted  in  the  lower  i)art  by  forty  cc^lumns  anrl 
eii^ht  free  pilasters;  in  the  upper  part  by  sixty  columns.' 

The    liijhtinoj   of   the    interior   of   St.   Sophia    is   very   brillianl. 
Wlierever  si)ace  and  safety  permit  are  placed  windows 

'  1       P  1      ,      ,  •  •  1  The  IIphlinR. 

m  ufreat  numi)ei'  and  or  marked  dimensions,  so  that  a 
flood  of  light  pours  through  them  into  the  house  of  God.'^  At  the 
base  of  the  central  dome  are  forty  windows,  and  each  of  the  li.ilf 
domes  has  five.  The  first  rays  of  the  morning  sun  stream  into  tlu' 
nave  through  the  six  large  windows  in  the  tribune,  while  the  setting 
sun,  shining  through  the  immense  seiiiicircular  window  over  the 
entrance  in  the  west,  bathes  the  wliole  interior  in  go. den  effulgence. 
Twelve  windows  a<lmit  the  light  through  the  arches  on  the  north, 
and  an  equal  number  on  the  south  diffuse  an  abundance  of  light 
throughout  the  lateral  halls  above  and  below.  There  is  evidence 
that  some  of  tne  window  sj)aces  existing  in  the  time  of  Procopius 
have  been  closed  by  masonry;  nevertheless,  the  present  mos(|ue  is 
verv  brilliantly  lighted.'     The  iniunction   of  Justinian 

*  •.'         C7  »i  p»i  r**i)  ro(  >f 

to  build  a  fireproof  church  was  most  carefully  heeded, 
even  in  the  arrangement  of  the  windows.      l>y  an   ingenious  and  ex- 
]»ensive  combination  of  brick  work  and  marble  plates  even  the  frame 
settings  of  the  windows  are  entirely  lacking  in  wood. 

The  imjiression  ma<le  upon  the  visitor  on  his  first  entrance  to  this 
church  is  that  of  vastness,  grandeur,  and  magnificence,  improssion 
The  eye  wanders  over  the  immense  nave,  peers  into  the  upon  tiu'  vis- 
atljacent  halls,  rests  upon  the  beautiful  gynecreum,  then 
is  lifted  to  the  enormous  dome  that  seems  to  float  in  mi<lair.  At 
every  stej)  new  beauties  are  revealeil.  The  richness  of  the  materials, 
and  the  completed  unity  in  the  midst  of  almost  infinite  diversity, 
entrance  the  beholder.  In  .Tustiniairs  time,  when  to  all  essentials 
of  the  structure  preserved  to  our  day  were  added  the  ri(di  adorn- 

'  Salzeiiberg:  ss.  53,  54,  55.         '  Salzcnberg:  s.  84.         *  Sal/.eiibeig:  Op.  nt.,  iil. 


340  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 

ments  of  the  liigh  altar,  tlie  beautiful  ambos,  the  sparkling  of  the 
vessels  of  gold  bedecked  with  gems,  the  gleaming  of  countless  can- 
delabra, the  splendour  of  the  garments  of  the  retinue  of  clergy 
and  helpers,  the  sonorous-voiced  priests  as  they  intoned  the  sublime 
ritual,  the  response  from  the  hundred-voiced  choir,  i:ollihg  through 
the  corridors  and  arches  like  the  voice  of  many  waters — the  wor- 
shiper must  have  been  impressed  that  this  was  a  temple  worthy  of 
dedication  to  the  Eternal  Wisdom,  and  one  where  his  Spirit  would 
delight  to  dwell. 

Of  the  unparalleled  richness  of  the  decorations  we  cannot  speak 
The  decora-  i'^  detail.  The  pavement  was  wrought  out  into  very 
^^^^^-  elaborate  and  beautiful  patterns  of  marble  mosaic.     The 

columns  were  of  the  richest  and  rarest  materials.  The  walls  were 
lined  with  slabs  of  marble  and  of  verde  antique  of  most  exquisite 
coloring.  The  walls  and  ceilings  in  the  great  dome  and  in  all  the 
adjacent  parts  were  enriched  with  mosaics  of  saints  of  colossal  size.' 

St.  Sophia  furnished  the  type  for  all  later  churches  of  the  Byz- 
A  type  for  antine  Empire.  It  brought  to  perfection  a  style  that 
chSrcbes'^of  ^^"  Strictly  be  called  unique.  The  whole  spirit  of  the 
the  East.  exterior  was  harmonious  with  the  theory  of  inperialism 

prevalent  in  the  Eastern  Empire  and  Church.  Art  was  pressed  into 
the  service  of  dogma.  It  crystallized  into  stiff  and  unchanging  types 
which  continued  in  the  Russian-Greek  churches  till  the  time  of 
Peter  the  Great. 

The  transformation  of  St.  Sophia  into  a  Mohammedan  mosque  left 
almost  unchanged  the  narthex,  the  nave,  the  side  halls,  and  the 
The  losses  to  gvnecoeum;  but  the  Other  portions,  especially  those  more 
the  church.  immediately  used  in  the  Christian  cultus,  have  been  en- 
tirely lost.  The  marble  railing  separating  the  clergy  from  the 
laity,  the  seats  of  the  priests,  the  throne  of  the  patriarch,  the  cibo- 
rium,  the  ambos,  and  all  the  utensils  of  the  church  have  perished. 
From  documents  still  extant  ^  we  learn  that  imder  Justinian  not 
less  than  five  hundred  and  twenty-five  persons  were  employed  in 
the  direct  service  of  this  church,  while  in  the  reign  of  Heraclius 
the  number  had  increased  to  six  hi;ndred.^  These  also  cared  for 
three  other  churches  of  the  capital. 

The  bema  i:)robably  extended  to  the  boi'der  of  the  eastern  half 
dome,  while  the  solea,  for  the  inferior  clergy,  occupied  the  entire 

'  V.  the  representation  of  tlie  great  mosaic  of  Ciirist  and  tlie  emperor  that  was 
wrought  out  over  the  grand  portal  (Fig.  44,  p.  129). 

^v.  Du  Cange:    Constant inoiwlis  Christiana,  lib.  iii,  p.  71. 

^Du  Cange:  iii,  71.  They  are  given  as  follows:  80  priests,  150  deacons,  40  dea- 
couesses,  70  subdeacons,  160  readers,  125  chanters,  75  doorlieepers. 


EAIU.Y    rilRISTIAN    AKriTITECTrRE. 


241 


spac'o  povcMvd  l>y  tilt'  ciisU'rii  concha.'  Tlic  ariihos  must  liave  utoofl 
still  fart luT  toward  the  west,  and  must  have  occupied  a  tiu;  arranci'- 
very  inomiiiciit  phici',  from  tlu'  fact  that  Iiere  the  »Scri|)-  infni of  paru. 
tures  were  read,  the  sermon  j)reached,  and  tlie  emperors  (U'owncfl. 
Near  by,  in  tiie  adjacent  spaces,  were  stationed  the  sinc^ors  under  the 
direction  of  leaders.  In  the  exedra,  toward  the  north  and  south,  were 
collected  the  deacons  wlio  were  to  assist  in  the  sacred  ministrations. 
The  sacred  table  of  gold,  inlaid  with  gems,  rested  on  golden  columns 
and  was  supplied  with  golden  furniture,''  Over  it  rose  the  beautifid 
ciboriiim  on  four  silver  columns,  between  which  were  spread  the 
lichly  (truanu'Mted  hangings.  'J'he  lofty  octagonal  ilome  above 
was  crowned  l)y  a  silver  globe  surmounted  by  the  cross.  From 
the  ceiling  of  the  ciboriuni  hung  the  silver  dove,  representing  the 
Holy  (xhost,  which  contained  the  sacred  elements  to  !);•  distributed 
among  the  sick.  From  the  description  of  Paulus  Silentiarius  we  in- 
fer that  the  accompaniments  of  candelabra,  lam])s,  and  halos  for  the 
illumination  of  this  church  must  have  been  iiicimiparably  rich  and 
imposing. 

§  ().    The  Circuhir  Structure. 

A   fourth   type  of  the  central  building  is  the  circular,  with  an 
inner   portico    which    surrounds    tlie    area   covered    by    the    dome. 


Fip.  lis.— Soclion  of  S;iiit;i  Constanza,  Rome. 

Few  churches  following  this  general  plan  were  erected    Santa   con- 
in  the  west  during  the  reign  of  Constant ine  the  (ireat.    '*''"'^"- 
The  most  typical  example  of  this  circular  architecture   from  the 

'  Paulus  Silentiarius:  i,  v.  2tft.  clc.     Evagrius:  Hist.  E>.d.,  lib.  iv,  c.  xxxi. 
'  Panlus  Silentiarius:  ii,  v.  335. 
10 


242 


ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 


fourtli  century  is  Santa  Constanza,'  on  the  Via  Nonientana  in  Rome 
(Fig.  118).  Tradition  says  it  occupies  the  site  of  a  foi-iner  Bacchus 
temple.  Its  rotunda  is  sixty-seven  feet  in  diameter.  Twenty-four 
columns  in  double  rows  support  the  dome  and  the  vaultings  of  the 
outer  corridor.  Here  the  sarcophagus "  of  Constantia,  the  daughter 
of  Constant ine,  was  formerly  preserved.  It  seems  probable  that 
the  entire  building  was  once  used  as  a  mausoleum  to  the  imperial 
Marks  atransi-  family,  rather  than  as  a  temple  to  Bacchus.'  This  build- 
•■i**"-  ing  marks  a  transition  from  the  classic  to  the  mediaeval 

spirit.  The  degeneracy  of  the  old  is  apparent,  while  at  the  same 
time  elements  are  here  introduced  which  play  a  most  important  part 
in  the  development  of  Christian  architecture.* 


Fif?.  n9.--Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  Nocera  de  Pagaui.  Vertical  section. 

Of   somewhat    similar  arrangement  is   the  church    Santa   Maria 
Santa     Maria   Maggiore,  in  Nocera  de  Pagani,  near  Naples  (Fig.  119). 
Maggiore     in   This  also  seems  to  belong  to  the  fourth  century.     It  is 
^^^^'  a  baptistery  of  sixteen  sides.     Tlie  central  domed  space 

is  thirty-five  feet  in  diameter,  while  that  of  the  entire  building  is 
seventy-three  feet.  While  its  exterior  is  wanting  in  attractiveness, 
the  interior  nevertheless  makes  upon  the  mind  of  the  visitor  "an 
impression  of  the  fullness  of  mj'-stery  in  which  the  church  of  that 

'  Ciampini :    Vd-era  Monimenta,  Tom.  i,  Tnh.  i,  etc.     Kugler:    Geschichted.  Baukunst, 
"Bd.  i,  ss.  327,  :!28.     Dehio  n.  Bezoid :  Op.  at.,  .s.  34,  Taf.  8,  Fig.  1,  2. 
'Now  in  the  Viitican  Museum. 
^Fi'irster:  Mittel  u.  Unter  Kalien,  s.  250. 
^Kugler:   0/-.  aX,  Bd.  i,  s.  328. 


hWilA     ClIKlsriAN    AIU'III  TKCTriU:.  24S 

1  criod  must  vit-  with  t\\v  (IccriyiiiLC  spk-iidor  of  licatlu'M  t»Mn|tl»;n 
:ii\(l  shriiK's." '  Wliilr  ^n)ii|teMl  in  the  smiiic  class  as  Santa  ('<>i\- 
stanza,  tliis  liuil<linij^  diiriTs  Iioim  it  in  many  t'ssi-ntial  foatuivs,  in 
x.mc  respects  licin^,^  (juilc  closely  allied  to  San  Vitale  of  Ravenna.'' 

A  third  example  of  this  architectural  type  is  the  baptisteiy  of  San 
(Jiovanni  in  Latcrano  in  llome.^  Tra<lition  attrihutes  the  foiunia- 
tionto  Constantine  I.,  hut  it  is  hi<,ddy  prohahle  that  the  huildin<,' was 
erected  by  Sixtus  I II.,  in  the  first  half  of  the  fifth  century.  Do  Fleury 
arniiesthis  from  its  architectural  features.  V]\'j;]\\  columns  support 
an  i'ntal)lature  up(»n  which  rests  a  seccnnl  si-ries  of  columns,  by 
which  the  dome  is  supp<»rted.  J>etween  the  central  space  and  the 
enclosino-  wall  is  a  broad  passage-way  which  is  lio;hti'd  l)y  windows 
placed  in  the  lower  section  of  the  .lome.  While  much  pertaining 
to  this  baptistery  is  conjectural,  it  is  nevertheless  fairly  well  estab- 
lished that  the  main  features  were  as  here  represented.  The  general 
custom  of  devoting  a  separate  l)uilding  to  the  celebration  of  this  in- 
itiative rite  of  the  Christian  Church  is  here  illustrated. 

The  diversity  of  oi)inion  relative  to  the  connection  and  reciprocal 
influence  of  eastern  and  western  architectural  principles  san  stefam.  ro- 
is  very  manifest  in  the  case  of  San  Stefano  rotondo,^  of  ^■""'^"• 
Rome.  "  It  is  an  enigma  in  the  architectural  history  of  Rome'' 
(I)ehio  u.  Bezold).  Hy  some  it  has  ])een  regarded  as  a  transforma- 
tion of  an  earlier  temjtle  of  Vesta;  by  others  (specially  by  some  of 
the  French  arclueologists)  as  an  apartment  of  the  grand  market  of 
Nero;  by  still  others  (Bunsen)  as  an  original  churcli,  while  others 
(IlUbsch)  regard  it  as  a  most  striking  jiroof  of  the  inventive  genius 
of  the  early  Christian  architects.  While  lacking  dc-  i-nceruunty  of 
nionstrative  evidence  the  opinion  is  nevertheless  fairly  "'■ipin. 
established  that  it  originated  in  the  fifth  century,  probably  in  the 
reign  of  Theodosius  the  Great,  just  i)rior  to  the  Roman  downfall. 
It  likewise  j)ossesses  elements  allying  it  to  the  central  buildings  of 
the  Orient  which  originated  in  the  reign  of  Constantine  I.  Just 
to  what  extent  the  liturgical  needs  of  the  Church  influeiu-eil  its 
Peculiar  construction  may  not  be  fully  determineil.  protx-r ciiussiii- 
Certainly  its  arrangement  of  concentric  circles  in  con-  <'!"i<">- 
nection  with  two  perjx'ndicnlar  axes  justifies  its  classification  under 
the  head  of  central  domical  buildings.* 

'  Burckhardt :   Cicerone,  s.  89. 

» Deliio  u.  Bezolfi:    Op.  cit.,  Ite.  Lief.,  ss.  34,  .IS,  Taf.  8,  Fip.  ."?,  4. 

'  Rohanli  de  Fleury :  Ia;  Latrran.  pi.  7,  Fig.  3,  4.  Buii.scn  :  Die  Basiliken  (Us 
chrustlidien  Jiom.s,  Taf.  xxxvii.     Dcliio  n.  Bezold :    Op.  cit.,  RS.  34,  35,  Taf.  8,  V'ur.  ■'>.  4. 

*Ferptis8on:  /fi.story  of  Archittctnrf.  Bnn.seu:  lie.schi'-ihuiK/  d.  Stadl  lioms,  iii. 
DieBaMlikend.  Christ.   Kom.s,  Ti\f.  xix.  B.  C.     Hiil)sch  :   Die  all-cliristlic/ie  KircJien. 

»  Deliio  u.  Bczcld:    Op.  cil.,  8.  41,  Trtf.  11,  Fig.  1,  2. 


244 


ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 


Among  other  noted  churches  of  this  class  may  be  mentioned  the 
Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  at  Jerusalem,  and  the  Church  of  the 
Ascension,  on  the  Mount  of  Olives,  both  from  the  Constantinian 
period.  Unfortunately,  they  are  known  only  through  the  descrip- 
tions of  the  historians.  An  example  of  the  purest  Byzantine 
style,  wrought  out  by  Byzantine  artists,  yet  for  Mohammedan  uses, 
is  the  Mosque  of  Omar,  at  Jerusalem,  built  on  the  site  of  Solomon's 
temple.  It  belongs  to  the  seventh  century.  It  is  the  finest  example 
of  the  central  structure  that  has  been  preserved,  and  ranks  among 
the  most  impressive  sacred  buildings  of  the  world,  not  from  its  vast- 
ness,  but  from  the  purity  of  its  style  and  the  intense  interest  associ- 
ated Avitli  its  site.' 

§  7.    The  (Jrucifm-m,  Buildings. 

A  fifth  class  of  central  buildings  of  the  early  Christian  centuries 
is  the  cruciform.  They  were  at  first 
mostly  with  equal  arms — the  Latin  form 
of  the  cross  being  later  introduced  into 
the  oblong  basilica  through  the  develop- 
ment of  the  transept.  Christian  struc- 
tures in  the  general  form  of  the  Greek 
cross  were  commonly  used  for  burial 
chapels.  Like  forms  are  met  in  build- 
ings of  pagan  origin,  and  devoted  to  like 
purposes;  yet  it  is  most  probable  that  the 
Christian  Churcli  first  attached  to  the 
form  of  the  cross  a  deep  religious  signifi- 
cance, and  found  it  especially  adapted  to 
the  purposes  of  public  worship. 

The  Church  of  SS.  Nazareo  e  Celso,''  of 
Ravenna  (Figs.  120,  121),  is  a  good  exam- 
ple of  this  species  of  central  structure.  It 
was  the  burial  chapel  of  Galla  Placidia, 
and  is  still  among  the  most  instructive 
Fi£r.  120. -ss.  Nazareo  e  ceiso.    monuments  of   earlv  Christian  architec- 

Burial   Chapel   of    Galla   Placidia,  „      ^r,,        „  ,^     i  •  ^ 

Ravenna.    Groundplan.  turc.'      The    fate    of    this    WOmau,    whoSC 


'  The  controversies  respecting  the  origin,  location,  and  fate  of  the  bnildings  erected 
on  tliis  sacred  site  have  been  protracted,  and  at  times  passionate.  The  most  calm, 
tliorongh,  and  generally  satisfactory  examinations  have  been  made  by  the  Count  de 
Vogiie  in  his  Le  Temple  de  Jerusalem  and  Les  Ei/Uses  de  la  terre  sainte. 

'  M.  Oally  Knight:  Ojh  cit,  plate  vi.  Qnast :  Op.  cit.,  ss.  10-15,  tt.  ii-vi.  Dehio  u. 
Bezold:   Op.  cit,  .s.  45,  t.  12.  Fig.  4,  5. 

^The  cliurch  proper  is  the  Latin  cross,  the  upper  portion  of  the  figure;  the  other 
parts  show  the  gronndplan  of  buildings  connected  with  the  church. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN'    AltClIlTKCTrRi:. 


245 


fortuiu's  wt'iv  so  straiiLi'i'ly  loni.uitic,  cimint  \n'  estiibli.slicil  willi 
(•(im|tl(.'U'  hisloric  c-crlaiiity,  nor  lias  l\\v  tjiu-stioii  wlu'tlicr  slit*  dii'd 
ill  lloiiu'  or  Havc'iiiia  ht't'U  satisfactorily  (Icti'miiiu-d.  TIu'  fact  of 
iu'r  iiitcniu'iit  in  this  IjiiildiiiLT  is,  liowcvi'i-,  i,n'iu'rally  accepted, 
riic  magnitici'iit  interior,  uliieli  is  in  the  spirit  of  tlu-  truest  art, 
snifu;ests  the  inaiisoleuni  of  some  royal  persoiiaLCe,  and  indicates  a 
period  when  correct  art  j)rincij)les  had  not  yet  been  sup])lanted  ))y 
the  rudeness  of  a  later  barbarism.  Tlie  tj^roundplan  is  that  of  a 
Latin  cross  (y.  Fig.  li'O)  like  some  that  had  already  been  built  in 
ixome  and  in  the  Orient;  but  it  is  note-worthy  that  this  is  the 
oldest  existiiii^  church  in  which  the  ilonie  covers  a  quadran<,^u- 
lar  space  in  tlu'  form  of  the  i-ross."  The  exterior  is  of  brick, 
and  of  very    indilferciit   appearance.       The    interior   foiMu   and   ar- 


Fig.  121.— SS.  Nazareo  e  Celso,  Riivcmia.    Louxitudinal  secilon. 

rani^enient  are,  however,  ipiite  peculiar,  ai)iiroacirniin'  more  nearly  to 
the  classic  spirit  than  do  (»ther  so-called  IJyzantine  buildin<;s  in  the 
Occident.  Tlie  decorations  in  mosaics  and  marbles  are  rich  and 
harmonious  (y.  Fig.  lijl ).  The  figures  are  well  executed,  the  details 
pleasing,  and  all  contribute  to  the  perfection  of  the  whole.  In  it  are 
live  sarcophagi.'^  Tlicii-  history  is  somewhat  uncertain,  yet  by  com- 
liining  the  traditions  and  all  the  known  facts  it  seems  probable  that 
the  buililing  was  designed  for  a  mausoleum  for  (ialla  Placidia  and 
her  family.  l^'nder  the  dome,  between  the  sarcoj>hagi,  stands  an 
altar  which  is  of  much  archa'ological  interest  in  comu-ction  with  tli«' 
ai>pointments  of  the  Church  of  the  fifth  ceiiturv.' 

'  Qnast:  s.  11,  t.  ii,  5. 

'The  position  of  tliree of  these  is  seen  in  Figs,  liunud  IJl. 

3  Qnast  :  s.  13,  t.  iii,  2, 


246 


ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    CHRISTIAN   ART. 


Another  si)ecies  of  this  class  of  cruciform  structures  is  represented 
by  tlie    Catlicdral    of  Trier,    from   the  fourtli   century,   A.    D.   .370 

(Fig.  122).  This  cannot  with  strict 
propriety  be  called  a  central  struc- 
ture; nevertheless  the  other  parts  are 
so  brought  into  architectural  unity  by 
the  middle  })ortion  that  its  likeness  to 
other  buildings  of  the  central  type  is 
striking.  The  intersection  of  four 
vaulted  ceilings  in  the  middle  of  the 
church,  over  which  rises  the  dome,  sug- 
gests a  rivalry  between  the  Byzantine 
style  and  that  of  the  oblong  basilica. 

Among  the  most  ini])ortant  of  this 
species  of  churches  is  San  Lorenzo  of 
Milan,  probably  from  the  fifth  century. 
Whether  its  origin  was  pagan  or  Christ- 
ian has  been  warmly  debated,  nor  is  it 
C(>rtain  what  portions  of  the  present  structure  are  original.  Never- 
theless, the  attractiveness  of  its  style  and  arrangement,  as  well 
as  its  probable  antiquity,  have  justified  the  thorough  study  of  its 
details. 


Fig.    122.  —  Cathedral 
Groundplan. 


of     Trier. 


EAKI.V    LlllIISTIAN    EI'KJKAIMI Y.  247 


CHAPTKR  VIT. 

EARLY     ('IIKISTIAX      K  1' I  (t  K  A  IMI  Y. 
§  1.  l)t  fiuitloita  and  I'riiiciplen. 

Epiouapiiy  treats  of  the  content,  character,  chronoloy-y,  <leciitli('r- 
iiio^,  and  interpretation  of  inscriptions. 

The  term  inscriptions  is  applied  to  "all  non-literary  remains  of  a 
language  with  tlie  excejttion  of  coins,  letters  and  jour- 
nals.'" They  are  found  in  widely  separated  districts,  on 
various  materials,  and  executed  U)Y  a  great  variety  of  purposes. 
While  some  would  refer  tliese  chietly  to  the  department  of  literary 
history,'  it  is  evident  that  they  are  likewise  invaluable  in  the  study  of 
political  history,  of  ]»rivate  life,  of  religion,  laws,  arts,  an<l  beliefs, 

VV^hen  Paul,  on  iMars  Hill,  said  to  tlie  Athenians,  "  1  ])erceive  that 
in  all  things  ye  are  very  religious.  For,  as  I  passed  Kariy christian 
by,  and  beheld  your  devotions,  I  found  an  altar  with  ">*«• 
this  inscription.  To  an  Unkxown  God"  (At-ts  xvii,  22,  2;?),  ho 
recognized  the  importance  and  utility  of  ejjigraphical  teaching. 
The  apostolic  example  was  frequently  imitated  by  the  Christian 
fathers  in  their  apologetic  writings  against  their  heathen  op])onents, 
and  afterward  in  the  defence  (»f  tiie  Catholic  doctrines  as  against 
the  heretical  teachers.  Not  infrecpiently  inscriptions  are  quoted  in 
their  exegetical  works  and  in  their  sermons,  while  tlie  early  Church 
historians,  Eusebius  and  Socrates,  (|c])end  for  some  of  their  state- 
nuMits  upon  the  evidence  furnished  by  inscriptions  which  were  well 
known  in  their  times  but  afterwards  perished. 

Since  the  great  revival  of  tlic   sixteenth   century  this   dei)artment 
of    archa'oI(»gy    has     been    \ cry    diligently    cultivated.    i,„.,.,..,^,.,|     j„. 
By    the   added   evidenci'   «»f    epigraphical    remains    tlie   ii-rost  iu  inti-r 
history  of  Asiatic  dynasties   and    of    Kgypt    has   been   "'"''^' 
entirely   reconstructed,   and    the    cliaiacti'r  of  these    far   olV    civil 
i/.ations  has  been  determined  with  a  good  degree  of  certainty.     Tim 
military    conquests,    the    social    status    of    the    ))eople,    the    inqdc 
nients  of  peaceful  industry  and  of  war,  the  provisions  for  eflucat ion. 
the  con<lition   of  science,  literature,  and   art,  are  often   most  cli'arly 
attested  by  these  silent,  unconscious  witnesses,     '^l^he  residts  of  epi- 

'  V.  Huohner:  article  "  Inscriptions"  in  ilie  Ennjilnpnliti  IhHlannii'a,  Dili  editioa. 
'v.  Boeckli:   Corpus  Iiiscriptiouum  (Jiaicaruin,  vol.  i,  Preface,  p.  vii. 


248  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

graphical  studies  have  not  been  less  interesting  or  helpful  in  writing 
Value  of  t^^^  history  of  the  Christian  Church.  They  have  fully  con- 
Christian  epig-  firmed  the  opinion  that  Christianity  was  early  embraced 
'^'^'^  '^'  l)y  memljers  of  the  better  families  at  Rome.    They  have 

more  clearlj^  illustrated  the  contrast  between  heathen  and  Christian 
morality,  life,  and  hopes.  They  have  greatly  strengthened  confi- 
dence in  the  integrity  and  accuracy  of  some  of  the  early  Church 
historians,  upon  whose  statements  unstinted  ridicule  had  hitherto 
been  cast.  They  have  proved  the  tenacity  of  heathen  faith  aiul 
practices,  and  their  vitality  long  after  the  time  to  Avhich  it  had 
been  usual  to  refer  their  decadence  and  death.  Thev  have  con- 
firmed the  statements  relative  to  the  rapid  progress  of  monasticism 
in  the  West  during  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  and  have  sug- 
gested sufficient  reasons  for  the  marvellous  success  of  this  institu- 
tion. They  have  shown  that  the  accounts  of  suffering,  and  of  the 
number  of  martyr  deaths  among  the  early  Christians,  were  not  ex- 
aggerated by  the  ancient  Church  historians  (Eusebius  and  others), 
and  that  the  attempts  (notably  by  Gibbon  and  his  school)  to  dimin- 
ish the  horrors  of  the  Xeronian  and  other  persecutions  are  not 
justified  by  the  evidence.  They  have  unconsciously  testified  to  the 
orders  and  duties  of  the  clergy,  and  to  the  number,  modes  of  admin- 
istration, and  efiicacy  of  the  Christian  sacraments.  They  have 
clearly  proved  the  acceptance  and  strong  supporting  poAver  of  the 
distinguishing  doctrines  of  Christianity  in  the  midst  of  the  most 
trying  circumstances.  They  have  been  the  means  of  correcting 
serious  errors  in  chronology,  and  of  determining  the  genuine  text  of 
the  early  Christian  writings.' 

The  number  of  Christian  inscriptions  of  the  first  six  centuries 
,,       ^         ,  already  described   is   very    great.     It  is  imi)0ssible  to 

Nuinberof  ■'  ..  . 

Christian  in-  speak  with  precision,  since  hundreds  are  yearly  added 
scnptiuns.  ^^  ||-,p  number.     Probabl}^  more  than  twenty  thousand 

have  been  discovered,  and  accessions  are  made  almost  dail3^*  Of 
these  by  far  the  larger  portion  (probably  more  than  three  fourths) 
have  been  found  in  Rome  and  its  immediate  vicinity.    Great  as  is  the 

'  '•Inscriptions  are  cUficoveries  capitalized,  as  it  were,  and  the  income  of  tlicni  is 
onl}' s^radiially  realized." — W.  P.  P.  Longfellow  in  the  American  Journal  of  Arc! m- 
ology,  1885,  p.  203. 

"^  In  1862  de  Rossi  affirmed  ihat  the  number  of  Christian  inscriptions  of  the 
first  six  centnries  liieti  known  was  about  fonrleen  thonsand.  of  whicli  eleven  thou- 
sand were  found  in  Rome  and  vicinity,  and  three  thousand  in  all  the  rest  of  the 
world.  V.  Dt  la  Determination  Chronologique  des  Inscriptions  chreliennes  in  the  Revue 
Archeologique,  December,  1862.  Tiie  arehfBological  world  has  long  awHited  the  pub- 
lieaiion  of  de  Rossi's  second  volume  of  the  InscripHones  Christiance.  Until  th's  ap- 
pears many  things  are  left  to  mere  conjecture. 


EARLY    CMIRISTIAX    EI'ICIfAlMIY.  249 

iHiinlxT  already  known,  it  is  Imt  a  small  fraction  of  what  once  ex- 
isted. "  From  collections  made  in  the  eiijhth  and  ninth  centnries  it 
apitears  that  there  were  once  at  least  one  hnndred  and  seventy  ancient 
Christian  inscriptions  in  lioine  which  had  an  historical  or  m<»nii- 
nu'Mtal  character,  written  generally  in  nu-tre,  and  to  be  seen  at  that 
time  in  the  places  they  were  intended  to  illustrate.  Of  these  oidy 
twi'nty-six  remain  in  whole  or  in  parts.  In  the  Roman  toj)o<,fraphies 
of  the  seventh  century,  one  hundred  and  forty  sepulchres  of  famou.s 
martyrs  and  confessors  are  enumerated;  we  have  recovered  only 
twenty  insc-ribed  memorials  to  assist  us  in  the  identification  of  these. 
Only  nine  e[)itaphs  have  come  to  light  belonging  to  the  bishops  of 
Home  during  these  same  six  centuries;  and  yet,  during  tliat  period, 
there  were  certainly  buried  in  the  suburbs  of  the  city  ui)ward  of 
sixty."'  l)e  Rossi  believes  that  more  than  one  hundred  thousand 
Christian  inscri;»tions  of  the  first  six  centuries  once  existed,  four 
fifths  of  which  have  been  lost. 

'I'lie  early  Cliristian  ins-riptions  are  mostly  found  upon  stone 
(generally  marble),  bronze,  or  on  tables  of  baked  clay.  ji„i,,,.j,,i>,  „„ 
A  few  examples  in  which  the  inscription  is  upon  lead  wiiich  inscrip- 
ta])lets  or  plates  have  been  preserved."  Tiie  letters  are  ^i""« "'«'«"'««• 
usually  sunk  into  the  stone;  in  very  few  cases,  if  at  all,  are  they  in 
relief.  Sometimes,  especially  in  the  catacombs  of  Rome,  Syracuse, 
and  Naples,'  the  inscription  is  ])ainted,  usually  with  red  pignu'iit; 
in  some  instances  the  sculptured  letters  are  gilded. 

The  writers  on  Latin  epigrai)hy  divide  the  inscriptions  into  two 
"lasses:  "(1)  thost^  which  were  written  upon  other  ob-  Kinds  of  in- 
jects of  various  kinds,  to  denote  their  peculiar  purpose,  script  ions. 
and  in  this  wa}'' have  ln-en  preserved  along  with  them;  and  (-2)  those 
which  themselves  are  the  objects,  written,  to  be  durable,  as  a  rule, 
on  metal  or  stone.  The  first  class  is  that  of  inscriptions  in  the 
stricter  sense  of  the  wonl  (t/'ttill);  the  second  is  that  of  instruments 
or  charters,  public  or  private  {ler/t'tt,  instrniiKiitd,  Uihubv).*'^  Some 
writers  on  Christian  epigraphy  ^  incline  to  a  threefold  division, 
namely:  (1)  Tho.se  cut  in  stone  or  bronze  {iiitirmora,  titnli^  htju<}it<)\ 
(:.')    those   painted    in   colors   or  sometimes  written  with  c«)al   (Ital. 

'  NortlicotP  iiiul  Brownlow  :  Roma  Sotkrrunca.  vol.  ii,  part  iii.  p.  '.i. 

*  In  this  respect  tliey  corrcHpoixl  IoiIicIkmIIiou  inscripiioiis,  only  very  few  of  wliicli 
iiro  found  ou  ihiu  lead  plates,  wliicli  wcro  rolled  up,  placed  in  the  tombs,  and  llins 
pieserved.     v.  Fr.mz:   Etem.  Epi<jr.  Gr.   p.  168. 

'  u.  Rchultze:  Kalabimbi-n.  v.  .*?.  Gemiiiro  dd  Poveri  in  Ntapel.,  pp.  .T".  ;■)(),  etc. 
Martipny:  Didionn.,  etc.,  p.  :56l.  liulUftino  Arch,  cruit.,  18S0,  t.  i;  1861,  t.  vii 
■  'Hil  viii. 

'  Ilnebner:    Op.  cit. 

*  De  Rossi,  and  his  connncntalois  and  disciples. 


350  ARCILEOLOGY    OF    CIIinSTIAN    ART. 

dlpinti) ;  and  (3)  those  which  have  been  scratched  on  stone,  mortat, 
or  cement  (Ital.  grajfiti.).  Under  the  second  are  usually  classified 
the  painted  and  gilded  glasses  and  the  colored  mosaics,  which  are 
soraewliat  numerous  and  important.' 

It  is  highly  probable  that  inscriptions  of  the  first  class  were  pre- 
By  whom  pre-  pared  ih  the  shops  of  the  workers  in  marble  (marmo- 
pared.  rarii).     The  sign  of  such  an  artisan  has  been  found  in 

Pompeii.^  The  painted  inscriptions  and  some  of  the  gruffitl,  on  the 
contrary,  seem  to  have  been  sometimes  prepared  by  the  friends  of 
the  deceased,  or  by  the  Fossore>i.  In  a  few  graffiti  are  indications 
that  they  were  prepared  to  ridicule  the  Christians  and  their  faith ' 
{d.  Figs.  25,  26). 

In  Christian  epigraphy,  as  in  manuscripts,  well  settled  paleo- 
Paieographic  graphic  principles  must  be  observed  in  order  to  deter- 
principies.  mine  the  genuineness  and  age  of  inscriptions.  Wiiile 
these  principles  have  not  been  so  scientifically  determined  in  the 
case  of  Christian  inscriptions  as  in  those  of  classical  origin, 
much  aid  is,  nevertheless,  furnished  by  them  to  the  student  of 
C-hristian  antiquities  to  settle  doubtful  chronologies  and  to  detect 
spurious  monuments. 

Three  forms  of  writing  are  used  in  Christian  inscriptions;  namely, 
capitals,  i^ncial  characters,  and  cursive  writing.^  The  capitals  are 
generally  used  in  the  earliest  inscriptions,  but  are  often  found  in 
connection  with  the  more  popular  and  convenient  cursive  writing. 
The  uncials  are  related  to  the  cursive  in  their  inclination  to  round 
the  character,  but  more  nearly  resemble  the  capital.  This  begins 
to  appear  during  the  fourth  century,  while  in  the  fifth  it  is  first 
fully  popularized. 

Usually,  as  in  English,  these  inscriptions  are  read  from  left  to 
right;  in   a   few  instances   thev  are  read  from  right  to 

How  read.  ,   '„  ,  .,      .  ,  ,        "  ,  i     i-     " 

left,  while  in  some  others  they  must  be  read  trom  top 
to  bottom  (y,  Plate  YI,  No.  3).  The  lines  are  usually  of  ecjual 
length,  of  considerable  regularity,  and  are  broken  u))  without  respect 
to  the  division  of  single  words.  In  later  inscriptions,  especially,  the 
spaces  between  the  letters  are  very  evenly  divided. 

Punctuation  seems  to  have  been  governed  by  other 

I'unctuation.  .       .    ,         ,  •       t      t  i      i-  •      t         • 

])rinciples  than  are  now  recognized.  Instead  oi  indicating 
the  sense,  it  marked  lines,  words,  syllables,  and  even  letters.     No 

'  For  reasons  elsewhere  given  we  have  not  observed  this  (■L-issifientiori. 
-  "Titulo.s  scribendos  vel  si  quid  operis  mannorar  (ii)  opus  fuerii,  hie  habes." 
^v.  Garrucci:  II  Crocifisso  Graffiti)  in  casa  del  Cesarl.     Becker:    Diis  Spott-Cnicifix. 
*  V.  Zell:  Handbuch  der  roin.  Upigraphik.     Le  Bhuit:  [imcriplions  chret.  de  la  Gaul, 
etc.     Also  his  Manuel  d'Ep'njraphie  chreticnne. 


EAHLY    cmtlSTIAX    i:i'[(!i;.\I»IF Y.  2.'il 

3V<>iilanty  is  observed,  ofteiilimcs  |>im<tiiati<iii  hciiiLj  wholly  wiuiliii;^. 
The  marks  vary  from  a  point  lo  a  lu'art-shap.d  U-al"  (Plate  VIII,  X<». 
U),  across'  (Plate  \'III,  No.  a),  a  star,  ,i -^  (Plale  VIII,  No.  2),  or  a 
triaiitjle,  while  tlu'  end  of  an  inscription  is  si-jilom  mai-ketl  at  all. 
In  common  with  other  ancient  inscriptions,  those  ol"  Christian  orii^in 
are  often  <^reatly  Jihbreviated,''  either  by  the  union  of  letters  or  their 
omission.  The  abbreviations  by  joined  letters  {litaxe  Ihjdloi)  wxw 
j»resumably  of  later  ori<rin. 

The  orthography  of  Christian  insciiptions  often  departs  widelv 
from  accepted  standards,  and  not  seldom  from  that  in  oniiDjfnipiiyuf 
(;urrent  use.  This  incorrect  spellinuf  raj)idly  incn-ased  iu^-^riptions. 
durinfj  the  tiftli  century,  the  period  of  the  destructive  invasions  of 
the  northern  hordes.  If  consists  in  change  of  vowels,  in  the  inter- 
change of  the  linguals  and  labials,  in  llie  omission  of  letters,  etc. 
There  is  frequent  departnix'  from  the  current  syntax  in  the  use  of 
unusual  and  non-classical  forms  with  prepositions,  of  relative  pro- 
nouns, etc.  At  times  attempts  to  correct  these  errors  are  noticed. 
Occasionally  Latin  wo)'ds  are  written  with  (ireek  characters,  and 
converseh';  sometimes  both  Latin  and  (treek  characters  are  found 
in  the  same  inscripti(»n,  and  in  a  few  instances  the  inst-ription  stainls 
in  both  Latin  and  (Treek. 

For  historical    and    archa'oloo-ical   piiiposcs   the   detei'mination  of 
the  date  of  inscriptions   is  of  prime  importance.     Only   riimnoioRy  of 
tiuis  are   they  heljiful    to   mark  the  clianges  which   the   insiTipiions. 
Church  underwent  in  successive  i)eriods  of  its  liistory.     Since  but  a 
small    ninnber   of    the    monuments    containing    insci-iptions   bear   ;i 

'  Opinions  cliflcr  iis  lo  tlie  signifieaiieo  of  tlie  lioart-sliaped  leaf  and  the  cross  in  the 
midst  olCluMstian  inscriptions.  The  lirst  has  liy  some  (de  liossi:  f)i.sai'ptio)ies,  etc., 
i,  pp.  70,  US)  been  interpreted  to  indicate  the  fjriof  of  surviving  friends.  Hoth  arc 
fonnd  in  connection  witli  healiicn  inscriptions,  and  therefore  can  scarcely  liu  regarded 
as  liaving  in  tliemselves  a  religions  signifioanc(\  "  Cest  nn  usage  aniiqne  adopte 
par  lea  cliretiens,  parcc  qn'il  n'  avail  ancini  caraelere  esseniiollim-nt  leli^iiMi.x." — 
Marligny:   Dirt.,  p.  185. 

'^  The  iiernieneulical  |irineiplcs  f)f  classical  epigraphy  are  equally  applical)lo  to  in- 
scriptions of  Ciirisiian  origin.  It  is  to  l)e  regretted  that  tliore  is  no  gooil  hand- 
book on  this  snhject.  Many  vaiualjle  snggestions  can,  however,  he  found  in  the 
various  collections  of  in.scriptions.  Among  llie  older  maj' be  mcMtioned  Morcelli: 
Di;  Stilo  f»scii}it.  tilt.;  among  the  later,  tiie  valnahle  collections  ofOn-lli,  Monunsen, 
de  Rossi,  Ije  Blant,  Hoeekli.  etc.  In  the  preface  of  tlio  Cnrpiis  fii^rripl.  Crirmrum, 
lioeckli  has  ^iiven  some  laws  that  have  not  been  '-nperseded.  C.  T.  Xewinn:  Kssays 
on  Art  and  Arr/ueolot/i/.  has  made  instrnctive  snirges lions.  Also,  McOaul .  f! h ristian 
ICiiilaplis  of  the  First  Si.f  (Viilnrie.i,  in  the  introdnclory  chapter,  furnishes  valuable 
information  as  lo  methods  of  interpretation,  etc.  This  great  want  of  a  treatise  (i-lo- 
nientiiry)  upon  Greek  epigraphy  seems  now  lo  be  supplied  la  the  late  work  of 
Reinach,  Salomon:   Traite  d' Epiijmphie  (Jrecqw.     Paris,  1885. 


252  ARCHxEOLOGY   OF    CHRISTIAN   ART. 

definite  date,'  it  lias  been  necessary  to  agree  upon  principles  to 
govern  in  ascertaining  tlie  clironology  of  those  lacking  in  this 
particulai'.  Upon  nioniinients  of  the  West  are  found  most  fre- 
quent indications  of  the  time  of  their  preparation.  In  this  the  liea- 
then  and  Christian  monuments  alike  agree.  The  most  usual  means 
of  marking  the  date  is  by  the  consular  era,  the  year  being  some- 
times expressed  by  figures,  sometimes  by  letters.  The  usual  abbre- 
viations for  consul  and  consular  occurring  on  the  pagan  monuments 
ai'e  likewise  used  in  Christian  inscriptions:  COS,  CONS,  COSS, 
CONSS,  CC-SS-,  and  CS-  for  CONSVLE,  CONSVLIBVS.  This 
method  of  indicating  dates  continued  until  the  abolition  of  the  con- 
sular office."  In  the  Orient,  however,  there  are  only  exceptional 
cases  of  the  use  of  the  consular  era.  In  the  fourth  century  first 
appears  the  title  CON.,  CONS  before  the  name,  and  the  added 
abbreviations  VC,  VVCC,  that  is,  vir[i)  cl(irlsslinus{l);  likewise  the 
mode  of  reckoning  a/ter  the  consulate:  PC,  POST  CON,  POS,  PCC, 
etc.,  begins  in  the  same  century. 

With  A.  D.  312'  the  Romans  began   to  reckon  by  the  cj'cle  of 
indictions,  that  is,  by  cycles  of  fifteen  years,  or  the  time 

llKliCtioUS.  ,  I        e         ^    •\  i 

at  tlie  end  of  which  a  new  census  was  taken  and  new 
taxes  were  levied.  Examples  of  this  method  of  reckoning  occur  at 
an  earlier  date  in  the  East  than  in  the  West,  no  instance  appearing 
in  Rome  earlier  than  A.  D.  423,  and  in  Gaul  in  A.  D.  491.''  The 
usual  abbreviation  is  IND;  but  besides  this  are  met  INDIC,  IN- 
DICT, INUE. 

In  various  parts  of  the  Roman  Empire  the  date  was  sometimes 
Provincial  indicated  by  the  provincial  era.  In  Spain  the  burial 
«'"'^s-  monuments  folloAV  the  Spanish  era  (B.  C.  38);  in  North 

Africa  the  wra  ]\fauretanica  (A.  D.  40  ^)  is  met  with,  etc.  The  Di- 
onysian  era  does  not  appear  until  much  later.  The  month,  day  of 
the  month,  and  week  are  frequently  indicated  in  accordance  with 
Roman  custom.     The  interpretation  of  dates,  when  recorded,  be- 

'  Le  Blanl:  Op.  cit..  sa3's  tliat  of  720  inscriptions  in  Gaul,  only  147  bear  anj'  mark 
of  date ;  of  200  in  Treves,  onl}--  one  contains  a  definite  date ;  of  about  1 1,000  described 
hy  de  Rossi  in  his  first  volume  on  tlie  Christian  inscriptions  of  the  first  seven  cen- 
turies, only  1,347  contain  any  clu'onolojric  indication  of  a  date,  :ind  of  this  number 
only  about  150  are  earlier  than  350  A.  D. 

'^  Discontinued  under  Justinian,  and  legally  abolished  by  Leo  the  philosopher. 

^  Some  have  attributed  the  introduction  of  the  indiction  to  Constantine,  others  to 
Diocletian. 

^  Lc  Blant:  Tascrip.  chrel.  Gaule,  No.  388.  Some  epig-raphists  insist  that  no  exam- 
ple of  Clu-istinn  inscriptions  reckoning  bj'-  indictions  appears  at  Home  earlier  than 
A.  D.  517. 

*  Some  writers  say  B.  C.  33.     v.  p.  33,  note. 


EARLY   CIIUTSTIAN    KPK'.IIAPII Y.  2.j3 

c'oiiK'S  tluTcfoiH'   ;i  inaltcr  of  coiniiMrath fly  litllc  ditliiMiIty.      liut  it 
is  far  iiioiv  diiru'iilt  to  fix  llio  cliroiioloLTV  <»t"  insciiplioiis 

11  1  II-  I    '   ■      1  1  Iiisni|)l|()ii.s 

that  l)c'ar  no  date,      llcrfiii   appear  tlu'  valiu'  and  iicccs-    winiuut daU's. 
■<ity  of  c'pinrapliical  scii-iu-i'. 

J>y  patient  and  ])rotra('ttMl  comparative  stn<ly  of  ins(ii])ti<ins 
wliose  dates  are  well  ascertained,  the  epij^rapliist  has  (iciuriiipriiu:!- 
diseovcred  means  of  ileterniining  with  considerable  ac-   i'''"*- 

'  curacy  the  clironology  of  others.  Well-established  criteiia  have 
thus  simiililied  tlie  study  of  epi<»;raphical  remains,  and  sound  scien- 
tific methods  have  been  developed  and  successfully  applied.  For 
the  chronolony  of  Christian  inscriptions  tlu'  foliowiiiL;;  particulars 
have  been  found  especiall}'  important;  namely,  the  character  (tf  the 
writing-,  {piileoyraphij),  the  formularies,  the  proper  names,  and  the 
presence  or  absence  of  symbolic  characters,  as  the  cross,  the  mono- 
i^ram  of  Christ,   ■^,  the  A  i2,  the  dove,  the  fish,  the  ))eacock,  etc. 

'  Also  the  jieculiar  cycle  of  the  subjects  of  the  [)aintin^s  with  which 
tlie  inscriptions  may  b'j  found  associated.' 

JJrief  and   simple   formulas,  without   statements   relative  to   the 
character  of  tlie  ])erson,  or  the  place  and  time  of  burial,   siM-ciai  inriica- 
as  niC  lACF.T.  IIIC  REQUIESCIT,  etc.,  are  presuma-   """«• 
bly   of   Jiighest   antiipiity.      The    introduction    of    s:)ecial    circiim- 

f  stances,  such  as  ilKJ  lACKT  IN  NOMINE  CflRlSTI.  HW  REQIH- 
ESCIT  IN  PACE,  etc.,  usually  indicate  a  later  date.'  Also  minute 
descriptions  of  the  age,  and  of  tlie  day  of  death  and  burial,  the 
enumeration  of  praiseworthy  qualities,  the  metrical  form,  and  the 
■^lately  eulogium  are  indications  of  a  later  origin.^ 

With  respect  to  the  date  of  the  introduction  of  the  various  syju- 
bols  there  is  wilier  (lifTerence  of  opinion.  More  thorough  nute  <>f  sym- 
study  of  these  interesting  Christian  remains  inclines  ^'^^>'- 
tiie  historian  of  art,  as  well  as  tlie  epigraphist,  to  give  to  them  a 
greater  antiquity  than  was  formerly  allowed.  The  (lo\e  was  for- 
merly believed  to  be  found   on   no   Christian  monum  'Ut  of  an  ear- 

'  I'.  De  Rossi:  Imrriptiones  Christioniv.  urhi's  Romw,  etc.,  pp.  eviii  niul  cix.  '' Illiid 
r?3tat  in(|iiirciuliim,  qiuimoJo  inter  Iins  ipsos  terminos  sinmil.inini  iiiscriptionuni 
fPtas  prcssiiis  pos^ii.  defiiiiri.     Id  examiii.nlis  iitleranmi  foniiis,"  etc. 

■  Ofilio  close  of  tlie  fiflli  nnd  llie  following  centuries,  v.  Le  Blant:  Manuel  d'Epi- 
iiipfiie  cliix'tiennp,  etc.,  p.  ^5;  also  Tliihnor:   Inscripthnes  J/itpa)ii(e  Cliri.sliaiio!,  p.  ix. 

*  romparo  e.^pecially  lie  Rossi:  Introduction  lo  his  Imcriptiones  Clirisliaine;  Iiis 
trv^atise — De  In  (Iclerminulion  chronol.  ties  Inscrip.  chrct.  {Revue  Arch&il.,  1862).  Le 
Blaiit:  Iiiscrip.  chref.  Gnule,  \>.  v\,  et  al. ;  J.  Kilter:  Deronipasitione  titnl.  Christ. ,  Beiol. 
1S77,  o.  12,  ct  nl.  De  Rossi  and  Le  Blant,  wliilo  independent  workers,  lire  in  enliro 
harmony  toueliiufr  the  principles  poverninp:  the  interpretation  of  inscriplion.s.  There 
is  also  a  rem  irk  able  agreement  in  their  CDiiclusions  respecting  the  most  important 
questions. 


2r,4 


ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   ClIllISTIAN   ART. 


lier  date  than  A.  D.  2GS  in  Rome,  and  A.  D.  378  in  Gaul;'  but 
it  is  found  in  connection  with  inscriptions  now  believed  to  belong 
to  the  first  lialf  of  the  second  century. 


§  2.  The  Subject  and  Content  of  I/i  script  ions. 
As  lias  already  been  shown  (v.  p.  60,  et  seq.),  Christian  monuments 
Pagan  influ-  ^^  ^'^®  ^^'^^  three  centuries  were  closely  associated  with 
euce  ill  Christ-  those  of  heathen  origin.  As  in  monuments  of  plastic 
lan  epigraphy.  ^^,^^  ^^  j^^  ^j^^  department  of  ejugi-aphy,  the  influence 
of  pagan  thought  is  manifest.  Christian  art  liberated  itself  only 
by  degrees  fi-om  its  first  teacher  and  guide,  and  developed  an 
independent  character.  This  holds  equally  true  of  Christian  in- 
scriptions. On  many  monuments  their  Christian  origin  cannot  at 
all  be  inferred  fi-om  their  contents.  In  some  other  instances  the 
added  expressions  IN  PACE,  EN  EIPHNH,  or  the  wishes  VIVAS 
IN  DEO,  VIVAS  IN  AETERNVM,  are  the  only  grounds  of  dis- 
tinction." The  agreement  of  pagan  and  Christian  in  regarding 
death  as  a  sleep  is  sometimes  plainl}^  seen.  The  added  thought  of  a 
continuance  of  life  after  death  is  peculiarly  Christian.^     Even  in  the 

'  Le  Blaiit:  IriscrijA  chret.  de  la  Gaule.     Paris,  1856. 

The  following  t;iliie  gives  his  opinion  respecting  tlie  clironology  of  some  of  tliese 
symbols:  v.  p.  xiv. 


Symbol. 

ROME. 

Gacl. 

The  dove 

From 

A.D 

268-500,  524  ? 

From 

A.  0.378-612. 

5g:       

298  ?  ;-531-451  or  474 

?>T)r>  f  36H-500 

'•     377-493. 

A   $2 

•'     377-547. 

P       

i?55  to  between  542  and 
565 

about  A.   D.   400-525 

the 
in- 

or  540. 

The  vase 

391-472  or  489      

about  A.  D.  450-563. 

Tlie  cross    in 
body  of  llie 
scription. .  .  . 

?,15  ?  407-527 

450-589 

A.D.  448  till  after  585. 

Tlie   cross   at 
beginning  o 
Rcriptions.. . 

tlie 
'  in- 

"     503  to about  680. 

V.  also  liis  Manuel  cV Epigrophie  cliretien-ne,  pp.  27,  28,  29. 

*  The  expressions  IX  PACE,  EX  KIPHXH,  are  also  found  upon  Jewish  burial  mon- 
uments of  tlie  pre-Cliri-tian  period,  v.  Le  Plant:  N.  621  :  C.  I.  Gr.,  XX.  9902,  9909, 
9921,  9923,  etc.  Siipi,  p.  177.  Victor  Sciiultze:  Arch.  Stud.,  s.  260,  N.  6,  tt  a'.,  is 
of  opinion  tliat  h  kiprjvri  is  proof  of  Christian  or  Jewisli  origin. 

'  Raonl  Pochette  {Deuxieme  Mem.  sur  les  ant.  chret,  p.  27)  is  thorouglily  consistent 
with  liimself  in  claiming  that  xo'lJ-o-oOai  iv  eiprpri,  dormire  in  pace,  are  also  found  on 
pagan  burial  monuments.     But  this  opinion  seems  to  lack  firm  archfeological  support. 


EAHLY    CIIUISTIAN    KPKJKAPIIY.  .?')''> 

fourth  and  fiftli  (■ciitiiiii'S,  afu-r  ("liiisti;inity  liad  acliicvcd  an  cMSfii 
tial  triuiii|ili  in  its  licrcc  t'licountiT  with  paijaiiism,  train's  *>{'  hcatlu-n 
iiilliK'ncc  are  prost'iit  in  Christ iaii  i'|tiLrrapliy  as  well  as  in  ]»lasLic  art. 

Tlu*  abbreviation  !)•  M*,  !)•  ^I*  S-  [dis  iiKinlhus,  ditt  munihuit  s<i- 
cruui),  occurs  on  inonunicnts  of  the  third  and  fourth  century  (in 
(ireek  O.  K.  Otnii;  KuraxOnviiUc).  INIore  than  a  hundi-ed  example's  of 
this  kiutl  have  ahcady  bi'eii  found,  many  of  the  monuments  of  the 
third  and  fourth  centiiries  belonging  to  tliis  class.  The  original  relig- 
ious significance  of  these  abbreviations  seems  in  a  later  period  to 
have  bi'cn  lost  sight  of,  and  they  becanu'  a  mere  traditional  heading 
for  inscriptions  on  burial  monuments.  In  some  instances  the  mono- 
gram of  Christ,  -^j  ,  P,  stands  connected  with  the  D*  M*;  thus 
■^  D-  M-  -^  or  !)•  M-  ^  S  .' 

A  careful  examination  of  this  subject  has  led  Becker  to  the  fol- 
lowing coiu-lusions:  Becker's    cajii- 

1.  The  signs   D-  M;  D*  M-  S-  can   never   mean   any   elusions. 
thing  else  than  DHs  Manibus  or  Diis  Manibus  Sacnan.     The  trans- 
lation  Deo   3f<f[//i(>,  or  Deo  Jfi.cimo,  finds  no  justilieation  in  any 
single  Christian  monument. 

2.  The  reason  for  placing  the  sign,  I)-  M-,  on  Christian  burial 
monuments  is  found  in  its  very  commonness  of  use.  This  was  the 
customary  beginning  of  sepulchral  inscriptions,  and  thus  a  fashion 
was  establislied.*  At  length  this  formula  lost  its  original  signifi- 
cance, and  became  almost  meaningless.* 

3.  The  opinion  that  the  Christians  purchased  in  the  shops  stones 
on  which  the  !)•  !M*  had  already  been  wrought  by  heathen  artists  is 
scared}'  tenable.     It  seems  to  lack  solid  f(»undation. 

4.  With  respect  to  their  chronology,  these  monuments  do  not  per- 
tain to  the  earliest  period  of  Christian  inscriptions.  The  majority 
belong  to  the  third  century,  and  to  tlu'  age  of  Constantine.* 

'  V.  Rpano:  Scopnfe  Archeo!..  p.  39.     F.  Becker:   Die  held  nkcfie  Weihe/ormel  D.  M. 
«We  must   trace   the  litter   IIIC   lACKT,  and  tlie  (ierm.   "IlIER   RUHET  TM 
GOTT,"  and  tlie  Enjrlish  '•  IIKHK  LIES"  to  tlie  same  source. 

*  In  one  instance,  at  least,  iliere  seems  to  be  a  sort  of  protest  against  this  nse  of 
the  D.  M. ;  since  llie  Christian  A  12  is  associated  with  it,  as  in  the  followiug  from 
A'i:i}fni.  quoted  by  V.  Scliult/.e:   Die  Katakomhen,  p.  250. 

aD  Mw 

VALERIA       RODE 
VALEFUAE    RODE 
NI   MATRI      CAR 
BEX 
MEREXTI       FC 

*  V.  Becker :   Op.  cii.,  p.  65,  e(  seq. 


256  ARCHEOLOGY  OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

The  expressions  occr.sionally  found  on  Christian  and  Jewish 
Views  of  death  'monuments  seem  to  indicate  a  want  of  universal  belief 
and  of  tbe  fii-  in  the  reality  of  a  future  life.  Inscriptions  like  the  fol- 
*"'■''•  lowing,  eAPCI  TATA  MHTHP  OTAEIC  AeANATOC,'  as 

well  as  the  designation  of  the  grave  as  damns  cuterna,  perpetaa  seeks, 
oiKoq  aldiVLoq,  show  that  the  Christian  thought  is  yet  influenced  by  the 
heathen  doubt  respecting  the  future.  It  lingers  as  an  un23leasant  and 
entangling  inheritance,  and  proves  the  power  of  traditional  systems, 
or  argues  the  unconscious  use  of  a  language  whose  original  signifi- 
cance had  already  faded  out,  but  whose  form  remained.  The  desire 
that  the  body  should  be  interred,  in  order  to  secure  the  repose  of  the 
spirit,  Avas  quite  general  among  the  Greeks.  Many  precautions  were 
taken  that  the  tombs  might  remain  undisturbed.  The  penalties 
threatened  to  the  despoilers  and  plunderers  of  graves  are  often 
expressed  in  \evy  strong  terms.'^  The  necessity  of  burial  as  a  con- 
dition of  future  rest,  and  of  attaining  to  a  resurrection,  is  also  some- 
times expressed  in  these  burial  inscriptions.  The  longings,  laments, 
prayers,  and  execrations  found  upon  Christian  monuments  are  occa- 
sionally in  almost  exact  imitation  of  the  heathen  custom;^  although 
the  most  incredulous  must  be  persuaded  that  the  general  spirit  of 
these  inscriptions  is  that  of  patience,  forgiveness,  love,  cheerfulness, 
and  hope.  Occasionally  is  met  the  "eternal  memor}-,"  the  "eternal 
sleep,"  the  "  raging  Tartarus,"  the  "  Elysian  grove,"  the  "anger 
of  Styx,"  etc.  At  times  quotations  from  the  heathen  poets  are 
found,  and  the  terms  jyerire  and  vita  privatus  are  used  to  express 
dying.  Indeed,  in  the  Christian  inscriptions  that  syncretism  is  no- 
ticed which  becomes  so  general  during  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries 

'  From  San  Ciriaco  in  Aiicona.  v.  Buonarroti,  Osservazioni  sojira  alcuni  frcunmeidi 
di  vast  antichi  di  vctro,  etc.,  Fireiize,  1716,  p.  1G9. 

^Conip.  Wooil,  J.  T:  Discoveries  al  Ephesus.     Inscriptions  from  tombs,  sarcophagi, 

etc.,  p.  7,  No.  6. 

E(  rtr  Toi'TOV,  etc. 

"  If  any  one  shall  either  destro}-^  or  throw  down  this  altar  or  tomb,  or  shall  erase  a 
letter,  he  shall  pay  to  the  excheqner  2,500  denarii." 

*  Coiyu-s  Inscrip.  Lett,  ii,  N.  5,415,  is  an  inscription  from  the  basilica  of  St.  Jnlian 
at  Como  ninnino-,  ADIVRO  VVS  OMXRS  XPIAXI  KT  TK  |  CVSTVDK  BEAT! 
TVLTANiy'  DO  ETf  TRF  |  MEXDA  DIE  IVDICII  YT  IIYXC  SEPYLCRYM 
n  n  nqAM  YLLO  TEMPORE  VIOLETYR  |  sed  conseivet  (ur)  n.sqnc  ad  finem  nnnidi 
I  nt  prosim  sine  impedimento  in  vita  j  redire  cnm  venerit  qne  jndicatnrus  est  vivos 
et  mortiios.  .  .  .  See  also  Reinesius:  Syntagma  Inscrip..  xx,  4H5  ;  Corpus  Inscri2).  Grce., 
iv,  nn.  9,303,  9,802;  Ritter:  De  Composit.  tit.  Christ.,  i,  p.  36,  seq. ;  Bosio:  Roma 
Sotterranea,  p.  436,  where  the  imprecations  against  tho.se  who  distm-b  the  graves  of 
the  departed  seem  to  reach  tlie  climax  of  severity:  MALE  PEREAT  INSEPYLTVS 
lACEAT  NOX  RESYRCtAT  CUM  lYDA  PARTKM  HABEAT  SIQIS  SEPYL- 
CRAM  HVXC  YIOLAYERIT. 


EARI.Y   CIIRISTIAX    EPiriRAlMIY.  257 

fii  every  (lei»artiiK'iit  of  tliou^Iit  and  lift'.  (;re:it  <'are  is,  tlierefore, 
necessary  in  (heir  interpretation,  and  tlie  wide  diiTerence  l)et\veen 
tlie  Christian  and  panaii  view  of  <U'ath  as  taiiLjlit  l»y  these  monu- 
ments, wliieh  lias  been  ehiinied  l>y  stmie  zeah)us  writers,  must  he  ac- 

eeitted  with  eaiition.      We  are  not,  liowever,  to   suppose   ,,,,         ,  ,  , 
'  ...  .  others   phiinly 

that  the  clear  statement  of  faith  in  tlie  resurrection  and  ami  iHcuiiariy 
in  immortal  life  is  wantini;  in  Cliristian  iiiscrij)tions.  The 
(  liristian  ("hiinli  was  iniicli  slower  to  liberate  itself  from  the  influence 
of  anti(]uity  in  the  case  of  inscripti«tns  than  in  the  case  of  the  plastic 
arts.  Only  very  seldom  is  this  freedom  attained  duriiiij  the  prc- 
("onstuntine  ])(,'riod.  \\'hile  we  cannot  doiilit  as  to  the  oriyin  of 
these  inscriptions,  the  writers  of  the  early  Church  seem  <'()nti'nt  to 
indicate  the  Christian  sentiment  by  a  siiii^le  word  or  phrase,  rather 
than  by  the  entire  writini;.  This  should  not  cause  surprise,  since  to 
devise  an  entirely  new  terminology  or  method  of  expression  would 
i\'(piire  much  time  and  study,  and  many  of  the  modes  of  thouifht 
then  extant  were  entirely  ada})ted  to  the  needs  of  the  new  reliLjion. 
Hence  we  find  the  ancient  acclamations  to  the  dead  freely  used  in 
Christian  inscriptions,  such  as  vale,  nve,  have,  salve,  XAIPE,  etc. 

Tlie  expressions  in  p'/ce,  EN  EIPHNH,  cinn  puce,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  requiescaf,  or  the  words,  spiritus  tints  in  pare,  pax  tihi,  in 
pace  domini,  pax  tecum,  etc.,  seem  to  embody  more  perfectly  the 
Christian  spirit  and  belief.  It  is  when  the  condition  of  the  departed 
is  expressed  in  words  of  hope  or  congratulation  that  the  c<»ntrast 
between  pagan  and  CMiristian  thought  relative  to  a  future  life  ap- 
pears in  strongest  relief.  The  earnest  liopes  contained  in  the  sim- 
ple VIVAS,  VIVES,  VIVIS,  VIVIT,  IN  AETERNO,  IN  CHRISTO,  IN 
DEO,  IN  (JLORIA  DFJ,  IN  DOMINO  lESV,  etc.,  are  ]M.>culiar  to 
the  Christian  inscriptions,  expressing  a  cycle  of  thought  entirely 
unknown  lo  heathen  epigra])liy.  The  belief  in  a  resurrection  and 
a  future  life  is  here  clouded  by  no  doubt  which  might  have  come 
from  association  with  the  ])agan  world.  Through  a  widegeographic 
and  chronologic  range  these  assurances  of  a  future  life  by  the 
power  of  Christ  are  met.  In  Rome,  Ga\\],  Africa,  and  the  Orient, 
extending  through  centuries  of  time,  they  freijuently  occur.' 

§  3.   Application  of  Piinciples  and  their  Illustration  hi/  Means  of  Sptrijic 

Examples. 

Plate  III  is  a  reduci'<l  reproduction  of  Plate  X  of  Roller's  Cata- 
C0)nlns  de  Rome,  which  was  engraved   from  a  jthotograph  of  a  por- 

't'.  Examples  in  de  Rossi.  Le   Blnnt,  Boliietti,  Cnrpm  Tnscn'pt.  Grwc,  Corpus  In- 
script.  iMlin.,  Roller,   Krnus,  Scluiltze,  etc.     The  number  is  large,  and  llie  criticism 
and  commentary  upon  theiu  liave  been  exhaustive. 
17 


258  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 

tion  of  the  Cliristian  Museum  of  St.  John  Lateran  at  Rome.'  It 
contains  fifty  ei)itaphs,  which  are  iUustrated  by  some  of  the  most 
prized  of  the  Christian  symbols, 

No.  1  is  a  monument  to  Severa,  whose  bust  adorns  the  slab.     The 
scene  here  represented   is  the  visitation  of  the  raasfi. 

The  inafj  ...  . 

bearing  gifts  to  the  infant  Christ,  who  rests  upon  the 

lap  of  his  mother.     The  star  is  nearly  above  the  head  of  Mary,  while 

a  figure  behind,  whose  character  has  been  a  matter  of  controversy, 

extends  the  hand   in  blessing,  or  to  point  out  the   star  to  the  wise 

men.     The  inscription,  in  Deo  vioas,  is  found  very  frequently  in 

the   third  century,  but  does  not  pertain  to   it  exclusively.      The 

epigraphist  is  rather  inclined   to  place  this  in  either  the  third  or 

fourth   century.     It  was  found  in  a  cemetery  on  the   Via  Scdaria 

Nova,  Rome. 

Nos.  2,  3,  and  4,  are  instances  of  the  Good  Shepherd  upon  the 

burial  monuments.     The  simple  inscription  on  Ko.  4,  Florentius  in 

pacae,  would  lead  us  to  regard  it  as  of  very  early  origin.     Much  is 

said  about  the  sjniibolism  of  these  and  similar  scenes.     A  class  of 

archaeologists  would  say  that  the  trees  are  the  symbol  of 
Paradise.  .  .  . 

paradise,  to  which  the  soul  has  departed  in  peace  under 

the  kindly  care  of  the  Good  Shepherd.  This  is  probably  an  unwar- 
ranted extension  of  the  principle  of  symbolism,  since  these  trees 
could  more  properly  be  regarded  as  oi'uamental,  to  complete  the 
balancing  of  the  scene. 

The  Good  Shepherd  idea  is  likcAvise  prominent  in  Nos.  5,  6,  7,  9, 
Good  Shep-  12,  and  14.  We  believe  the  presence  of  the  tree  in  5,  6, 
herd.  ^nd  9  can  be  more  natui-ally  and  justly  considered  ar- 

tistic than  symbolic.  Nos.  5,  43,  44,  and  45  embody  another  class 
of  figures,  called  Orantes,  which  have  been   elsewhere  examined. 

While  these  fifjures  are  not  infrequently  met  in  the  fres- 
Orantes.  ,     .  '^  .  .^  .",...  . 

COS,  their  occurrence  in  connection  with  inscriptions  is 

quite  rare.  No.  5  is  from  the  most  ancient  portion  of  San  Calisto, 
Rome,  reaching  back,  it  is  believed,  to  the  first  half  of  the  third 
centuiy.  The  paleographic  suggestion  would  agree  with  the  other 
evidences  respecting  this  date.  The  Greek,  MOTCHC  Zi2N  EHOI- 
HCEN  AT^  KAI  TH  TTNEKl,  is  not  an  unusual  method  of  expres- 
sing the  dedication  of  a  monument  by  the  living  to  the  dead. 

'  The  plates  here  used  in  ilhif^tration  of  Cliristian  epigrapli}^  are  for  the  most  part 
veduccd  from  tliose  in  Roller's  mngnilicent  work.  Tliis  Museum  contains  the  rich- 
est collection  of  Christian  inscriptions  in  the  world.  By  specinl  correspondence,  in 
which  M.  Roller's  desire  to  extend  a  knowledge  of  Christian  archaeology  completely 
dominated  every  other  motive,  arrnngements  were  made  to  use  these  and  other 
plates.     Grateful  acknowledgment  of  this  kindness  is  here  made. 


I^JJ^SH^i 


VlCTOWAQAtVKlTCV    Qp|   MVIRCJ  NJVA^JWM 


ONVKMINDASAVCy^ 


TASLNfAC/£ 


ITANKHIMXhN./<'/     /.^ 


jj^&Mj 


ri.ATE  III.— Cliristlan  Iiiiicrlptioiu  assoi-iaieil  witb  Cbristlan  SyiuboLs. 


EARLY    CIIUISTIAX    EPKIKAPIIY.  259 

No8.  8  and  9  illustrate  the  coininiiiii^ling  of  Latin  and  Greek  in 
the  same  inscription,  Xo.  S,  aiil  the  omission  of  letters,  comminjfiinjf 
COIVGI  for  CONIVGI,  No.  !».  'I'licy  have  a  eurious  of  symbols, 
c-onihination  of  syn»h(»ls.  No.  s  has  for  a  central  tii^ure  the  (iood 
Shcphcril,  on  one  side  of  whom  is  a  lion,  on  the  other  some  devour- 
ing monster  whose  character  is  not  will  <h'iined.  It  has  been 
suggested  that  these  may  rejiresfnt  the  fues  that  threatened  the  life 
of  the  sheep  which  the  Good  .Shei)herd  will  rescue.  The  anchor 
■;n(l  the  -^  plainly  point  to  the  ground  of  the  Christian's  hojie. 
'i'he  light  hand  iigure  in  No.  9  is  a  rude  form  of  the  ark,  toward 
which  the  dove  is  flying,  bearing  in  its  beak  the  olive  branch.  In 
Xo.  49  this  scene  is  rei)eated.     This  is  a  very  frequent 

1.^1  1       /••  1        ,•     1     "  i-11  1  The  Churrh. 

symbol  ot  the  nature  and  otnce  work  or  the  Church — 

the  ark  of  safety  bearing  its  precious  freiglit  over  the  dangerous 

sea  of  life.' 

The  frequent  recurrence  of  tlie  anclior  (S,  18,  19,  21,  23,  24,  26, 
27,  28)  is  very  noteworthy,  since  these  are  found  on  monuments  dis- 
covered in  and  near  Rome.  So  the  frequent  use  of  the  fish  on  these 
burial  monuments  (Nos.  11,  10,  20,  22)  has  been  discussed  elsewhere 
(y.  pp.  77-83).  No.  15  represents  a  scene  frequently  met  in  the  fres- 
cos, and  not  seldom  found  on  the  sculptured  monuments.  RaisinRof  Laz- 
The  raising  of  Lazarus  by  Ilim  wlio  is  the  Life  was  a™''- 
symbolic  of  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection, which  was  the  central 
truth  of  the  apostolic  preaching,  and  the  source  of  solace  to  a  de- 
spised and  oftentimes  suffering  Church.  No.  10  is  also  the  repre- 
sentation of  a  mummy-like  figure  in  a  tomb,  surmounted  by  the  ^, 
the  hope  of  the  deceased. 

The  ^  monuments  have  been  elsewhere  discussed,  and  the  aid 
which  they  furnish  in  determining  the  chronology  of  inscriptions 
with  which  they  are  associated  has  been  pointed  out.  Nos.  29, 
30,  31  are  noteworthy  as  containing  the  swastica  in  connection 
with  other  symbols;  with  the  simplest  form  of  the  cross  in  a  circle, 
as  emblem  of  eternity,  in  No.  31,  with  the  B-  M-  in  No.  29,  and 
with  the  -^  in  No.  30.  The  origin  of  this  symbol  has  l)een  else- 
where examined  (v.  pp.  84,  85).  No.  32  has,  in  connection  with  the 
name  AGAPIS,  an  umisual  combination  of  symbols,  unusual  lom- 
The  Tan,  or  an  obscure  form  of  cross,  is  directly  asso-  bi nation  of 
ciated  with  the  A  fl  and  with  the  ■^.  It  may  well  ^y"'*^'"- 
''nggest  the  question  whether  the  sculptor  had  in  mind  the  idea  of 
»he  crucifixion.     The  crucifix,  wlierein  is  a  direct  and  literal  repre- 

'  Even  Hasonclcvcr:  Dei-  altchrMlirhe  Grdbersmuck,  Brnunfchwolg,  188»),  s.  114, 
concedes  that  this  figure  of  the  sliip  and  ark  are  used  as  rclipioiis  symbols,  and  not 
simply  to  indicate  tlie  maritime  industries  of  the  Christians  of  Alexandria. 


360  ARCHiSOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

sentation  of  the  divine  Victim  upon  the  cross,  has  not  yet  found 
its  way  into  the  art  of  the  Churcli;  the  early  Christians  j) refer  to 
shadow  forth  this  supreme  event  under  the  garb  of  symbolism. 
Still,  it  may  be  difficult  to  interpret  this  symbolism  in  any  other  way 
than  b}^  the  suggestion  of  sacrifice  upon  the  cross.  Nos.  43,  44,  45 
have  associated  with  the  central  figure — an  orante — certain  marks 
and  ch.aracters  which  are  quite  infrequent  in  monumental  art.  The 
two  busts  in  43  and  44  have  an  uncertain  reference.  The  sugges- 
tion that  they  may  represent  the  chief  apostles  may  have  something 
in  its  favor,  yet  there  is  nothing  to  absolutely  confirm  it.  No.  44 
has  likewise  on  each  side  of  the  praying  figure  a  candelabrum  resting 
upon  a  tripod  of  dolphins.  The  style  of  these  candelabra  would 
point  to  a  Byzantine  influence,  and  would  suggest  a  date  as  late  as 
the  sixth  or  seventh  century.  That  evidence  is  here  found  that 
Tapers  in  the  lighted  tapers  were  used  in  the  forms  of  worship  may 
Church  service,  jjot  be  accepted;  but  that  lights  had  already  been  intro- 
duced into  parts  of  the  service  is  generally  conceded.  Above  the 
orante,  in  No.  45,  is  seemingly  the  representation  of  the  choir  of  a 
basilica.  Here,  too,  the  tapers  are  introduced;  but  the  interpreta- 
tion is  obscure  and  unsatisfactory^.  Probably  the  artist  had  in  view 
the  ornamentation  of  the  tomb,  and  was  guided  in  his  work  b}^  the 
necessity  of  a  proper  balancing  of  parts.  As  before  observed,  the 
introduction  of  some  of  these  figures  seems  ])lainly  for  decora- 
tive purposes;  this  view  is  more  reasonable  than  to  violate  the 
principles  of  symbolism  by  suggesting  some  unfounded  or  fanciful 
interpretation.' 

Plate  IV,  containing  a  representation  of  sixtj^-five  sepulchral  monu- 
ments, is  also  from  a  photograph  of  a  section  of  the  Lateran 
Museum,  Rome.^  It  is  designed  to  illustrate  the  symbolism  in 
prevalent  use  among  the  early  Christians.  Many  of  the  subjects 
contained  in  Plate  III  are  here  repeated.  The  orcoites,  as  found  in 
Nos.  3,  4,  5,  6,  8,  9,  10,  11,  12,  13,  14,  preserve  the  general  character 
of  these  figures  as  they  are  met  in  the  i"rescos.  The  presence  of  the 
•^  in  most  of  these  vouches  for  their  Christian  character,  and  also 
enables  us  to  fix  their  chronology  as  not  earlier  than  the  beginning 
of  the  fourth  century,  nor  later  than  the  latter  quarter  of  the  fifth 
century,  if  the  monument  is  of  Roman  origin,  nor  later  than   the 

'  It  is  not  proposed  to  enter  into  tlie  explanation  of  every  inscription  or  burial 
monument  represented  in  the  plates.  They  are  given  as  samples  of  the  style  of  in- 
scriptions which  illustrate  the  principles  liefore  enunciated.  To  leave  a  portion  of 
each  plate  to  be  deciphered  by  the  student  may  contribute  to  a  greater  facility  ia 
reading  and  interpretation. 

^  After  Roller. 


i 


■^   •.-UONIAAflWDQfLAADfOQ 


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3R  rn^  JIT    I  (    ^^V~l  r^81  r^ 


Plate  IV.— Christian  Symbols  on  Burial  Monuments. 


EARLY    CHRISTIAN    HPKiUAI'lIY.  261 

close  of  the  fifth  i-eiitury,  if  found  in  (iaul.'  The  simplicity  of  No. 
II,  AlexKitdra  in  pace,  as  well  as  the  accompaiiyintr  fi<ruiv  of  the 
(love,  might  suggest  a  monument  of  the  midiUe  of  tlu'  third  century 
or  the  heginning  of  the  fourth. 

In  Xos.  15,  10,  17,  18  is  found  re|ti'ated  (lie  boxdike  ark,  l.clicved 
to  be  the  symbol  of  the  Church,  and  of  safety  to  all  who  enter  it. 

The   fre(j[uent   recurrence  of    the    dove    ypon   burial    monuments 
has  given  occasion  for  much  writing  on  its  significance.         ^^^  ^^^^ 
As  with   respect  to  other  figures,  so  here,  too,  is  wide 
difference  of  oi)inion.      Interpreters  wdio   would   reduce   Christian 
symbolism  to  its  iniuinmm  of  meaning,  or  regard  it  as  only  imi- 
tative of  the   i»agan   thought,    would   see  in   the  dove  little  more 
than   an   appropriate  and  i)leasing  dec(H-ation   for  the  monument, 
with  no  synabolic  significance;  while  another  class,  who  are  finditig 
in  each  object  connected  with  the  Christian  monuments  a  hidden 
yet  imi)ortant  lesson,  would  in   every  instance  attach  to  this  figure 
of  the  dove  the   idea  of  innocence,  of  purity,  etc.,  as  illustrative  ot 
the  character  of  the  deceased,  or  as  syml)olic  of  the  soul  itself,  which 
finds  its  rest  and  assurance   in   llie  presence  of  Christ — the  •^.     In 
Nos.  24,  ;]S,  it   is   very   difficult   for   the   observer   to   be  convinced 
that  any  thing  more  than  a  pleasing  ornamentation  \vas  designed; 
vet  in  these,  and   in   monuments  like   27,  28,  29,  the  school  of  ex- 
treme symbolism  has  professed  to  find  a  reference  to  the  eucharist: 
the  grapes  suggesting  the  wine,  the  wine  suggesting  the       ^^^^^  ^^^^^^ 
words  of  Jesus,   "I  will   not   drink  henceforth   of   this 
fruit  of  the  vine  until  that  day  when  I  drink  it  new  with  you  in  my 
Father's  kingdom"  (Matt,  xxvi,  29).     In  No.  50   is   found   a  very 
unusual   combination   for  a  Christian  monument.     The  inscription, 
^Elici  JJictorinaposuit  Aureliw  Pi'ohv,  ".Klia  Victorina  set  this  up 
to  Aurelia  Proba,"  is  a  very  common  form.     The  peacock  was  like- 
wise used  as  a  symbol  of  immortality;  but  the  other  figure  is  obscure 
in  its  reference.     If  it  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  lion,  then  ^^^^   ^^^^^ 

the  suggestion  that  it  may  refer  to  Christ  as  the  Lion  of 
the  tribe  of  Judah  may  not  be  unreasonable,  and  the  whole  nionu- 
nient  may  teach  that  the  immortality  of  the  departed  soul  was 
secured  through  this  One  who  had  been  victor  over  death,  whose 
power  and  worthiness  are  the  subject  of  the  inspiring  apocalyptic 
vision  given  in  Rev.,  chap.  v. 

In  G2,  63  is  the  recurrence  of  the  ship  or  ark,  with  the  ad<lition 
of  the  tower  or  lighthouse.     It  may  not  violate  any  law  of  sym- 
bolism to  regard  this  tower   as  the  goal  of  the  earthly  voyaging, 
the  eternal   mansions  which  are  to  receive   the  faithful  wanderer 
'  Le  Blanl:  Munuel  d' Epigraphie  chretienne,  pp.  27-29. 


262  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 

over  life's  perilous  sea.  "Firmia  Victora,  who  lived  sixty-five 
years,"  is  the  simple  inscription;  the  symbols  tell  a  more  siguilicant 
story. 

The  palm-branch  is  of  very  frequent  occurrence  on  the  marbles,  as 
The  palm  ^'^  ^^^^  frescos.  In  Nos.  54,  55,  and  56  this  appears  as 
branch.  the  prominent  symbol.     It  is  not  difficult  to  interpret 

this,  since  here  is  the  frequently  recurring  reference  of  the  Apoca- 
lypse to  the  victory  which  the  redeemed  shall  finally  achieve,  as  in 
60,  61  the  like  triumph  is  symbolized  by  the  chaplet  or  crown. 

Plate  V  represents  inscriptions  from  the  first  half  of  the  third 
century.  The  first  four  give  the  simplest  expressions  used  npon 
the  burial  moimments  of  the  early  Christians.  Decessit,  often  abre- 
simpie  inscrip-  viated  to  (he.,  dep.  depositus,  sep.  sepultus,  are  the 
•^io^s.  most  common  designations  of  Christian  interment.     The 

Greek  KATAeEClC  is  most  nearly  synonymous.  Rather  it  would 
be  more  strictly  correct  to  say  that  this  is  the  original  word,  since 
the  Greek  language  is  usually  the  earlier  in  Christian  inscriptions 
of  Rome,  and  depositus  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  adequate  transla- 
tion of  the  Greek  KATA9ECIC.  It  is  generally  agreed  that  the 
primary  idea  of  these   words  is  here  preserved,  namely,  that  of  a 

temporarv  deposit,  in  distinction  from  the  idea  of  a  per- 
Signiflcance.  "tAt  i-iii         i  n 

manent  and  nnal  act,  winch  the  heathen  generally  ex- 
pressed by  the  word  j^ositus  and  composites.  This  is  not  an  unim- 
portant fact  when  the  view  of  death  entertained  by  the  pre-Coustan- 
tine  Church  is  considered. 

No.  5  has  few  distinguishing  marks  of  a  Christian  inscription. 
Its  fulsome  characterization  of  the  offices  and  relations  of  the  de- 
ceased is  not  in  harmony  with  the  usual  simplicity  of  the  second  or 
third  century.  The  fact  that  he  was  of  the  emperor's  household  as 
well  as  his  f reedman  is  clearly  stated ;  but  that  a  Christian  should 
receive  appointment  to  these  important  offices  at  the  hand  of  a  very 
cruel  and  profligate  ruler  has  given  rise  to  doubt  as  to  the  Chi'istian 
stans  in  character  of  the  inscription  itself.  It  is,  however,  sup- 
governmental  jDosed  that  here,  as  in  case  of  other  well  known  examples, 
^  *^^^'  this  libertinus  may  have,  quietly,  and  unknown  to  his 

patron,  maintained  his  associations  with  the  C'hristian  Church,  yet, 
from  his  superior  fidelity  to  the  duties  of  his  offices,  have  been  a 
favorite  with  the  emperor.  Some  aid  to  understand  No.  5  is  fur- 
nished by  the  very  mutilated  inscription  on  the  back  part  of  this 
sarcophagus,  in  which  this  name  of  Prosenes  again  occurs.  By  this 
m.eans  the  Christian  chai'acter  of  the  monument  is  proved.  The  ex- 
pression receptus  ad  Dewn  is  not  found  in  pagan  epigraphy. 

No.  6  connects  with  its  inscription  two  well-accepted  Christian 


decessitI   [de?] 

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I'LATK  v.—  Epitaplis  (roiii  Ursi  hail  ol  Ttiinl  tcutury. 


EARLY   CHUISTIAN    EPIGRAPHY.  203 

symbols,  tlms  furnisliing  cvitloncu  of  its  charat-ter,  wliile  its  dati", 
A.  1).  -J.U,  is  well  asct'itainod  by  the  consular  iiulicatioiis.  No.  7 
alscj  has  its  consular  date  clearly  inscribed.  Without  such  positive 
inrorniatioii,  other  (.-haracterislics  of  the  inscription  would  suiji^cst  a 
somewhat  earlier  orii^in.  The  expression  JJnldsslind  has  generally 
been  regarded  as  of  a  very  early  date — usually  pertaining  to  the 
second  t-cntury,  yet  not  coniiiied  to  it.  The  phrase  de  saecido  rerei^sit 
is  somewhat  peculiar,  but  linds  illuslraticju  in  other  monuments, 
even  in  some  that  are  non-C'Iuistian.  It  probably  is  to  be  under- 
stood in  the  sense  of  this  condition,  state,  or  life,  in  contrast  with 
that  upon  which  the  de})arted  has  entered. 

In  tlie  fragnu-nt  Xo.  0  there  is  little  of  special  interest  except  tlu- 
word  dornilt.  It  is  hardly  ever  found  in  the  classical  epigraphy,  and 
then  in  a  sense  radically  diiferent  from  tliat  which  the  Christians 
attached  to  it.  Much  has  been  said  about  the  doctrinal  import  of 
this  term.  It  lias  been  (pu>ted  in  sujiport  of  tlie  opinion  -j.,,,.  si^nin- 
that  the  common  teaching  of  the  Church  of  the  thinl  <auce  of  dny- 
century  was  that  there  was  a  slumber  of  tlie  soul  between 
death  and  the  final  resurrection.  Sucli  use  of  a  term  in  ei)igraphic 
study  would  hardly  be  justifiable.  It  must  be  taken  in  connection 
with  other  and  e(puUly  important  exi)ressions  which  would  jjoint 
to  a  contrary  doctrine.  When  we  consider  tlie  terms  vivas,  bivas, 
vices,  etc.,  and  the  accoinpanying  words,  in  iJeo,  in  (.lirisfo,  etc., 
we  should  hesitate  to  build  on  sucli  a  form  as  dorniit  a  wh(»K' 
doctrinal  fabric  respecting  the  intermediate  state  of  the  dead.  It 
seems  more  probable  that  by  the  word  dorinit  there  would  be  con- 
veyed something  of  tlie  same  signilieance  as  by  the  term  in  pace  ; 
a  condition  so  grateful  to  the  toiler,  watchei",  and  soldier  after  the 
severe  labors  and  conflicts  of  life  are  over. 

Two  expressions  in  No.  10  arrest  attention:  O  AOTAOC  TOT 
GfcoT,  and  nAPf(5w«fe-  TUN  TTXr/z^  Tfl  OEfi.  The  whole  iMserii)tion 
is  worthy  of  study.  Nos.  \-\  and  14  are  good  examples  of  the  inele- 
gant and  careless  style  of  very  many  of  the  Christian  inscripti(»ns. 
Tlu'V  would  indicate  both  great  haste  in  the  execution  fareiessncss  in 
of  the  chiselinu-,  and   a  great  want  of  eulture  and  tasti'    i)nn)aniil..ii  of 

^1  ^      l•\^  1    .  'iM  !•  .  1  n  •       insfi'iptlons. 

on  the  part  of  tlu'  sculptors.       1  lu' pi'i'sence  ol   tlie  roll  ui 

No.  i:i  may  have  reference  to  the  teai-hing  work  of  the  deceased.   The 

reference  of  the  urn  is  obscure,  but  the  expression  ///  Deo  pax  is  full 

of  rich  suggestion  as  pert.iiiiiiig  to  a  iiiuiuinuiit  bi-ltuiging  [(robabiy 

to  the  third  century. 

Plate   VI,   which   is   designi'd   to  be  a  collection   of    monuments 

whose  inscrijitions  are   moiH'  or  less  dogmatic  in   charactt-r,  is  also 

from  the  Christian  ."Museum  of  the  Lateran  i)alace,  Home.    It  has  been 


264  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 

claimed  that  the  20,000  Christian  inscriptions  preserved  at  Rome 
Fewness  of  in-  are  not  more  than  one  seventh  part  of  those  which  sur- 
scnptions  of  a  y[yg.  ][j^^  ^f  j-{^jg  large  number  very  few  are  of  doc- 

dogitiatic  char-        ... 

acter.  trinal  significance.    Generally  the  statement  of  doctrine 

is  not  direct,  but  the  belief  is  left  to  be  infei'red. 

In  noticing  the  inscriptions  of  this  plate  we  are  impressed  with 
the  ardent  wish  that  the  departed  ma}^  live  with  God,  or  in  Christ; 
Ardent  longing  clearly  pointing  to  a  faith  in  the  conscious  imion  of  the 
for  future  life,  dead  with  the  Divine  in  the  future  world.  In  the  great 
variety  of  forms,  bioes,  vibes,  ZIT,  vibos,  bibas,  vive,  is  expressed 
the  longing  desire,  the  earnest  prayer.  The  companionship  of  the 
new  life  after  death,  in  Deo,  Deo,  EN  GEfl,  in  Domino  Zesu,  hi 
Cliristo,  in  -^,  is  real,  and  with  the  source  of  all  life  and  joy.  There 
seems  to  be  no  thought  of  waiting  for  a  full  fruition  to  be  realized 
in  some  far-off,  indefinite  future,  but  of  a  present,  immediate  bless- 
edness in  the  enjoyment  of  all  that  is  implied  in  being  absent  from 
the  body  and  present  with  the  Lord.' 

The  frequent  recurrence  of  the  in  pace  is  a  further  indication  of 
other  indica-  the  assurance  which  the  promises  of  Christ  have  in- 
Me"^in^a^con-  '"^P'!"^*^^?  that  the  departed  one  is  in  a  condition  of  repose, 
tinned  life.  Moreover,  the  use  of  refrif/eret  implies  a  state  of  blessed 
activity  such  as  is  so  significantly  convej'ed  by  the  thought  of  spirit- 
ual refreshing.  The  various  methods  of  indicating  the  immediate, 
active,  conscious  happiness  of  the  soul  after  death  leave  no  doubt 
with  respect  to  the  supporting  power  of  the  belief  of  the  early 
Christians  in  the  promise  of  Christ  to  his  disciples:  "I  go  to  prepare 
a  place  for  you,  .  .  .  that  where  I  am  ye  may  be  also  "  (John  xiv, 
2,  3).    _ 

Again,  the  expressions  in  eternurn,  EI2  AI£2NA,  indicate  that  this 
ALSO  life  in  per-  lift",  this  jicacc,  tliis  refreshment  with  God  and  Avith  Christ 
petuity.  tiie  Lord  are  to  be  in  perpetuity.     "  And  they  shall 

reign  for  ever  and  ever  "  (Rev.  xxii,  5).  The  power  of  this  faith  in 
the  immediateness  and  perpetuity  of  the  promised  fruition  might 
well  keep  them  steadfast,  immovable,  loyal  to  their  divine  Mastei-, 
and  ever  ready  to  attest  this  loyalty  by  a  niartyr's  confession. - 

Damasus  occupied  the  pontifical  chair- from  A.  D.  3G6  to  A.  D.  385. 
The  Dainasene  His  zeal  for  the  Cliurch  was  well-nigh  consuming.  For 
inscriptions.  ^he  martyred  heroes  who  had  witnessed  their  faith  by 
suffering  he  entertained  a  veneration  akin  to  worship.  The  graves 
of  these  faithful  ones  were  hallowed  spots.     His  earnestness  was  so 

^  These  moninnentp  sliould  be  studied  in  connection  with  those  bearing  the  expres- 
sions "donnit,"  "dormuit,"  etc. 
*  The  qualification  of  these  statements  has  already  been  given,     v.  p.  254. 


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PLATE  VII.  -  Inscriptions  of  Pope  Damasus,  founb  century. 


L 


EARr,V    CHRISTIAN  EPIGRAPHY.  265 

groat  that  the  prai-tici'  uf  l.urial  in  the  cemeteries,  which  had  been 
hirgely  (liseoiitimied,  once  more  became  almost  nniversal  at  Rome. 
He  was  careful  to  decorate  the  [)rincii)al  cemeteries  with  iH-autifullv 
prepared  inscriptions,  in  which  were  found  higii  eulogiums  of  the 
martyred  saints,  and  his  restorations  of  the  tombs  of  the  worthies 
were  rich  an<I  characteristic.  These  inscriptions  have  a  character 
so  marked  that  they  are  readily  distiniruislied  by  the  Their  charac- 
skillful  epigraphist.  They  liave  great  regularity,  are  terisUca. 
most  beautifully  and  sharply  chiseled,  and  have  been  preserved 
in  much  of  their  original  integrity.  Often  they  become  the  means 
of  positive  dogmatic  statements,  from  which  an  almost  complete 
credo  might  be  framed.  While  the  i)anegyric  is  often  extrava- 
gant, it  is  nevertheless  tempered  by  a  spirit  of  love  and  venera- 
tion that  disarms  criticism  and  awakens  lively  sympathy.  Liv- 
ing at  a  time  wlien  the  purity  of  the  Cliristian  faith  had  been 
greatly  menaced,  and  when  the  severe  morality  of  the  pre-Constan- 
tine  period  had  yielded  to  the  current  worldliness,  it  is  not  won- 
derful that  this  zealous  leader  found  delight  in  calling  the  atten- 
tion of  a  decaying  age  to  the  self-sacrificing  lives  of  saints  who  had 
made  the  Church  illustrious  in  the  days  of  its  sorest  perse'cutions. 

Plate  VII  gives  a  good  idea  of  these  inscriptions.  The  clearness  and 
regularity  of  the  incisions,  as  well  as  the  metrical  character  of  these 
epitaphs,  are  manifest.  Also  from  No.  4  may  be  seen  the  results  of 
the  painstaking  work  of  de  Rossi  in  collecting  the  mi-  The  method  of 
nutest  fragments  of  marbles  bearing  these    Damasene   compU'menu. 

inscriptions,  and  afterward  com])leting  the  slab  by  most  careful  adjust- 
•  ments.  IJy  this  means  valual)lc  historic  materials  have  been  obtained 
to  supply  many  deficiencies  in  tin-  record.  It  will  be  noticed  that  even 
the  remarkably  clear  and  beautiful  inscription,  Xo.  1,  omits  some  let- 
ters, leaving  them  to  be  easily  supplie.l  by  the  reader.  It  is  addressed 
to  St.  Agnes,  and  is  a  curious  commingling  of  faith  and  poetic  enthu- 
siasm. Whether  we  are  to  regai-d  this  address  as  an  in-  prayers  to  the 
vocation  to  the  saint,  after  the  manner  of  the  classical  dead, 
writers,  or  as  an  expression  of  veneration,  it  is  jilain  that  here  is  a 
clear  in<lication  of  faith  in  the  infiuence  of  the  dead  upon  the  fortunes 
of  the  living. 

No.  2  is  written  in  honor  of  the  martyrs,  Felix  and  Adauctus. 
Nos.  3  and  4  are  from  the  crypt  of  Eusei)ius  of  the  cemetery  San 
Calisto— No.  4  being  a  restoration  of  the  fifth  or  sixth  century 
from  numerous  fragments  found  in  this  cemetery.  The  vertical  in- 
scription in  the  margin  un  each  side  the  main  one  gives  the  name 
of  him  who  ])rcparcd  the  work— Furius  Dionysius  Philoculns,  the 
engraver  to  Damasus.     The  monument  is  of  special  interest  in  tell- 


366  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 

ing  what  is  not  elsewhere  found;  namely,  that  the  pope  Eusebius, 
A.  D.  310,  (lied  in  exile  in  Sicily,  whither  he  was  banislied  by  Max- 
The  terms  for  entius.  It  is  notable  that  three  terms  are  here  used  in 
chief  pastor.  connection  with  Eusebius  and  Damasus:  episcoi^os,  rector, 
2iXi(\.  pappa.  Much  discussion  has  been  had  respecting  the  meaning 
of  these  words,  and  respecting  the  time  when  the  word  pappa  first 
became  the  official  characterization  of  the  head  of  the  Western 
Church.  The  word  rector  implies  a  degree  of  authority,  but  can 
hardly  be  claimed  to  carry  with  it  undisputed  and  irresponsible  au- 
thority. It  was  at  times  applied  to  simple  cures.  The  word  pappa 
seems  at  first  to  have  been  used  to  designate  the  spiritual  relation- 
ship of  those  who  had  been  especially  helpful  as  advisers.  The 
term  was  applied  to  numerous  bisho}»s  in  both  West  and  East,  and 
was  not  the  exclusive  title  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome.  De  Rossi  has 
affirmed  that  it  was  originally  a  title  of  endearment  rather  than  of 
dignity.  The  term  episcopos  is  the  proper  official  designation  of  the 
chief  officer  of  the  Church,  both  in  tlie  time  of  Damasus  and  with 
his  successors.  This  is  the  term  whose  meaning  is  fixed  and  definite, 
about  which  no  doubt  can  be  entertained. 

No.  9  has  given  occasion  for  much  discussion  as  to  its  teaching. 
Nub  of  ^o"^®  epigraphists  (Marchi  notably)  have  claimed  that 
martyrs  not  reference  is  here  made  to  the  great  multitude  of  victims 
taugrht.  ^^Y\o  pei-ished  during  the  persecutions,  and  it  has  been 

cited  in  proof  of  this  opinion.  But  it  would  be  unwarrantable  to 
press  the  teaching  of  this  inscription  too  far.  The  manifestly  pan- 
egyric character  of  the  writing  may  well  suggest  caution  in  the  in- 
terpretation; yet  it  is  instructive  in  revealing  the  enthusiastic  spirit 
of  this  noted  bishop  in  caring  for  the  memory  of  those  who  had  so 
faithfully  witnessed  for  Christ. 

The  eleven  inscriptions  of  Plate  YIII '  are  from  the  last  half  of 
the  fourth  century.  They  are  of  fixed  date,  this  being  determined  by 
the  consulates  mentioned  in  the  inscriptions  themselves.  They  extend 
Characteristics  from  A.  D.  360  to  the  close  of  the  century.  The  char- 
of  inscriptions  acteristics  of  the  epigra]:)hic  monuments  of  this  jieriod 

of  the  last  half    ,  .  <.'ii  ti  -hi        in 

of  the  fourth  have  been  most  carerully  studied,  especially  b}^  de  Kossi. 
century.  In  his  exhaustive  work  "^  he  has  given  the  following  as 

among  their  distinguishing  marks:  Frequent  recurrence  of  the  mon- 
ogram of  Christ  in  the  Constantinian  form,  ^;  the  use  of  the  cruci- 
form style  of  this  monogram,  h£i;  the  association  with  it  of  the  A  i2; 
the  general  absence  of  the  symbolic  anchor  and  fish;  the  continuation 
of  the  doves;  and  an  almost  exclusive  use  of  the  Latin  language  on 

'  Reduced  from  Plate  Ixii,  vol.  ii,  of  Roller's  Las  Ca/acombes  de  Rome. 
^  Roma  Sotterranea,  t.  iii,  p.  300. 


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EARLY    rilRISTIAN    EPI(;KAIMIV.  207 

the  niomimonts  of  tlic  West.  With  lew  exceptions  tlie  simple  ex- 
pressions of  invoeation,  as  vivas,  refrhjera,  ete.,  are  (Iiseontinue<l, 
and  a  style  of  liii^h  j)aiie<:ryric  is  frequently  indulged;  the  day  ui 
death  and  even  of  burial  is  usually  mentioned;  and  a  general  pre- 
dominanee   of   the  exj)ressions  dcpositiis,  dtjxisitio,  ete.     These  are 

to  be  rejjarded  oidv  as  qcneral  marks  of  the  inscriptions    „. 

o      ^  JO  I  \\  a  r  n  1  II  K 

of  this  period;  for  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  aKainsi  iiasiy 
style  of  the  epigraj)hic  monuments  does  not  undergo  a  •n^'"*=i'o"»- 
sudden  and  complete  transformation,  but  some  marks  continue  in 
permanence.  No.  1  is  somewhat  rude  of  workmanship,  tending  to 
the  cursive  style.  It  is  considerably  abbreviated,  yet  the  parts  are 
easily  supplie<]. 

"  His  parents  to  their  most  dearly-beloved  son,  Dionysius,  who 
lived  five  years,  seven  months,  and  nine  days.  Buried  on  the  six- 
teenth before  the  Kalends  of  Se})tember,  C'onstantine  being  for  the 
tenth  time  consul.     In  peace." 

'i'lic  connection  here  of  the  A  S2  with  the  monogram  of  Christ 
(said  to  be  the  first  instance  where  these  are  associated  Divinity  of 
on  a  monument  of  fixed  date ')  certainly  suggests  the  Christ, 
everlastingness  of  the  second  person  of  the  sacred  Trinity.  Yet 
it  would  probably  be  unwarrantal>le  to  regard  the  presence  of  the 
symbol,  A  i2,  u|)()ii  a  monument  as  conclusive  proof  of  the  faith 
of  those  who  caused  its  erection  in  the  deity  of  Clirist.  We  have 
already  spoken  of  the  use  of  the  D-  ]\[-  upon  Christian  burial  monu- 
ments, and  have  seen  that  this  arose  from  the  fact  that  it  had  prob- 
ably become  a  sort  of  conventional  heading  to  these  inscrii)tions,  and 
that  little  thought  was  proljably  had  of  the  heathen  ignorance  of 
sitxniticance  of  the  svmbol.     So  also  it  mav  be  true  that   "^."ILrA^f  "J-,!!" 

^^  •  •  (.<1IH  K       Ol      ?*>  Ill- 

the  placing  of  the  A  £2  upon  the  tombs  of  the  deceased  b<>is  possible. 
Christians  may  have  been  without  thought  of  its  deep  dogmatic  im- 
port on  the  part  of  the  sculptor.  But  it  certaiidy  argues  that 
what  had  once  been  ilelibcrately  chosen  as  signiticaiit  of  the  nat- 
ure and  person  of  Christ  continued,  hoAvever  unconsciously,  to  be 
accepted  by  the  Christians  of  the  fourth  century  as  expressive  of 
their  faith  in  the  eternity  of  that  Lord  in  whose  peace  their  departed 
dead  now  rested. 

The  seuiper  quiescis  sccura  and  dormit  of  No.  2,  the  requievit  in 
jxtce  of  No.  3,  and  the  hie  ^foinpucit  of  No.  9  recall  the  question 
whether  tlu'se  shall  be  regardt'd  of  dogmatic  inqtort,  or  are  only  ex- 
Itressive  of  the  current  belief  of  Christians  in  the  quiet  repose  of  the 
actor  after  the  struggles  of  this  t-arthly  scene  are  passed. 

In  Nos.  5,  6,  7,  and  s,  the  high  eulogistic  character  of  many  of 
'  Roller:    Calacombes  de  Rome,  T.  ii,  p.  81. 


268  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 

the  inscriptions  of  tliis  period  is  illustrated.  The  mirce  sapientce, 
Eulogistic  ^^'^P^^  ccelestia  quoareits,  optima  seroatrix  le;jis,  Jidelque 
character  of  in-  iriayistra  dedlt,  li'ic  tumulus  lacrimas  retinet,  etc.,  are 
scnptioas.  -^^  strong  contrast  with  the  simple  and   expressive  in 

pace  or  the  hie  jacet  of  the  second  and  third  centuries.  In  No.  8 
are  the  clear-cut  workmanshijD,  the  regularity  of  the  lettering,  the 
equality  of  the  lines,  as  well  as  the  high  panegyric  of  the  Damasene 
inscriptions,  to  which  allusion  has  elsewhere  been  made. 

No.  10,  of  the  year  397  A.D.,  is  interesting  as  a  genuine  palimp- 
sest; since  on  the  back  is  seen  another  inscription, 
Leo  et  Statia  vivi  fecerunt,  while  beneath  the  main 
Latin  inscription  is  found  a  Greek  one  inverted,  of  good  characters, 
and  evidently  of  a  date  much  earlier  than  the  last.  It  reads 
ETTTXIANf2  AOTAQ  OEOT  IOi;AlANH  CTN  (6icj).  Thus  on  the 
same  slab  are  found  the  purer  Latin,  the  much  earlier  and  almost 
classical  Greek,  and  over  it  again  the  later  and  corrupt  Latin.  This 
nionuinont  would  also  suggest  that  the  language  of  the  early  Church 
was  the  Greek. 

An  interesting  class   of  objects  in  epigraphical  science  are  the 
Qrotfiti.     They  are  very  widelv  diffused  both  in  pagan 

The  graffiti.  .     .  "  i    o 

and  Christian  monuments.  They  are  more  numerous 
in  those  places  to  which  pilgrims  and  devotees  resorted  for  worship 
and  meditation,  where  the  sanctity  of  the  persons  interred,  or  the  in- 
spiring memories  of  the  scenes,  transform  the  spots  into  holy  shrines. 
Marked  examples  of  such  graffiti  are  met  in  manj^  parts  of  the  Orient, 
where  original  inscriptions  have  been  in  a  degree  effaced  by  others  of 
a  later  date,  and  these  in  turn  by  still  others.'  The  examples  on  Christ- 
ian monuments  and  in  sacred  spots  are  ver}^  numerous,  but  the  diffi- 
cult}^ of  deciphering  them  becomes  very  great,  and  many  valuable 
facts,  undoubtedly  concealed  under  the  commingling  of  characters, 
still  elude  the  ingenuity  of  the  epigraphist. 

In  some  portions  of  the  Christian  catacombs  of  Rome  the  graffiti 
have  been  studied  with  great  zeal,  especially  by  de  Rossi,  who  has 
given  a  resume  of  i-esults  in  his  noted  work.^  As  in  the  case  of 
pilgrimages  to  heathen  fanes  the  devotee  was  accustomed  to  inscribe 
a  vow  or  a  prayer,  or  to  leave  a  record  of  his  visit  on  or  near  the 

'  Notable  examples  are  found  at  Do<?  River,  in  Sj'ria,  Persepolis,  and  in  many 
parts  of  Kg3'pt.  "  Those  faintly  cut  emblems  of  Sesostris,  those  stern,  cold  soldiers 
of  Clialdea,  those  inscriptions  iu  Persian,  Greek,  Latin,  and  Arabic,  each  embodies  a 
history  of  itself,  or  ratlier  tells  of  one  written  elsewhere,  which  we  long  to  possess." 
Thomson:  The  Land  and  Ike  Book,  vol.  i,  p.  59.  For  Persepolis  see  especially  Fer- 
gussou  :  Historii  of  Architecture. 

^ Ruma  Sotterranea:  t.  ii,  tav.  xxxii  and  xxxiii. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN    KPICUAPIIV 


209 


sacred  shrino,  so  also  in  visitiiii,'  the  burial  placi's  of  saints  and 
martyrs  the  pilgrims  were  desirous  to  in-licate  tlieir  feelings.  Fig. 
123  is  a  representation  of  a  siuall  wall  surfaee  in  the  crypt  of  San 
Sisto  in  the  cemetery  of  San  Calislo,  al  Koine.  The  marks  seem  to 
be  mere  scratches  upon  the  mortar,  or  in  some  instances  ^^  ^^^  ^^^^^ 
are  in  pigment.  The  variety  of  forms  in  the  letters, 
the  different  languages,  Latin  an<l  Greek,  and  sometimes  the  almost 


X.,0/' 


^■^y^     --^"^     :0>  1 1 X  c 


Flf?.  123.-Graniti  from  papal  crypt.  Sail  Sisto.  Roiuo. 

barT)arous  vernacular  of  a  later  time,  make  a  jumble  of  dates,  of 
sentiments,  and  of  experiences  which,  if  unraveled,  might  doubtless 
famish  valuable  historic  truths  to  supply  the  hiatuses  now  so  pain- 
fully felt.  The  portions  which  have  been  deciphered  are  entirely 
harmonious  with  the  sentiments  expressed  in  the  well-understood 
inscriptions.  The  views  of  death  are  equally  cheerful,  and  the  joy 
of  the  soul  in  Christ  is  equally  ecstatic. 

Sometimes  the  cross  appears  with  equal  arms  enclosiMl  in  a  circle. 
It  is  not  easy  to  determine  how  far  this  may  be  regarded  as  of 
symbolic   import.      The  extreme    school   of    symbolists  would  see 


270 


ARCILEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 


in  such  forms  the  teaching  of  the  eternity  of  the  person  sj^mbol- 
ized,  as  well  as  the  continuance  in  perpetuity  of  the  doctrine  and 

kingdom 

which  He  has 

established. 

In    Fig.     124 

we    have    an 

example  from 

the  first  quar- 

t  e  r    of    the 

fifth  century. 
'*•.    "v,         ;     •        /'    /         Probably      it 

'".__    ~- -'       .''  was    part    of 

'■"~ ■''  a  burial  mon- 

Fig.  134.— Cross  in  circle  with  inscriptions,   ument,     and 

the  legend  in 
the  circle  was  descriptive  of  the  persons  com- 
memorated, while  the  two  arms  of  the  cross 
bear  the  quite  common  deposita  in  pace,  and 
the  age  of  the  deceased.  Unfortunately, 
the  mutilated  condition  of  the  inscription 
prevents  its  satisfactory  interpretation. 

Fig.  125  furnishes  an  example  of  the  value 
Epigraphicand  of  archoeological  i-emains  in  the 
pictorial    aids   iihigtratlon  of  obscure  points  in 

to  history  lUus-  ^ 

trated.  history.      It  is  a   small    column 

found  in  1874  among  the  ruins  of  the  Ba- 
silica San  Petronilla,  Rome.'  This  ruined 
basilica  has  already  been  described  (see  pp. 
174-176)  as  situated  above  the  cemetery  of 
San  Domitilla,  and  seems  to  have  l)een  built  on  account  of  the 
peculiar  sanctity  of  persons  interred  beneath.  In  former  times  this 
was  known  as  the  Cemeterium  DornitillcB,  Nerei  et  Achillei,  ad 
Petronillam  Via  Ardeatind.  The  reasons  why  Nereus,  Achilleus, 
and  Petronilla  should  be  thus  associated  wnth  this  cemetery  were 
difficult  to  find, until  the  discovery  of  this  column  and  a  small  frag- 
ment of  a  like  column  with  faint  indications  of  the  representation 
of  a  scene  similar  to  that  depicted  in  Fig.  125.  Here  is  clearly  a 
martyrdom.  The  pursuing  soldier  with  the  deadly  weapon  would 
slay  the  retreating  victim,  ACILLEVS.  The  further  indication  of 
martyrdom  is  the  crown  above  the  cross,  the  trinmpJms  Christ i, 

'  It  had  fallen  through  the  pavement  of  the  basilica  into  a  lower  gallery  of  the 
cemetery,    v.  Figs.  76,  77. 


Fig.  125.— Column  from  the 
Basilica  of  Petronilla.  Martyr- 
dom of  Achilles. 


EAUI.Y    cnUlSTIAN    KPICKAIMIV.  271 

wliicli  is  the  symhul  of  the  martyr's  death  and  friiiinph.  It  is 
eonjectured  that  the  other  like  eohimn,  a  small  pc^rtioii  of  which 
has  been  found,  may  have  similarly  depleted  tin-  martyr  death  of 
Nereus.  Further  exeavations  have  given  al)un<laiit  proofs,  also, 
of  the  eonnection  of  Petronilla  with  this  basiliea  and  cemetery. 
The  most  plausible  exi)lanation  is  tiiat  the  cemetery  ori<^inally  took 
its  name  from  Domitilla,  to  whom  this  plot  of  land  belonged,  and 
that  its  name  was  afterward  changed  on  account  of  the  interment 
of  these  martyrs  in  the  saered  precincts,' 

'  V.  Xorthcote  and  Browiilow:   Roma  Su'krronea,vo\.  i,  pp.  121,  180-183.     Roller: 
Lts  Caiacombes  de  Hi/me,  vol.  ii,  plate  xciv,  No.  4,  p.  331. 


272  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CPIRISTIAN  ART. 


CHAPTER  YIIL 

EARLY    CHRISTIAN    POETRY    AND    HYMNOLOGY. 
§  1.   Preliminary  Considerations. 

Religious  emotions  have  ever  sought  expression  in  poetic  meas- 
Reiations  of  ^^^'  "^^^^  ^^'^^  poets  of  a  people  have  been  instinct  with 
poetry  and  prophetic  fire,  while  the  prophets  of  religion  clothe 
re  igion.  their  weightiest  utterances  in  poetic  garb.     Poet  and 

prophet  alike  draw  inspiration  from  a  common  source.  Religion 
suggests  to  poetry  its  richest  themes,  Avliile  poetry  furnishes  to  re- 
ligion the  vehicle  for  the  expression  of  its  deepest  truths.  The  sa- 
cred song  is  therefore  found  associated  with  every  religion.  The 
heathen  used  it,  the  Hebrews  chanted  it  in  their  temple  service,  the 
untutored  savage  utters  it  in  sacred  grove  or  consecrated  wood. 

Nor  is  the  Christian  religion  an  exception  to  this  rule.  The  true 
Te  Deum  Laudaini(s  had  been  chanted  by  the  angelic  choir  when 
they  announced  the  advent  of  the  Prince  of  Peace,  and  the  song  of 
holy  triumph  of  devout  Simeon  and  Elizabeth,  Nunc  Dlinittis,  has 
been  counted  among  the  valued  treasures  of  the  universal  Church.  In 
imitation  of  the  Hebrew  custom  the  first  apostles  had 

Earliesthynins.    .         ,  -,     ,  „  ,  .        ,  .    ,  ,       .  ,. 

inculcated  the  use  of  hymns  m  the  social  gatherings  oi 
the  Church,  and  in  the  more  public  congregation.  That  these  spir- 
itual songs  were  a  means  of  edification  and  profit  cannot  once  be 
doubted.  But  we  are  not  to  suppose  that  a  feeble  and  despised 
Church  was  in  circumstances  favourable  to  the  development  of  a 
distinctive  hymnology  or  to  the  origination  of  a  characteristic  music' 
The  first  period  of  Christianity  was,  indeed,  filled  with  an  inspi- 
re  i     ^x.  ■ .-     ration  such  as  the  world  had  never  before  known.     The 

Early    Christi- 
anity prolific  of   founding  of  a  religion  so  new  in  spirit,  which  tended  to 
poetic  themes.   ],i.pa]^  doAvn  the  barriers  of  social  life  and  unite  all  men 

'  "It  is  probable  that  whatever  of  bj'innology  was  practised  bj^  the  Jews  at  the 
time  of  Christ  was  appropriated  by  the  new  Cliurcli.  All  tlie  instructions  of  the 
apostles  agree  with  all  the  traditions  to  confirm  this  opinion.  Since  during  the  life 
of  St.  Paul  there  could  have  been  no  new  literary  development  in  the  Church,  his 
exhortations  to  the  use  of  hymns  and  spiritual  songs  must  have  chiefly  referred  to 
what  was  then  extant  in  the  Jewish  Church."  v.  Burgess:  Hymns  and  Homilies  of 
Ephraem  St/tus,  London,  1853,  p.  xxiv.  Still  it  is  quite  probable  that  in  the  social 
gatlierings  there  may  have  been  a  kind  of  improvisation  which  was  the  beginning  of 
an  independent  hymnology. 


EARI.Y  ("ITRISTTAX    P<^1:THV   AND    IIYMXOLOGY.  273 

in  one  lioly  foininiiiiion;  wliicli  jircscnLcd  st>  iioldc  ;iii  array  of 
Mitiu'ss^'s  and  iiiartyi'-^  ior  the  trutli's  saki-,  and  furnisliLMl  suj»|M>rt- 
inijf  jiowrr  tt)  tiiiunph  ovi-r  t-vrry  i\>r\n  of  persecution  and  dialli, 
was  tlie  occasion  for  awakcninLj  the  true  poetic  spirit  in  the  minds 
of  its  disci})les.'  Sticli  circumstances  are  especially  jn-olilic  <d' 
themes  of  song.  Nevertheless,  a  degree  of  leisure  is  reijuisite  to 
set  these  themes  to  liarmonious  verse.  While  the  mind  is  at  the 
extrcmest  stretch  of  action,  or  moved  by  a  consuming  passion,  poetic 
co:ice))ti()ns  may  be  richest,  yet  jxx'tic  versification  is  impossible; 
this  t-oines  only  from  quiet  contemplation  and  conditions  of  peace.' 

It  must  likewise  be  recollected  that  circumstances  of  danger  and 
})ersecut ion  interfered  with   the   growth   and  perfection  ,tfvor 

of  the  Church  services,  and  also  retanh'd  the  develop-  able  to  mt-i ileal 
inent  of  tlu'  metrical  hymn.  Add  to  this  the  fact  be-  '"'''"^• 
fore  referred  to  (pp.  52,  53),  that  the  Church  of  the  first  two  and 
one  half  centuries  was  somewhat  hesitant  to  cultivate  some  forms 
of  the  tine  arts  because  of  their  supposed  contaminating  intlueiices 
through  association  with  heathen  practices.  The  threat  to  the 
purity  of  Christian  doctrine  and  life  seemed  so  grave  that  lorig  after 
Christianity  had  received  recognition  from  the  state  Jerome  wrote: 
"A  Christian  maiden  should  not  know  what  a  lyre  or  a  tlute  is,  or 
what  is  its  use."  The  first  disciples  in  nearly  every  city  were 
from  .lewish  families  who  in  their  wide  dispersion  had  maintained 
the  Hebrew  worship  in  private  houses  or  in  synagogues.  It  wouhl 
therefore  be  antecedently  probable  that  many  elements  ™-,  p  ., 
of  the  Jewish  service  would  at  first  Ijc  incorporated  into  crst  in  general 
the  religious  forms  of  these  early  converts.  The  writ-  "**'^' 
ings  of  the  apostles  confirm  this  presumption.'  The  chanting  of  the 
Psalter  by  the  ]>riest,  and  the  ])robable  antiphonal  singing  by  the 
congregation,  would  suggest  like  forms  to  tin-  proselytes  to  the 
new  faith.  The  extent  to  which  the  Church  td'  the  first  two  gen- 
erations ap])ropriated  and  adapti'd  tlu'  then  existing  poetry  and 
nnisic  to  its  own  wants,  is  a  (piestion  that  has  been  shai-ply  de- 
l)ated  by  archa'ologists.  It  is,  however,  generally  con-  oomis  of  a 
ceded  tliat  intimations  of  a  church  psalmodv  and'  hvm-   '7'"'"'''^  .'" 

'  •  •  Ul«  New  1  esla- 

nology  are  fountl  in  the  writings  of  the  New  Testament,   ment. 
Especially  in  the  Apocalyjtse  are  met  suggestions  of  hymns  whicli 
bear  a  distinctively  Christian  stani]). 

'  "  riirisiinnit)-  l)cp:in  amonjr  a  people  wlio  were  f\ill  of  active  iinagrin.-ilion,  ami 
of  keenest  sensibility.  They  dcli>;litc(l  to  have  the  heart  aroused  and  the  fancy  ele- 
vated through  appeals  to  the  ej'e  and  ear."     Herder:  ZeiMreuid'  Jilaller,  5th  Samml. 

'  Schletlcrer:  Gtschichte  d.  yeintlkhen  Diclitun(/en  u.  kirchlichrn  Tonknnst,  Hanover, 
1869,  s.  54.  *  Bnrgess:    Op.  cif.,  pp.  x.xiii,  xxiv. 

18 


274  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

The  gradual  liberation  of  the  disciples  from  the  burdens  of  the 
Mosaic  ritual  would  tend  to  eliminate  Jewish  elements  from  the 
public  services,  and  lead  to  the  preparation  of  a  liturgy  in  harmony 
with  the  needs  of  an  independent  and  distinctive  Church.'  The 
sharp  contrasts  between  the  monotheistic  belief  of  the  Christians 
Further  influ-  ^"d  the  jirevalent  polytheism,  their  adoration  of  the  now 
ences.  risen  and  glorified  Christ,  the  inspiring  and  sujiporting 

doctrine  of  the  resurrection,  and  the  quite  prevalent  expectation 
that  the  Lord  would  soon  return  to  awaken  the  sleeping  saints  to 
enter  ujDon  the  inheritance  of  a  universal  kingdom,  turned  the 
thought  away  from  systems  which  now  seemed  to  them  obsolete, 
and  contributed  to  the  development  of  a  hymnology  new  in  form 
.and  content. 

No  extended  description  of  the  public  Christian  services  of  the 
first  two  centuries  by  contemporary  writers  has  been  preserved;  Ave 
•are  therefore  compelled  to  be  satisfied  with  a  somewhat  imperfect 
„    ,     ^.         induction.     The  early  fathers  and  the  "  Apostolic  Con- 

Confoundmg  ,        _  _       -^  _  ^ 

•of  "hymn"  stitutions "  associate  praj^ers  with  the  song  of  thanks- 
prayer,  giving.*  They  were  regarded  as  like  in  spirit.  They 
also  seem  to  avoid  the  use  of  the  term  "  hymn  "  through  fear  that 
their  woi'ship  of  the  one  God  and  Christ  might  be  confounded  with 
that  of  the  heathen,  who  were  accustomed  to  sing  "  hymns  "  in  praise 
-of  their  divinities.' 

"  Psalm"  and  "ode  "  are  the  usual  terms  used  to  describe  these 
writings  and  exercises.  Although  no  hymns  from  the  first  or 
second  century  have  been  preserved  to  our  day,  and  no  mention  of 
The  probable  au}^  composer  of  hymns  is  found  in  the  records  of  the 
in^econd^cen-  ^^'^^  ^^^'^  centuries,^  it  may,  nevertheless,  be  safely  in- 
jury, ferred  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  as  well  as  from  the 
few  iucidental  allusions  to  the  early  ritual,  that  hymns  were  com- 
•posed  and  existed  in  Avritten  form  at  the  beginning  of  the  second 
century,^ 

'  "  Even  if  the  Psalms  of  the  Old  Testament  could,  at  the  beginning,  have  expressed 
all  the  deep  feelings  of  the  Christian  heart,  the  very  use  of  tiiese  would  have  aroused 
in  tiie  worshiper  a  desire  for  new  hymns  which  their  peculiar  gifts  and  inspiration 
would  have  created."  v.  Rambach:  Anthologie  christUcher  Gesdnge  aus  alien  Jahr- 
liunderten  der  Kirche,  Bd.  i,  s.  4. 

^v.  Augiisti :  Handbiich  der  christlicfien  Archceologie,  Leipzig,  183G,  Bd.  ii,  s.  10. 

^  August i:  0;).  c(l,  Bd.  ii,  s.  113.  Co?i<ra,  Bolimer:  ChrisL-Mrcldiche  Wissensclwft, 
Breslau,  1836,  Bd.  ii,  s.  33.5. 

*  With  the  possible  exception  of  tlie  Pedagogus  of  Clement,  and  the  Gloria  in 
Excelsis. 

*  Eusebius:  Hist.  EccL,  v,  28,  wliere  a  writer  from  the  end  of  the  second  century 
is  represented  as  answering  the   Artemonites  by  appealing  to  a  great  number  of 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN   POETRY  AND   HYMNOLOGY.  275 

JMiliitorli.-is  ufivcn  the  fol  low  in  i;  brief  simimaryof  liis  i  n  vest  i  Ligations: 
1.  The  congregations  of  the  apostolic  period  used  hymns  of  thanks- 
giving in  their  public  worsliip.  2.  They  also  used  these  MQnter's  cou- 
liyninson  the  occasion  of  (heir  sacred  feasts,  the  Agapa*,  elusions. 
etc.  3,  The  sacred  song  was  set  to  music,  and  chanted  by  tlu' 
entire  congregation.  4.  These  hymns  and  psalms  which  the  early 
Christians  used  were  not  all  <lerived  from  the  Old  Testament  Scrip- 
tures, but  some  were  of  their  own  origination  and  composition.' 
Witli  regard  to  the  meagreness  of  our  information  relative  to  this 
subject,  he  suggests  that  it  should  cause  no  surpri.se  when  it  is  con- 
sidered that  only  merest    fragments   of   the   liistor}"^  of  the   eai'ly 

Church  have  been   preserved,  while   the  larger  i»art  of    „  , 

1  '  .  Ciiu.sos  of  iiiea- 

what  may  have  been  written  has  been  irrevocably  lost;   Bn-iit'ss  of  in- 
that  since  the  hymns  were  kept  with  the  other  l)ooks   ^'"•""'i'"" 
of  the  Church,  they  may,  therefore,  have  furnished  a  special  reason 
for  persecution   when  the  sacred   writings  of   the  Christians  were 
hunted  out  and  destroyed. 

That  the  number  of  these  hymns  must  have  been  quite  limited, 
as  compared  with  tlie  number  in  later  times,  seems  probable  from 
the  fact  that  most  of  the  early  Christians  were  unculturecl  and  not 
in  circumstances  to  patronize,  much  less  to  cultivate,  the  fine  arts. 
Moreover,  at  a  still  later  date  the  councils  of  the  Church  were 
much  divided  in  opinion  relative  to  the  introduction  CQ„p|||„rv  de- 
of  hymns  other  than  from  the  Psalter  into  the  public  cisions  di- 
services;  therefore,  the  writing  of  them  received  little  ^*'"®' 
encouragement  even  bythosc  who  possessed  the  re(piisite  gifts  and 
culture.^ 

The  hesitation  of  Christian  councils  and  bishops  to  sanction  the 
use  of  other  metrical  compositions  tiian  the  Psaltery  and  inspired 
utterances  from  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures  finds  its  partial 
explanation  in  the  fact  that  the  heretical  leaders  were  among  the 
earliest  ])atrons  of  hymnology,  and  were  the  first  to  introduce  into 
the  public  worship  a  greater  regularity  and  pomp.  By  this  means 
multitudes  were  attracted  from  the  orthodox  service,  and  the  spread 
of  the  Gnostic  lieresy  was  greatly  promoted. 

On  the  propriety  of  using  other  metrical  compositions  than  the 
Psalms  of  David  synods  and  councils  were  not  agreed.     In  most 

ancient  hymns  wliosc  tlieme  was  the  praise  of  Clirist.  "  Psalmi  qiioque  ct  cantica 
fratrum  jam  pridcm  a  fulclibus  conscripta  Clirismm  Vcrbuni  Dei  eoiicelehrant,  divin- 
iUitcm  ct  Iribiicnilo."  Also  tlic  custom  of  Paul  of  Samosatn  in  clianging  the  praise 
hymns  designed  to  he  sung  to  Christ  to  tlio~e  praising  himself,  is  a  further  evidence 
of  the  existence  of  hymns  and  music. 

'  Ueberdie  dlte-ite  christliche  Poesk,  ss.  18,  19.  '  Op,  cit.,  pp.  30,  31. 


276  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF    CHRISTIAN  ART. 

instances  their  decisions  were  very  cautiously  expressed.  By  some 
none  but  the  Psalter  was  permitted.  Nevertheless,  the  eastern 
fathers,  Chrysostom,  Ephraem  of  Syria,  and  others  had  ventured  to 
The  Greek  introduce  hymns  of  their  own  composition,  whose  use  had 
wf tTttTe^ise  gi'eatly  added  to  the  fervor  of  devotion,  and  had  l)een 
of  hymns.  powerful  in  recalling  to  the  orthodox  fold  many  whom 

the  alluring  service  of  the  heretical  sects  had  led  astray.  The 
character  of  most  of  the  early  sacred  poetry  which  has  reached  us 
hardly  permits  it  to  be  classified  with  hymnology.  Even  the  very 
prolific  poet  of  the  Greek  church,  Gregory  Nazianzen,  has  not  con- 
tributed a  single  poem  which  deserves  the  name  of  hymn.'  Indeed, 
there  is  a  most  marked  contrast  between  the  pi'oductive  power  of 
the  early  and  the  modern  Church  with  respect  to  the  number  and 
character  of  sacred  poeins.  It  is  estimated  that  the  aggregate 
Small  number  hynins  of  the  Latin,  Greek,  and  Syrian  churches,  prior 
of  hymns.  ^o  the  sixth  ceutuiy,  would  not  equal  those  found  in 

the  ordinary  collections  used  by  the  churches  of  our  day.  Ram- 
bach  ^  has  affirmed  that  the  total  number  of  Latin  hymns  and  sen- 
tences which  were  in  use  prior  to  the  fourteenth  century  did  not  ex- 
ceed four  hundred.  This  arose,  not  so  much  fi'om  the  want  of  proper 
gifts  as  from  the  ends  had  in  view  by  the  writers  of  these  poetic 
ppaso  of  the  Compositions.  Much  of  tlieir  poetry  was  of  a  dogmatic 
fewness  of  character,  and  was  intended  to  advocate  a  doctrine  or 
jrood  hymns,  eombat  a  heresy  rather  than  to  contribute  to  the  edi- 
fication of  the  worshiper.^ 

We  must  also  be  reminded  that  the  general  use  of  hymnbooks  in 
the  public  service  of  the  early  Church  is  not  once  to  be  supposed. 
While  the  diffusion  of  books  in  the  Imperial  period  was  very 
considerable,  and  the  multiplying  of  manuscripts  was  compara- 
tively inexpensive,*  from  the  best  authorities  to  which  we  have 
access  it  is  inferred  that  in  many  instances  large  congregations  had 
but  few  copies  of  the  hymns  which  were  in  use.  It  is  therefore 
I>robable  that  by  frequent  repetition  the  worshippers  committed  the 
hynms  to  memory,  and,  where  permitted,  also  sang  the  tunes  and 
chants  by  rote.  In  studying  sul)jects  of  this  character  the  investi- 
gator must,  as  far  as  possible,  transfer  himself  to  the  times,  and 
And  of  aids  to  realize  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  the  early  Christ- 
public  service,  [mxi^^  Jt  must  be  considered  how  many  arrangements 
f)f  the  service  of  the  modern  Church  have  sprung  from  the  ease  of 

'  Angusti:  Ilandhuch  christ.  Arch..  Bd.  ii,  p.  128. 

•  Anthohgfe,  ii,  8.  "  Aiigu'ti :    Op.  cit,  B.  v,  c.  4,  ii. 

*  V,  Ulilliorn:  Conflict  of  Chriitlanity  vjlih  IltaVitnism,  p.  24.  Merivale:  Hist,  of 
the  Homans  under  the  Empire,  vol.  vi.  p.  282. 


EARLY  CIIIMSTIA.N    iM)i:T|{V   AM)    II VMXOLOfJY.  277 

iimltiplyiiii;-  JJihk's,   liymiiltooks,  cati-cliisms,  ttf.,  liy   iiic.iiis  of   tin.* 

art  ^>^'  printing,'. 

Tin.'  icirlial  I'xclusioii  of  tlic  prixatc  iiu'inlicrs  of  tlic  i-ailv  Cliiircli 
....  ...  *  ' 

f'loiii   partic-ipatioii   in   llie-  .siiiwinix  i.s   att riliutal)li'  far  iii<»r»'  t<»  tlicir 

want  of  traiiiiiii;'  in  tlu-  arts  of  pot'trv  and  nuisir  than  to  tiie  arbi- 
trariness of  c'hurcli  ofHcials.  WliiK-  l)y  tlic  foiiilli  ciMitury  the  new 
religion  liad  made  very  wide  and  iini)ortant  eon<juests,  it  nevertlie- 
less  seems  )irol>al)Ie  that  most  of  the  jirofessed  Christian  communi- 
ties i'nj(»yed  but  limited  means  of  cultivating  the  arts  to  wliieli  the 
grandeur  and  imitressiveness  of  public  worship  are  so  largely  <lue. 
Not  till  a  later  jyeriod  did  the  singing-schools  of  Rome,  Fulda,  Metz, 
St.  (iallen,  etc.,  prepare  the  clergy  t<»  lead  the  congregation  in  jior- 
tions  of  the  singing  service.  Uy  the  study  of  the  early  hymnology 
we  are  impressed  with  its  comparative  poverty.  The  dcptii  of  de- 
votional feeling  and  the  perfection  of  rhythm  which  characterize 
the  nu'dia>val  anil  the  modern  hymn  are  largely  wanting.  The  ilig- 
nity  and  high  inspiration  which  have  characterized  public  worsiiip 
since  the  reformers  joined  the  perfected  hymn  to  ap[)ropriate  music, 
and  thus  brought  the  singing  to  the  entire  congregation,  could  not 
have  l)een  attained  even  in  the  most  imj)osing  churches  of  Constan- 
tinople, Antioch,  Milan,  or  liome. 

§2.   Sacred  Poetry  of  the  Syrian  Church. 

Syria  was  the  native  land  of  Christian  hymnology.  To  that  city 
where  the  disciples  were  first  called  Christians  ]»robably  belongs  tlu' 
honor  of  introducing  the  formal  hymn  into  the  public  services  of  the 
Church.  A  questionable  tradition  contained  in  Socrates'  says  that 
Ignatius,  the  first  Christian  bi.sliop  of  Antioch,  used  the  aiulkIi  the 
antiphoiial  hymn  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  second  ni<>iiit*rcit.v. 
century.  From  this  very  brief  reference  no  <lefinite  knowledge  of 
the  character  of  the  hymn  or  of  its  relative  jiromincnce  in  tlu'  ]»ub- 
lic  service  may  be  gained. 

By  other  means,  however,  the  history  of  Syrian  hymnology  can 
be  traced  with  little  interruption  to  the  8econ<l  or  early  portion 
of  the  third  century.  In  Syria,  more  than  elsewhere,  the  Gnostic 
heresy  sought  to  ])ro])agate  itself  through  the  ineans  of  sacred  poetry 
and  livnins.     The  ])liilosophic  theologian,  IJardi-sancs,  who  llouri>-licd 

'  Hist.  Ecd..  lib.  vi.  c.  S.  "  J;iin  vcro  didiimii.'?.  undo  coiiswetuHo  lij-iniiorimi,  qui  in 
Kcclesiii  aiternis  decantantiir.  iiiitinm  ccjierit,  Ijriiatius  Anliocliii'  (jiue  est  in  Syria, 
tertiiis  a  Petro  apostnlo  ICpiscnpim.  qui  cum  apostolis  ipsis  niiiltiini  vcrsatiis  est. 
visidiicm  vidit  angeloruin  .Sanctum  Triiiitat'.'ni  liymiiia  aiterna  vice  dccantati,«<  collaii- 
'laiitiiini:  et  forniMn  canomii  in  c.-i  visioncni  c.xprcssam  ecclesiae  Anliocliuna;  tradiWit. 
L^Ddc  ilia  traditiu  in  omnibuti  ecclesiis  recepta  est." 


278  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

in  the  last  half  of  the  second  century  at  Edessa,  in  Mesopotamia,  was 
The  hymns  of  among  the  earliest  writers  of  hymns  which  were  used 
the  Guostics.  ^  by  the  heretical  churches  of  the  East.  While  with  a 
single  exception  his  writings  have  been  lost,  we  are  informed  by 
Ephraem,  the  Syrian,  that  he  composed  one  hundred  and  fifty  hymns 
in  imitation  of  the  Psalter.  By  clothing  his  peculiar  tenets  in  the 
enchanting  forms  of  song  he  seriously  threatened  the  purity  of  the 
Syrian  church.'  Multitudes  were  drawn  away  from  the  true  faith. 
His  skill  as  a  composer  of  music  was  equal  to  his  poetic  gifts;  for  it 
is  certain  that  he  gave  name  to  tunes  which  were  afterwai'd  appro- 
priated by  the  orthodox  party.  For  nearly  a  century  and  a  half  the 
influence  of  these  hymns  was  perpetuated.'  The  orthodox  teachers 
became  alarmed.  To  arrest  the  evil  tendencies  they  saw  that  like 
Ephraem  of  n^eans  must  be  used.  Ephraem,  deacon  of  Edessa,  a 
Edessa.  contemporary  and  friend  of   Basil  the  Great,  entered 

upon  this  work  with  intensest  zeal.  He  organized  female  choirs,^ 
taught  them  hymns  which  embodied  sublimest  spiritual  sentiments, 
set  to  song  the  fundamental  truths  of  the  nativity,  baptism,  passion, 
resurrection,  and  ascension  of  the  Lord,  and  required  the  deaconesses 
to  assemble  in  the  church  on  all  Sabbaths  and  feast  days.  On  these 
occasions  he  was  present  as  leader  to  teach  them  musical 
notation  and  the  laws  of  poetic  rhythm.  He  believed 
that  this  was  the  surest  means  of  gaining  the  goodwill  and  kindly 
aid  of  the  people,  and  of  breaking  the  power  of  his  opponents.' 
Sozomen  ^  informs  us  that  from  that  time  the  Syrians  sang  the  odes 
of  Ephraem  according  to  the  methods  indicated  by  Harmonius,^  the 

'  Epliraem  of  Syria,  m  his  Homilies  against  Heresies,  bears  frequent  testimony  to 
the  influence  of  Bardesanes. 

^  "  For  these  things  Bardesanes  Uttered  in  his  writings — 

He  composed  odes,  And  mingled  tliem  with  music; 

He  harmonized  Psalms  And  inirodiiced  measures." — Homily  53,  Against  Heretics. 

■'  In  the  resorts  of  Bardesanes  Are  songs  and  melodies. 

For  seeing  that  young  persons  Loved  sweet  music. 

By  tlie  harmony  of  his  songs  He  corrupted  their  minds." — Homily  1. 

V.  Burgess's  translation.  Hymns  and  Homilies  of  Ephraem  Syrtis,  pp.  xxx  and  xxxi. 

3  Burgess  translates  this  term,  "  Daughters  of  the  convent."  Hymns  and  Homilies, 
p.  xxxviii. 

••  Acta  St.  Epraem,  c.  xxii. 

^  Hist.  Eccles.,  lib.  iii,  cap.  xvi,  "  Ex  eo  tempore  Syri  juxta  numeros  canticorum 
Harmonii  scripta  Ephraim  psallere  solent." 

®  If  the  accounts  of  Sozomen  and  Tlieodoret  can  be  relied  upon,  Harmonius,  the  son 
of  Bardesanes,  reduced  the  Syrian  literature  to  measures  and  musical  laws  which  had 
been  suggested  by  the  Greeks.  He  also  adapted  these  to  the  uses  of  choirs,  and  by 
the  beauty  of  his  compositions  allured  his  hearers  to  embrace  the  heretical  doctriuos. 
Sozomen:  Life  of  Ephraem,  lib.  iii,  cap.  16.     Theodoret :  Hist.  EccL,  lib.  iv,  cap.  29. 


EARLV   CHRISTIAN   POETRY  AND  IIYMNOLOQY.  279 

son  r;f  iJardfsaiH's;  and  Theodorct   aftirnis  tliat  llicsc  liymns  i)r<)Vi'<l 
to  Ik-  I'rtieac'ious  int'diciiic  to  aiTcst  tlic  siirt-ad  of  luTcsy. 

TIu'  niunber  of  Epliracin's  imichis  is  unknown.'    It  is  certain,  liow- 
evcr,  that  tlu'V  wrro  numerous,  and  covcii'd  a  very  wide   his  yxnum  uu- 
raiiixe  of  subjects — theology,  exeu[esis,  liyinnoloLfV,  etc.    "'erous. 
His  liyniiis   wen-   widely  used   both   l»y  the  scliisniatic  sects  of  the 
Syrian  churdi  and  1)y  the  orthodox  Christians  of  tlie  i)ast. 

or  the  metrical  laws  ti^overnini;  these  Syrian  }»oems  little  is  known. 
It  seems,  however,  that  the  meters  were  regulated  by  the  Tiieir  metrical 
number  of  the  syllables,  and  not  by  the  (quantity,  as  in  printip't's. 
Greek  and  Latin  verse.  The  Latin  and  Greek  could  vary  the  number 
of  svllables  in  a  verse  according-  to  their  (juantity,  but  the  Syrian  seems 
to  have  adhered  rigidly  to  the  syllabic  order,  and  thus  greatly  hin- 
dered the  beauty,  flexibility,  and  variety  of  utterance  which  jiroduce 
the  greatest  charni. 

"The  strophes  Aary  in  length  from  four  verses  to  twelve,  sixteen, 
and  even  twenty.  Many  of  them  aic  uniform  in  their  structure, 
every  verse  containing  the  same  number  of  syllables;  but  others  are 
studiously  varied,  exhibiting  great  art  and  labor  in  their  Burgess's opin- 
construction.  .  .  .  Indeed,  Ephraem  seems  to  have  had  i""- 
a  nice  ear  for  variety,  and  if  what  has  already  been  said  respecting 
the  dislike  of  his  countrymen  to  the  monotony  of  the  psalms  is  cor- 
rect, he  must  liave  gratified  the  most  fastidious  seeker  of  novelties.''"' 

The  attention  given  by  Ephraem  to  antiphonal  singing,  by  which 
the  interest  and  attractiveness  of  the  public  assemblies  could  be  ])ro- 
moted,  compelled  a  careful  arrangement  of  the  liturgv.  His  contribu- 
tions to  the  Church  of  his  own  time  were  varied  and  noble,  and  the 
influence  of  liis  labors  in  the  promotion  of  Christian  hyninology 
was  positive  and  wides])read.  • 

The  following  will  give  a  good  idea  of  the  character  of  his 
poetry:  ^ 

Canox  LX. 
necessity  fok  i'neparation  for  death. 

1. 

Pity  nie,  0  Fatlicr!  in  lliy  tender  mercy, 
And  ill  lliy  trilmiial,  let  thy  love  be  witli  me; 

'  There  has  been  a  tendency  to  ascribe  to  him  every  thing  extnnt  in  tiie  metrical 
forms  of  Burdosinics  and  Harmoiiins,  and  which  w.ns  used  in  the  Syrian  s.icrcd  olTiccs. 
Bnt  this  is  evidently  nrroncons.  Many  metrical  compositions  in  ihc  Kphraomitic 
rhythm  are  plainly  the  work  of  uthcr  hands,  v.  Asscmun  :  Bibliothtca  OrienUiiis, 
torn,  i,  p.  GO. 

*  Burpfcss:    Op.  cit.,  p.  liv. 

'  Translated  by  Burgess  :  Mvtriail  Ifijmns  of  Ephraem  Fi/niy,  pp.  56,  57. 


280  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

And  make  me  to  rise  up  from  the  dust, 

In  tlie  day  when  tliy  standard  shall  be  revealed. 

0  Father  !  whose  loving-kindness  Ibrmed  me, 

And  who  at  the  first  fashioned  our  iniage ; 

Let  thy  nod  raise  our  bodies  again, 

In  ihe  daj'  when  the  world  is  destroyed. 
t  2. 

At  the  appearing  of  Jesus  our  King, 
Example    of  The  buried  of  all  ages  shall  stand  up; 

his  poetry.  His  living  voice  shall  call  loudly, 

And  awaken  every  sleeper ; 

What  terror  shall  be  lo  all  men, 

When  tlie  thrones  are  set  in  order! 

How  will  the  wicked  be  confounded, 

And  all  be  turned  into  hell ! 
•-> 

Tlie  day  of  judgment  is  al  hand. 

And  all  faults  sliall  be  disclosed; 

Who  then  can  be  pure  in  thy  sight, 

In  the  hour  when  the  books  are  opened? 

Por  there  ai'e  no  penitents, 

No  offerers  of  supi)li':>ati()ns; 

For  that  is  the  da}-  of  doom 

In  which  no  word  or  speecli  is  uttered! 

§  3.   TJie  Grecl-  Ilijmnology. 

While  no  hymns  in  the  present  collections  of  the  Greek  Church, 
or  Avhich  are  used  in  its  authorized  service,  are  older  than  the  eighth 
century,  sacred  poetic  compositions  in  Greek  by  the  fathers  of  that 
church  probably  date  from  the  second.^  The  well-known 
u»  of  Clement  work  of  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Pedar/ogiis,  written  ])ri- 
of  Alexandria.  ^^-,,^^.^1^  f^^.  ^\^^  defence  aud  propagation  of  the  orthodox 
faith,  closes  with  two  hymns  which  were  well  calculated  to  promote 
the  religious  fervor  of  the  worshipper.  Both  are  clearly  in  the  in- 
terest of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  in  opposition  to  the  growing  and 
threatening  heresies.  These  are  probal»ly  the  oldest  Christian  hymns 
Avhich  have  been  preserved  to  our  day."  They  have  often  been  trans- 
lated, yet  are  not  easily  adjusted  to  the  wants  of  the  modern  Church.^ 

'  Augusti :  Denlctvurdigheiten,  Bd.  v,  s.  292. 

*  Daniel:  Thesaurus  Hymnologicns,  iii,  pp.  3,  4.  This  opinion  of  Daniel  has  been 
controverted.  Sonic  good  arclijeologists  regard  the  Gloria  in  Excelsis  of  earlier 
origin.     Rambach:  Anfhologie  christlicJier  Gesilnge,  Bd.  i,  s.  35. 

^Probably  Dr.  Dexter's  free  modernization  is  the  happiest  that  has  yet  appeared 
in  English — "Shepherd  of  Tender  Yontli,"  etc.  Piper:  Evangelischer  Kalender, 
1868,  ss.  17-39,  has  given  the  text  and  an  excellent  German  translation,  as  well  as 
a  good  analysis,  and  a  good  literal  translation  has  been  given  by  Schaff :  Ilisiorij  of 
the   Christian  Church,  vol.  ii,  p.  230. 


EATILY   CIIRISTIAX    PoETKY   AND   IIYMNoLOflY.  281 

Gri'LC<»i'V  N;i/.i:in/A'n,  of  triu'  ('lii"isti;iii  ]);iiviitam',  was  i-diicated 
ill  tlif  best  scliools  of  Ca'sarca,  AKxandria,  ami  Atliens.  \lv  had 
for  ffllow-stiidciits  IJasil,  (Jivyoi'v  of  Nvssa,  ami  tlic  future  cmiicror, 
.hiliaii  the  Apostate.  His  earnest  (U'vot ion  to  the  interests  (jrcnory  of 
of  tlie  C'hureh  after  his  elevation  to  the  see  of  Constan-  K">!ii»"»'"- 
tinople,  and  Ids  tloiid,  fervent  elo(|Uence,  joined  to  a  lowly  humility 
of  manner  and  life,  were  the  means  of  restoring  many  ehurches  of 
liis  diocesi'  to  the  prosperity  whieh  they  had  enjoyed  forty  years  be- 
fore. His  poems  were  numerous,  and  i^lowed  with  a  true  religious 
fervor  well  suited  to  stimulate  the  Christian  life.-  Nevertheless, 
si-areely  a  trace  of  liis  poetry  is  preserved  in  the  authorized  office- 
books  of  the  (Ti-eek  Church.' 

Synesius  of  Ptolemais,  a  well-trained  seliolar,   became   bishop  of 

his  city  late  in  life.    Many  notices  of  his  poetic  writinofs 

Synesius. 
are  found  in  the  Christian  fathers,  but  only  ten  i)oems 

have  been  preserved.  While  he  had  a  reputation  amoiiLC  his  con- 
temporaries for  great  poetic  gifts,  his  poems  were  but  ])oorly 
adapted  to  the  public  religious  services,  and  have  never  been  incor- 
l)orated  into  the  authorized  collections  of  the  Eastern  Church.  His 
intlnence  as  a  Avriter  of  hymns  seems  to  have  been  consideiabU', 
but  it  was  greatly  lessened  by  the  introduction   of  the 

...  ,  .  ,       '  -      ,  *  -         ,  111-  "'^  defects. 

philosophic  adages  or   the  pagan   schools,  and    l)y   Ins 

too   careful    imitation   of  tlie   style   of   the  heathen   poets."     In  his 

hymns  Platonic  notions  obscure  and  well-nigh  supplant  Christian 

doctrine. 

While  the  surviving  poems  of  Gregory,  Synesius,  Euthimius,  and 
Sophronius  e.vhibit  considerable  regularity,  and  some  ma}'  be  re- 
duced to  metrical  order  as  of  anapests  and  iambics,  peciuicnco  of 
Greek  poetry  had  already  fallen  into  decay,  and  the  sacr,.,! ixutry. 
Eastern  Church  had  yielded  to  the  prevalent  artificiality  and 
clamor  for  the  strange  and  the  extravagant  in  ])oetic  form  and 
content. 

'  Iliimbach :    Op.   cif.,    p.   48.     For  a   translation   anil   note  of    his  Unii  (^e  /.(ijot 

ir-f/jofiTff/  iig  aipa,  v.  Daniel:  Thesaurus  Hymnologicus.  etc.,  iii,  II.     Also  SeliaflE: 

Christ  in  Song: 

"Where  are  the  winged  words? 

Lost  iu  the  air,"  etc. 

'  I'.  Christ  and  Paranikas:  Anihologia  Graeca carminum  Christianorum,  Lipsisr,  1S71. 
This  worli  has  been  the  means  of  awakeninjf  new  interest  in  the  Greek  hynnioloiry. 
Its  four  prolo^roincna  are  packed  with  learned  discnssion.  1.  On  the  Greek  Christ- 
ian poets.  2.  On  tlie  different  kinds  of  ecclesiastical  hymns.  3.  On  the  rhyth- 
mical laws  of  the  Byzantine  hynnis.  4.  On  liie  Byzantine  music.  This  work  gives 
the  first  place  to  Synesius,  and  reprnduces  in  e.\ccllent  form  the  Greek  of  his  ten 
surviving  hymns. 


283  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

Anatolius,  of  Constantinople,  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, endeavored  to  drop  the  classic  metre,  and  to  de- 
velop a  form  of  poetry  more  in  harmony  with  the  wants 
and  spirit  of  the  Church.  In  this  he  was  but  partially  successful. 
Neale  has  given  an  English  version  of  the  hymn  on  Christ  stilling 
the  tempest  {^ocpepdg  Tpiicvfiiag) ,  which  ranks  among  the  best  speci- 
mens of  the  Greek  hymnology: 

1. 

Fierce  was  the   wild  billow 

Dark  was  the  night : 
Oars  lahoreci  heavily; 

Foam  gleamed  witl]  wiiite; 
Mariners  trembled ; 

Peril  was  ni.uii ; 
Then  said  the  Sou  of  God, 

"Peace!  it  is  I.  " 


Kidge  ot  the  monntain  wave, 

Lower  thy  crest ! 
Wail  of  Euroclydon 

Be  thou  at  rest ! 
Peril  can  none  be — 

Sorrow  must  Ry — 
"Where  saith  the  Light  of  light, 

"Peace!  it  is  L" 

3. 

Jesus,  deliverer! 

Come  thou  to  me ; 
Soothe  tiiou  my  voyaging 

Over  life's  sea! 
Thou,  when  tiie  storm  of  death 

Roars,  sweeping  by. 
Whisper,  0  Trutii  of  truth! 

"Peace!  it  is  L" 

Even  less  satisfactory  were  the  attempts  of  Nonnus  of  Panopolis  in 
Egypt,  of  the  Emj^ress  Eudoxia,  and  of  Paul  Silentiarius.'  Most 
of  the  Greek  hymnology  of  the  first  five  and  one  half  centuries  lacks 
the  simplicity,  earnestness,  and  depth  which  characterized  the  life 
of  the  earlier  Church.     A  complete  collection  of  the  hjmins  and 

^  The  description  (sKcppaatg)  of  Saint  Sophia,  in  poetic  mensure,  by  Paul  Silentiarius 
has  helped  us  more  fullj-  to  appreciate  the  grandeur  of  this  temple,  and  tlie  dedica- 
tory services  herein  described  illustrate  the  ritual  of  the  Eastern  Churcli  in  the 
reign  of  Justinian.  TJiis  work  lias  lieen  translated  and  ably  annotated  by  Dr.  Kar- 
tiim  in  the  appendix  to  Salzenberg's  work:  '^  AU-christliche  Baudenhmale  von  Con- 
stantinople  vom  V  bis  XII  Juhrhundert.  Berlin,  1854. 


EAiJLV  t'ii:::si'iAN  poetry  and  iiv:.in..:.()'j  ..        c.-3 

chants  of  tliis  rluircli  <liiriiiL,'  tlii'  lirst  six  cuiitui'irs  funiislu's  little 
that  can  woilliily  conii»:uv  with  the  richer  and  inoie  devutiunul  spirit 
of  the   West.' 

§4.  The  Poitry  lUid  IL/mnology  of  the  Wederii  Church. 

To  estimate  the  oriL^'inality  ami  creative  power  of  the  ])0Ct8  of  the 
Western  Chnrch  it  is  necessary  to  make  careful  discriminations. 
The  ecclesiastical  jxtetry  of  the  first  centuries  is  divided  into  two 
distinct  classes;  namely,  the  descriptive  or  narrative,  two  kinds  of 
fre<iuently  employinuf  hii^h  ])anef;fyric,  and  the  lyric,  sacred  poetry, 
which  took  the  form  of  sacred  hymns  and  songs.*  The  first  con- 
forms (piite  closely  to  the  then  prevalent  tyi)e  and  spirit.  This 
style  only  had  been  successfully  cultivated  hy  the  later  lloman 
poets.  Both  heathen  and  Christians  alike  imitated  the  writers 
of  the  classic  period,  who  had  made  the  exploits  of  gods  and 
lieroes  the  theme  of  their  noblest  verse.  The  <lescriptive  and  nar- 
rative poetry  of  the  Roman  world  during  the  first  three  Cliristian 
centuries  is,  however,  characterized  by  an  extravagance  of  panegyric 
which  is  almost  entirely  wanting  in  the  literature  of  the  golden  age. 
Nor  are  the  Christian  writers  of  the  same  period  seem-  ^  high  pane- 
ingly  more  chaste  in  style  or  more  sober  in  the  treatment  ffy'^- 
of  their  themes.  The  lives  and  fate  of  their  martyred  lieroes  and 
saints  being  the  favorite  suV)jects  whicli  tliey  treat,  their  style  is  en- 
tirely conformable  to  heathen  models.  To  make  known  to  the 
worl<l  tlie  history  of  those  wlio  had  given  their  lives  to  attest  the 
verity  (»f  tlie  new  religion,  to  exliibit  the  mighty  supporting  power 
and  completest  victory  of  faith,  and  to  awaken  in  others  a  burning 
zeal   for  the   trutli   as   it  was   in  Jesus,  were  the  high  aims  of  these 

'  From  the  splendid  qtiulities  of  llio  Hcllonic  niind,  and  from  tlie  ricli  inheritance 
which  the  Greeks  of  the  tirst  eentnrics  hail  entered  into,  we  mijrht  antecedently  ex- 
pect much  fiom  the  hynmolojry  of  llii.s  church.  These  expectiitions  are,  however, 
sadly  disappointed.  The  classic  aore  of  hynmolopy  in  tlie  Eastern  Church  did  not 
bej^in  before  about  A.  D.  G50,  hence  lies  outsiilo  nf  the  period  of  our  inquiry.  The 
iconoclastic  controvcrsj'  <rave  inspiration  to  the  hyinnology.  This  Greek  sacred 
poetry  is  of  immense  volume,  filliiifr,  accrdinjr  to  Neale  {v.  Ifyvms  of  the  Eastern 
Church,  Introductifm,  p.  xli),  4,000  closely  printed,  double-column  quarto  pages. 
This  mass  of  material  is  becoming  somewhat  belter  known  to  the  West  tlirough 
the  devoted  labors  of  Neale  in  Hlngland,  Cardinal  Pitra  in  Italy,  Vormbaum  (DunitTs 
Thesaiuiui,  vol.  iii)  and  Christ  in  (Jermanv.  Yet  the  jud<rment  of  Neale  with  regard 
to  the  Menmi  (the  books  containing  the  services  for  each  month)  is  genenilly 
accepted  as  just:  "They  cont;iin  a  deluge  of  worthless  compositions;  t:iulology 
till  it  Ijecomes  almost  sickening;  the  merest  commonplace  again  and  again  decked  in 
tlio  tawdry  shreils  of  tragic  language,  o;id  twenty  or  thirty  times  reiKJatiug  the 
same  thought  in  slightly  varying  terms."  v.   Op.  cit.,  4th  ed.,  p.  88. 

'  Biihr:    Gesrhichle  der  romische  Literatur,  bd.,  iv,  §1. 


284  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 

narrative  and  descriptive  poems.  Somewhat  later  is  noticed  a  ten- 
Christiau  doc-  *^^^^^T  ^^  set  the  Christian  doctrine  to  poetic  measure, 
trine  in  poetic  and  to  clothe  the  biblical  narratives  in  poetic  garb.  To 
supply  the  lack  of  copies  of  the  sacred  books,  their 
most  important  truths  were  taught  to  the  Christian  congregations 
in  the  popular  hexameter  verse.  The  chief  difference  between  the 
heathen  and  Christian  poets  was  that  the  latter  adhere  strictly  to 
the  ti'uths  of  history,  and  there  was  in  their  writings  a  spirit  which 
could  be  inspired  only  by  a  system  that  cared  for  the  sufferings  of 
humanity,  and  could  cast  light  on  the  destin}^  of  the  race.' 

The  other  class  of  Christian  poetry  was  wholly  different.  Even 
Lyric  poetry  an  in  the  golden  age  of  Roman  literature  lyric  poetry  seems 
exotic m Rome,  ^q  iiave  been  an  exotic,^  while  during  the  first  period  of 
the  history  of  the  Christian  Church  it  had  become  almost  totally 
neglected  :  it  was  revived  through  certain  noted  poems  which 
belong  to  its  hymnology.  It  was  animated  by  a  spirit  wholly 
novel,  and  it  evinced  a  noteworthy  richness  and  originality.  Its 
High  character  introduction  into  the  common  services  of  the  Church 
of  Christian  required  that  it  be  simple,  earnest,  and  popular.  Some 
^"^"  of  the  descriptive  and  narrative  poetry  of  the  fourth 

century  is  in  imitation  of  the  masters  of  the  best  period  of  Roman 
literature,  while  the  lyrics  are  original  not  only  in  their  spirit 
and  depth  of  feeling,^  but  in  their  rhythmic  forms  as  Avell.  In 
this  species  of  literature  the  Christian  Church  of  the  fourth  century 
stands  out  in  bold  and  honorable  relief.* 

The  poems  sometimes  ascribed  to  Tertullian,  because  in  some 
manuscripts  they  are  associated  with  his  name,  are  probably  the 
production  of  a  later  author.       Several  works  of  this  nature,  as 

'  "Tlie  old  lirmns,  from  Ambrose  to  Gi'egory  the  Great,  still  bear  in  their  earnest 
and  powerful  lineaments  the  portrait  of  the  conquering  martjT  period  of  the  Church. 
Their  entire  content  is  derived  from  llie  new  and  sublime  view  of  the  world  which, 
in  opposition  to  the  scope  of  heathen  ilioui^ht,  sustained  and  filled  the  souls  of  tlic 
Christians.  Subsequently  there  was  deveh  ped  much  tliat  was  more  delicate  and  cul- 
tured, but  seldom,  if  ever,  has  there  been  seen  any  tliinp:  of  greater  purity  and  sim- 
plicity."    Wackernagel :  Das  deutsche  Kirchmlied,  Preface. 

^Balir:    Gesch.d.  rom.  Lit,  Bd.  iv,  s.  2. 

^Biihr:    Op.  cit,  Bd.  iv,  s.  10.     Augusii:  Denhwiirdigkeiten,  Bd.  v,  s.  292. 

^"The  hymnology  of  tiie  Western  Chiu'ch  may  be  conveniently  divided  into  th:ce 
Three  eras  of  pnncipal  eras.  Tlie  first,  wliich,  bo'Tovviug  a  term  from  arcliitcctu re. 
Latin  hym-  we  may  name  the  Romanesque  period,  extends  to  the  conclusion  of 
nology.  j-],g  pontificate  of  Gregory  the  Great,  and  is,  as  a  general  thing,  dis- 

tinguished b)''  the  absence  of  rhyme.  ...  In  this  period  the  Church  ■v^as  unshack- 
ling herself  from  the  fetters  of  metre;  in  the  second  she  was  bringing  out  all  the  ca- 
pabilities of  rhyme;  in  the  third  she  submitted  to  the  slavish  bondage  of  a  revived 
paganism."     Neale:  Medicevcd  Hymns  and  Sequences,  Lnwwn,  1851,  Iiitroiluction. 


EARLY  CHIIISTIAX    T^OETliY   AND   IIYMNOLOGY.  £5;") 

Mitvio^  de  jadlcio  Domini,   Genesis,  tSmlonnt,  t'tr.,  botli   from  inter- 
nal t'vitU'iicc  of  style  aiul  eoiiti'iit,  as  well  as  from  posi-   poems  attrib- 
tivc  testiiiioiiv,  imist  bu  assimicMl  ton  pi-riod  considerably   "|''*,' , !",  ^*^I' 
later  than  that  of  Tertullian.     Many  poems  beariii<^  his   uim-. 
name  can  no  more  be  attributed  to  liim  tlian  to  Virifil  or  Homer.' 

If  thisopinion  is  wt-ll  founded,  then  must  C'ominodianus,  who  lived 
about  A.  1).  l^lM)-2o(),  bi-  recfardeil  as  the  earliest  Latin 

„,     .     .  ■         ,  ,    ',  ,  1  .}     I'  t'oiiiiiiDiliunus. 

Christian  poet  whose  works  liave  been  preserved.      V  ery 

little  is  known  of  his  personal  hi.stor3\  Aeeordintj  to  his  own  testi- 
mony, he  was  a  native  of  Gaza,  of  heathen  parentage,  but  by  the 
readin<i:  of  the  sacred  Scriptures  was  converted  to  Christianity^ 
From  his  use  of  the  Latin  language  and  his  manifest  accpiaint- 
ance  with  its  literature  we  infer  his  Koman  diseent.  Even  the 
place  of  his  labors  is  not  certainly  known,  but  his  zeal  for  C'hris- 
tianity,  as  against  both  Jews  and  heathen,  is  api)arent  in  the 
poems  which  have  been  ])reserved.  ^^"Iv  two  are  known  to 
exist:  tlie  Instructiones,  ami  the  Carmen  Apohujeticttni  adversifs 
Jmhpos  et  Gevtes.  The  former,  which  ai>i^eared  about 
A.  1).  240,*  shows  a  careless  inditterence  to  the  laAvs  ot 
prosody,  and  appeals  to  the  tastes  of  the  less  educated  classes.  It 
is,  as  its  name  indicates,  a  collection  of  teachings,  in  acrostic  fomi, 
addressed  in  part  to  the  heathen,  pointing  out  the  vanity  of  their 
worship  of  the  gods,  and  exhorting  them  to  seek  a  better  system. 
In  part  it  is  addressed  to  the  Jews,  to  win  them  to  Christianity; 
while  the  last  part  is  prepared  for  the  Christians  them-  xi,pjr  rhiirac- 
selves.  The  whole  writing  evinces  strong  moral  con-  ter  ami  value, 
viction  and  Ciiristian  zeal  for  the  truth,  but  contains  doctrinal  errors 
whicli  seem  to  have  been  disavoAved  by  the  Church  authorities  at  a 
later  period.*  The  Carmen  Apoloffeticnm,  a  later  production,  con- 
sisting of  more  than  one  thousand  lines,  is  of  somewhat  greater 
value  l)oth  in  style  and  treatment.  It  furnishes  a  valuable contrilm- 
tion  to  the  history  of  Chiliasm,  and  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity 
during  the  third  century. 

Several  pcx'tns  have  been  attributed  to  the  celebrated  church 
father,  Lactantius,  manv  of  whose  writinsjfs  have  been 

ri-<i  p         1  1  •   1    "   !•   •  /•  I  •  Lactiintlus. 

preserved.     1  hese  are  often  bound  np  with  editions  of  his 

works,  thus  expressing  the  opinion  of  the  cditoi^s  res[)ecting  their 

'Dupiii:  Bihliotheca  nova  Avrtnriim  Frrlsin'itlcnriim,  i.  p.  141.  Translation  under 
tlie  title  .1  }^au  History  of  Ecrleaiafttiml  Wn'/fts,  vol.  i,  p.  87. 

'Bernhardy:  Grundriss  drr  rijmvichti  Litrratur,  5te  Aufrj..  s.  f)SG.  Biilir:  Oi).  at., 
Bd.  iv,  g§  8,  9. 

^Teuffel,  W.  S. :  Geschicht;  der  romi'-chen  Literobtr.  -Ito.  aufl..  I.eipziir.  1SS2,  39. 
899-002. 

<Bahr:    Op.  cit,  Bd.  iv.  3.  30.     Totiffol :    Op,  ct,  8.  900. 


286  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CnRlSTIAN   ART. 

authenticity.  But  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  poems  de  Phoenice, 
de  Pasc.ha,  and  de  Passione  Domini  are  the  works  of  other  writers, 
and  belong  to  a  later  age.' 

The  Spanish  writer,  Juvencus,  who  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the 
fourth  century,  is  the  first  Christian  poet  of  eminence  whose  works 

are  clearly  authentic.  While  little  of  his  personal  his- 
Juvencus.  ,         ,  ,      ,  i         t    i 

tory  lias  been  preserved,  there  seems  to  be  slight  ques- 
tion of  his  authorship  of  the  Hlstoria  Ecangelica  and  of  the  Liber 
in  Genesin.^  The  first  is  a  metrical  version  of  the  Gospel  history, 
based  chiefly  on  Matthew,  though  having  reference  to  the  other 
evangelists  as  well.  It  consists  of  more  than  three  thousand  lines. 
It  imitates  the  heroic  verse  of  the  heathen  writers,  and,  for  the  age 
Character  and  ^^  which  it  is  written,  the  style  is  flowing,  easy,  and 
purpose  of  his  pleasing.  It  may  be  called  the  first  Christian  epic* 
poems.  T\\Q  design  of  this  metrical  version  was  to  bring  the 

great  facts  and  principles  of  the  gospels  to  the  attention  of  the 
heathen  world. 

While  in  the  ordinary  form  in  which  they  Avere  then  preserved 
there  was  a  contempt  for  these  writings  on  the  part  of  the  learned, 
an  imitation  of  the  great  poets,  it  was  believed,  would  be  eff'ective 
in  awakening  a  wider  interest  in  a  religion  too  little  understood. 
Like  attempts  were  made  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  by  the  Saxon 
and  German  ecclesiastics,  for  the  more  rapid  education  of  the  com- 
mon people  in  the  doctrines  of  the  Church.  The  Liber  in  Genesin  is 
a  similar  attempt  to  popularize  the  historic  writings  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament Scriptures.  These  are  the  first  examY>les  of  a  metric  form 
which  afterward  quite  frequently  appeared  in  the  j)oetry  of  the 
Church. 

Jerome,  Isodorus,  and  other  ancient  writers  mention  with  great 
respect  the  Christian  poet  Hilarius  of  Poitiers.  He  was  a  contem- 
porary of  the  great  fathers  Ephraem,  Gregory  Nazianzen,  Basil, 
Hilarius  and  ^^^^  Damasus,  and  also  shared  their  anxious  labors  to 
his  works.  hold  the  Church  steadfast  to  the  orthodox  faith.     Dur- 

ing his  banishment  to  the  East,  Hilarius  became  convinced  of  the 
effectiveness  of  Church  songs  in  the  public  service.  On  his  return 
he,  therefore,  composed  a  number  of  hymns  for  popular  use,  and 
compiled  a  h3^mnbook  for  the  congregations  of  his  diocese,  which 
has  unfortunately  been  lost.  The  genuineness  of  several  poems 
formerly  ascribed  to  him  has  been  questioned.     While  it  is  diflicult 

'  Biihr:  Op.  ciL,  Bd.  iv,  s.  35.  Contra,  Teuffel:  Op.  ciL,  s.  932.  who  attributes  de 
FJicenice  to  him. 

^Teiiffe!:    Op.  ciL,  s.  943,  questions  the  ascription  of  Liber  in  Genesin  to  Juvencus. 
3  Jacob:  Die  Kunstim  Dienste  der  Kirche.,  s.  371.     . 


EAKLY   CHRISTIAN    POETRY   AND   IIYMNOLOGY.  287 


to  dc'U'rmiiR'  witli  acriinicy  the  (.'Xtciit  of  his  work,  tlio  lifgiiiniiig 
of  a  gt'iiuiiie   Latin   liyiniiohjgy    is   usually  ascribed   to 
hiui.'     The  most  celebrated  of  his  hynms  are  the  latin-   n".  iJlij,,  ^,!^,u" 
ization  of  tlie  Gloria  in  Mjccdain,  licata  nobis  gaudia,   iioi.«y. 
and  Lucis  lanjitor  splendide. 

Througjj  the  liberty  of  worship  guaranteed  by  Constant ine  tlie 
services  of  the  Church  assumed  more  regularity,  and  the  growing 
splendor  of  the  basilicas  occasioned  a  growing  demand  for  instruc- 
tive and  iiiii»ressive  ceremonies.  The  leaders  of  the  i„er(.asinK  de- 
Church  now  gave  increasing  attention  to  the  improve-  niima  for 
raent  of  the  forms  of  public  worship.  The  hymus  ^'""''* 
were  more  carefully  written  and  adjusted  to  the  improved  music. 
So  ra[)idly  had  its  meml)erslup  multiplied,  and  so  widely  had  its 
influence  extended,  that  the  Church  no  longer  deemed  it  expedient 
to  leave  the  public  worship  to  uncertain  tradition  or  to  the  mere 
caprice  of  individuals.  To  secure  uniformity  in  the  more  public 
services  there  must  be  a  fixed  and  authorized  liturgy.*  Also,  the 
memory  of  the  heroic  men  and  women  who  had  attested 
their  faith  by  suffering  a  martyr's  death  now  became    ,         ,  ,  „» 

J  'ri  J  IncreasliiK   at- 

more  cherished.     Every  act  was  sought  to  be  perpetu-   tcntiDn  to  lu- 
ated.     The  monuments  were  adorned  with  inscriptions,   "''*^''*''* 
and  churches  covered  the  spots  where  the   sacred   dust   rei)osed. 
These  resting-places  of  the  holy  departed  became  sacred  shrines.'' 

Among  the  most  zealous  promoters  of  this  work  was  I)  unasus, 
bishop  of  Rome,  who  was  born  about  the  beginning  of 
the  fourth  century.  His  zeal  for  the  doctrines  and 
ritual  of  the  Church  was  wellnigh  consuming.  To  him  is  attrib- 
uted the  regulation  of  the  morning  and  evening  hymns.  lie  was 
among  the  most  earnest  promoters  of  the  hymnology  of  tlii'  Latin 
Church,    and   zealous   for    its    orderly   arraiigcnicnt.      Tiic  iimnber 

of  his   ])oems   still   extant  cainiot    be    determined   with    ..     ,  . 

*  _  NuiiiiMT      and 

certainty,  but   more    than   thirty    are  of  unquestioned   timraci.r     of 
genuineness.      Among   these   are  but  two   of    a    lyric   *"'"  ''J''""'*- 
character;  one  to  St.  Andrew,  the  other  to  St.  Agatha.     These  are 
constructed  upon  a  model  almost  entirely  unknown  to  the  Christian 
foetry  of  that  period,  since  the  latter  is  in  i-liyinc,  and  has,  on  this 

'  According  to  Neale  he  begins  tlie  second  period  of  Lniin  liymnology. 

*  The  discnssion  of  these  attempts  belongs  to  the  liistory  of  Cluirch  canons  and 
liturgies.  These  suV)jccts  tire  itbly  treated  in  such  works  as  Boveridge:  Cnhx  con. 
Eccl.  Prim.;  Ultzen:  Const itutiones  ApostoUae;  Cliase :  Constitutions  and  Canons  of 
the  Apoftles ;  Mwratori:  Liturgia  Romana  vetiis;  Palmer:  Orif/ines  Litunjicm ;  Dan- 
iel:   Codex  Liturific'is,  otc. :  'Sen\e  :   Tefra'ogia  lifurffica.  dtc.     v.   Bk.  TIF. 

'  For  tJic  inflwei  ce  of  this  sentiment  on  Christian  urcliitecture.  etc.,  sec  pp.  206,  207. 


288  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHKISTIAN  ART. 

account,  been  thought  by  some  writers '  of  authority  to  belong  to 
a  Liter  age.  The  inscriptions  which  he  composed  for  the  se- 
pulchral monuments  of  the  popes  and  martyrs  share  in  the  general 
departure  from  the  purity  and  simplicity  of  the  earlier  classical 
laduiges  iu  masters,  and  abound  in  the  excessive  panegyric  which 
panegyric.  ^jjg  heathen  writers  of  his  age  had  adopted,  and  which 
is  a  marked  symptom  of  decadence  in  style  and  taste. ^ 

The  fourth  century  was  an  age  of  fiercest  conflict  in  Church  and 
State.  The  means  by  which  Constantine  had  come  to  the  throne  were 
such  as  only  a  desperate  condition  of  society  could  justify.  The 
toleration  granted  to  the  Church,  its  adoption  as  the  religion  of  the 
Disturbed  con-  State,  and  the  forceful  suppression  of  the  heathen 
ciety'^  uude°r  worship  awakened  the  hostility  of  a  large  and  learned 
Constantine.  class  of  the  Roman  world.  It  was,  therefore,  not  strange 
that  on  the  death  of  the  first  Christian  emperor  a  great  revulsion  of 
feeling  ensued  and  heathenism  attempted  to  reassert  itself. 

Upon  the  downfall  of  Lieinius  multitudes  of  the  heathen  had  ac- 
cepted Christianity.  They  donned  the  white  robes  of  baptism,  and 
the  churches  were  crowded  with  catechumens.  Through  an  evident 
Perils  to  the  ^^'^nt  of  deep  intellectual  and  spiritual  conviction  on  the 
Church.  part  of  many  of  these  nominal  Christians  their  accession 

became  a  source  of  weakness  rather  than  of  strength.  Moreover, 
a  majority  of  the  Roman  noljility  still  clung  with  fondness  to  the 
ancient  institutions,  and  held  the  masses  loyal  to  the  ancient 
religion.  Within  the  territory  of  the  Eastern  Empire  the  new  doc- 
The  tenacity  t^'ii^^^^  ^^^^  been  more  popular.  While  the  strong  influ- 
of  heathen  be-  ence  of  a  civil  or  military  aristocracy  was  there  want- 
'*^^'  ing,  nevertheless  the  great  schools  at  Athens,  Ephesus, 

and  Antioch  were  still  under  the  direction  of  heathen  teachers  who 
by  their  zeal  and  ability  attracted  to  their  precincts  sons  of  the 
most  powerful  families.  Thus  an  aristocracy  of  learning  was  ar- 
rayed against  the  Church,  now  weakened  by  its  fierce  doctrinal 
struggles.*  The  imperial  power  exerted  by  Constantine  in  the  de- 
fence and  promotion  of  the  Church  had  become  weakened  through 
the  contentions  of  his  sons,  and  the  cruel  suspicions  of  rulers  had 
well  nigh  annihilated  the  Flavian  family.  But  the  hopes  of 
heathenism  now  centered  in  the  person  of  Julian.     This  emperor, 

'Grimm,  W.:  Zur  Geschichk  cles  Reims,  in  the  memoirs  of  the  Berlin  Academy 
of  Sciences  for  3-enr  1851.  p.  683,  cited  hj  Bahr. 

^Biilir:  Op.  ciL,  iv,  18.  De  Rossi:  Inscripiiones  Christiance,  i,  329,  has  called 
fittenlion  to  tlie  remarkab'e  neatness  of  these  sepiilchrnl  inscriptrons  ;  v.  also  his 
Roma  Soth'vrnnea,  i,  p.  Ivi.     For  Damasene  inscriptions  see  Plate  VTI. 

^  Uhlliorn  :   Conflict  of  Christianity  with  Heathenism^  bk.  iii,  ch.  iii. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  POETRY  AND  IIYMNOLOGY.  289 

tlio  obji'ct  of  tilt'  iiitcnsc'st  liatri'd  of  liis  ciu'init'S,  tlie  noble  advo- 
cate of  pliilosojdiy  ami  toleraiici'  in  the  jiid^nient  of  his  junan  anil  his 
apolojjjists,  certainly  aimed  at  the  restoration  of  the  i'""'^'y- 
lieatlien  ri'IiijioTi  at  the  exi»enst'  of  ("hristianit y.  His  profession  of 
impartial  toleration  was  contradicted  by  his  edicts  against  the  C'hnrch. 
The  law  rcquiriniif  the  restoration  of  the  heathen  tenijdes  which 
ha<l  been  destroyed  under  the  i)revioiis  reigns  bore  with  exce])tional 
severity  upon  such  societies  as  had  removed  the  ancient  shrines, 
approi)riated  the  valuable  ornaments,  and  on  the  old  sites  had 
erected  new  and  splendid  Christian  churches.  The  horrors  of  the 
grove  of  •Daphne  near  Antioch  '  were  by  no  means  exceptional,  and 
the  attitude  of  Julian  toward  their  promoters  clearly  reveals  the 
insincerity  of  his  professions  of  toleration. 

J)Ut  the  law  priiliil)itiiig  the  Christians  from  teaeliiiii,'-  tlu'  arts 
of  grammar  and  rhetoric  was,  if  possible,  still  more  wide-reaching 
in  its  conse(juences,  and  revealed  the  purpose  of  Julian  to  cast  upon 
the  Christian  doctrine  the  most  withering  contempt,  christians  nro- 
JSince  the  education  of  the  Roman  youth  was  a  matter  hiwted  from 
of  strict  legal  control,  the  eflFect  of  the  edict  was  to  ^'^"^'''"«- 
banish  from  the  schools  all  Christian  teachers,  and  to  exchule 
from  those  which  the  Church  maintained  at  her  own  expense 
all  so  called  heathen  classical  authors.  Julian  firndy  believed 
that  the  conse(pience  of  this  ))rohibition  would  be  to  shut  up 
the  Christian  teachers  to  their  own  sacred  books,  and,  inasmuch  as 
ho  supposed  that  in  these  was  no  "])erennial  fountain  of  truth," 
the  Church  would  certainly  be  reduced  to  a  mass  of  ignorant 
and  enthusiastic  devotees,  whose  utter  extinction  must  speedily  en- 
sue. The  effects  of  the  publication  of  this  edict  were  far  other  than 
the  mystical  emperor  had  anticipated.  This  was  the  occasion  of 
one  of  the  most  interesting  phases  of  Christian  literary  history. 

In  the  heathen  schools  alone  the  influence  of  classical  teaching 
could  be  enjoyed,  and  to  these  the  emi)eror  earnestly  in-  EfTensof  those 
vited  the  vouth  of  the  realm.  He  suppose.l  that  this  in-  l*;/'*:'-'^.  "'•"" 
vitation  would  be  gladly  accepted,  and  that  a  new  gen-  imv. 
eration  might  thus  be  reared  who  would  reverence  the  ancii'iit  in- 
stitutions and  contribute  to  their  early  and  complete  restoration. 
But  the  Church  was  unwilling  to  entrusther  children  to  this  heathen 
secular  tuition.  Moreover,  her  influence  must  be  lost  through  ne- 
glect of  her  youth.  The  residt  of  the  edict  was  to  develop  a  Christ- 
ian j»oetry,  to  take  the  place  of  the  heathen  authors  who  had  been 
legally  excluded  from  the  schools  of  the  Church.  Instead  of  the 
epic   poems  with  which    the  professors  of   rhetoric  and  grammar 

'  Gibbon  :  Decline  and  Fall,  etc.,  chap,  xiiii. 
19 


290  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 

had  familiarized  themselves,  a  class  of  able  Christian  teachers  at- 
tempted to  imitate  the  heathen  epic  by  substituting  biblical  charac- 
ters for  those  of  fable  and  tradition.  Thus  the  interest  in  Christian 
schools  was  maintained,  and  the  charge  of  ignorance  successfnlly 
met.  The  great  men  of  the  Church  who  were  engaged  in  this 
struggle  did  not  cease  their  efforts  even  after  Julian's  death.  The 
work  Avhose  beginning  he  had  compelled  Avent  forward,  greatl}^  to 
the  honor  and  to  the  edification  of  the  body  of  believers.  Not  only 
were  important  poems  written  in  order  to  avert  the  evils  threatened 
by  the  imperial  edict,  but  theories  of  poetry  were  developed  which 
have  not  become  obsolete.' 

Perhaps  no  writer  of  the  fourth  century  more  clearly  and  beauti- 
Pauiinus  of  ^"^^7  expi'essed  the  principles  of  Christian  aesthetics 
Noia.  than   Paulinus    of    Nola.      In  his   poem   addressed   to 

Jovius"  we  find  these  brought  together  in  consecutive  order.  He 
first  claims  that  Christianity  provides  the  truest  and  noblest  subjects 
for  poetry;  that  the  fables  of  the  gods  have  amused  the  childhood 
His  theory  of  period  of  the  race;  that  to  yield  one's  self  to  the  Word 
poetry.  of  truth  is  worth}^  of  the  adult  age  of  a  genuine  culture, 

and  of  the  most  conspicuous  talent.  "  Though  I  ma}^  give  myself 
to  the  art  of  poetry  I  Avill  adhere  to  strict  historical  truthful- 
ness, since  it  should  be  unworthy  of  a  servant  of  Christ  to  indulge 
in  the  false  and  the  deceiving.  Such  art  may  be  pleasing  to  the 
heathen,  but  it  is  abhorrent  to  those  whose  master  is  the  Truth." 
The  subjects  of  Christian  poetry  are  so  vital  and  exalted  that  they 
give  a  higher  dignity  to  language,  ennoble  the  poet  himself,  and  be- 
stow upon  him  more  abundant  honor.  Faith  is  the  one  perfect  art, 
and  Christ  is  the  true  music,  since  he  first  restored  the  shattered 
harmonies  of  the  soul,  and  united  in  himself  the  divine  and  the 
human  spirit  which  were  before  so  widely  separated.  In  such  efTorts 
the  poet  can  confident!}^  ask  the  aid  of  the  Creator  of  all  things. 
Therefore,  he  Avill  not  invoke  the  Muses,  nor  to  them  ascribe  praises, 
but  he  will  rely  upon  Christ,  who  for  us  became  incarnate  and  re- 
deemed the  world  through  his  OAvn  blood.  He  will  invoke  Him — 
"  Pour  thyself  into  my  heart,  O  Christ,  my  God,  and  slake  my  thirst 
out  of  thy  perennial  fountains.  One  drop  administered  by  thee  will 
become  in  me  a  river  of  water.  Graciously  stoop  to  my  relief,  O  thou 
Source  of  Speech,  Word  of  God,  and  let  my  voice  become  melodious 

'If  we  are  to  believe  Socmtes,  Eccl.  Hist,  iii,  16,  the  writinss  which  had  been 
prepared  to  counteract  tlie  effects  of  Julian's  edict  wcic  little  esteemed  by  the 
Ciiristians  themselves  after  the  death  of  this  emperor.  Nevertheless,  the  interest 
awakened  bj^  this  stimulus  continued. 

*  Poem.  22. 


EARLY  CIIKISTIAN   POETRY  AND  IIY.AINOLOGY.  291 

as  that  of  tlie  bird  of  spriiii^  I  "  Only  such  a  )>()('try  can  deserve 
the  jtatroiiaLje  and  s^eniiine  a[)j)roval  of  rational  and  riLjht-niinded 
judu^es.  "  Then,"  adtls  Paiiliniis,  "  will  I  call  thee  a  true,  divine  poet, 
and  will  quaff  thy  poems  as  a  drautjht  of  .sweet  water,  since  they  flow 
to  nie  as  from  the  fountains  of  heavenly  nectar,  because  they  sing  of 
Christ  the  Lord  of  all.'" 

Thus  this  early  writer  developed  the  theory  of  genuine  Christian 
poetry  wliich  has  widely  governed  the  Church  during  the  cen- 
turies.' Consistent!}'  with  this  theory,  lie  carefully  avoids  all  ref- 
erence to  the  heathen  mythology  and  to  those  tojdcs  in 
which  the  heathen  poets  were  most  fully  interested. 
While  in  form  he  imitates  the  classic  poems  of  heroic  and  iambic 
measure,  and  sometimes  even  rivals  these  in  easy  rhythm  and  flow 
of  verse,  he  adheres  closely  to  Christian  thought,  and  furnishes  ex- 
amples of  poetic  writing  which  could  take  the  place  of  the  heathen 
l)oetry  interdicted  by  Julian,  and  after  his  death  was  measurably 
excluded  b}'  the  power  of  Christian  sentiment.  Since  Paulinus  had 
received  a  liberal  education  in  the  flourishing  schools  of  Bordeaux, 
and  was,  therefore,  familiar  with  the  classic  literature  of  the  period, 
he  was  on  his  conversion  of  great  benefit  to  the  Church  in  the  edu- 
cation and  guidance  of  the  v'oung.  His  literary  and  poetic  influence 
upon  the  Church  of  his  period  was  marked  aiul  permanent.^ 

Of  even  greater   prominence   in    the  history  of  Christian  hym- 

nology  was   Ambrose,  bishop  of    Milan,  born   about  A.   D.   ;{.^5. 

During  a  life  of  sixtv  vears  he  deei)lv  influenced  the 
1       1   '  11         1     i-c"       /•   1  •  •  111-  Ambri«e. 

theology  and   church   lite  or  his  own  time,  and  by  his 

intelligent  reform  of  the  ritual  service  made  an  epoch  in  Christian 
liistory.  Among  the  four  great  Latin  fathers  whose  works  gave  sub- 
stantial aid,  and  were  a  bulwark  of  defence  to  the  Christians,  Am- 
brose st.ands  preeminent.  Like  his  noble  contemporary,  Hilary,  he 
was  of  influential  heathen  parentage.  His  careful  training  un<ler 
the  direction  of  pagan  masters  was  designe<l  to  fit  him  for 
honorable  ])ublic  station.     Lender  Probus   he  was   ai)- 

,  -,     .     -,  /•   T     1  1  •        1  His  education. 

pointed  governor  and  judge  of  Italy,  and  in  the  year 
A.  D.  370  obtained  the  governorship  of  Milan,  together  with  ilie 
control   of   Bologna,   Turin,    and   ^Tenoa.      He  began   his   career  as 
a  mere  catechuinen    in  the  Church,  and  not  until  designated  by  the 

^  Poemeta.  fi,  10,  20.  22,  2.1,  etc.,  in  Nfisrne's  Palrologia. 

'Jacob  :  Die  Kunat  im  Dienste  der  Kirchu,  pp.  .309,  370. 

'Doubtless  iho  ostim.itcs  pl.acod  upon  the  wrilinps  .ind  services  of  P.nnliniis  by 
some  Catholic  writers  .-ire  exlravap:ant.  On  the  otlier  iiand,  wo  believe  that  some 
Protestants  are  charijcable  with  almost  equal  errors  from  tlie  low  value  at  which 
they  represent  hia  labors. 


293  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 

popular  judgment  foi"  bishop  of  Milan  did  he  receive  Christian 
baptism.  But  when  once  he  entered  upon  the  duties  of  the 
ejiiscopal  office  all  his  native  gifts  and  his  acquired  powers  Avere  de- 
voted without  stint  to  the  advancement  of  the  orthodox  faith. 
When,  after  the  custom  of  the  Greek  and  North  African  churches, 
he  had  introduced  the  sermon  into  the  regular  services  of  each  Sab- 
bath, he  also  felt  the  need  of  reforming  the  music  and  the  hA'mns. 

Connected  with  his  eminent  services  in  church  music  Avere  his 
Hr  CO  t  b  s-ttempts  to  improve  its  hymnology.  In  the  midst  of 
tioiis  to  hym-  bitter  strifes  of  factions  he  aimed  to  hold  the  Church 
°°  °^^'  steady  to  its  pristine  faith.     As  we  have  before  seen,  the 

reform  and  perfection  of  the  service  were  intimately  connected  with 
the  Arian  controversy.  The  vigorous  leaders  of  this  heresy  had  ob- 
served that  the  mass  of  the  people  was  more  surely  influenced  through 
attractive  Christian  ceremonies  than  by  formal  dogmatic  statements. 
Here,  as  in  the  East,  the}^  aimed  to  propagate  their  peculiar  doctrines 
through  the  impressive  means  of  music  joined  to  sacred  song. 
Numerous  hymns  of  Arian  origin  had  become  familiar  to  the  people 
of  the  West,  and  by  their  pleasing  and  insinuating  influence  were 
leading  multitudes  away  from  the  orthodox  faith.  Both  Athana- 
sius  and  the  Church  historian  Philostorgius  make  reference  to  this 
influence.  The  spiritual  songs  of  Arius  were  so  much  in  favour 
Influence  of  as  to  contribute  powerfully  to  the  dissemination  of  his 
Avian  byinns.  doctrines.  We  are  told  by  the  historians  Socrates  and 
Sozomen  that  the  public  services  of  the  Arians  in  Constantinople 
were  so  popular,  on  account  of  the  hymns  and  antiphonies,  that 
even  Chrysostom  felt  compelled  to  introduce  into  the  orthodox 
churches  a  like  provision  in  order  to  retain  his  congregations.  In 
A.  D.  386  Ambrose  had  completed  his  important  reforms,  and 
very  soon  these  were  introduced  into  many  churches  of  the  West. 

Some  difference  of  opinion  has  existed  relative  to  the  exact  char- 
acter of  the  Ambrosian  service.  It  is,  however,  pretty  generally 
agreed  that  tlie  whole  body  of  assembled  believers  participated  in  it, 
and  that  his  chant  was  founded  on  the  ancient  Greek  music,  while 
it  also  sought  a  more  intimate  union  of  the  rh^^thm  and  metre  of 
the  hymn  with  the  musical  melody.  It  might  be  expected  that 
Ambrose  himself  would  l^ecome  the  author  of  hymns  appropriate 
to  the  new  ritual;  still,  it  is  ver}^  difficult  to  distinguish  those  of 
his  own  composition  from  many  which  the  ncAV  order  had  called 
into  existence,  and  which  also  went  under  the  general  name  of 
Ambrosian.  The  Benedictine  editors  of  his  works'  claim  that  the 
united  testimony  of  the  Avriters  from  the  fourth  to  the  ninth  cen- 
iTom.  ii,  pp.  1219-1224. 


EARLY  CIIinSTrAX    POETRY  AND   IIYMXOLOGY.  29.*! 

tiny  is  to   the  offi't't  tliat   only  twelve  of  the   so-ealled   Ambrosiaii 
livnins  can  be  ret'anled  as   li^enuine.'      Of  the  form  and    .,     . 

•^  _  '^  ~  NutiilMT      aud 

eharacter  of  these  liynins  it  can  he  said,  "They  rank  (imriKicr  of 
well  witli  the  best  heathen  poems  of  that  aj^e.  When  ''"  ''■'"""*• 
they  are  compared  witli  the  poetry  of  Ausonius  or  of  ("laudiaiius 
they  are  to  be  preferred  botli  f<»r  their  perfection  of  rhytlnii  and 
earnestness  of  spirit."'  They  are  of  the  form  of  iambic  dimctrc, 
which  seemed  best  suited  to  this  service,  but  avoid  all  attenijil  at 
rliyme.  They  l,'1ow  witli  a  pure  devotion,  and  j)lace  their  renowm-d 
author  very  high  among  liymnologists  of  the  ancient  Church.  J>oth 
Catholics  and  Protestants  have  appropriated  these  hymns  for  the 
enrichment  of  their  service.^ 

Very  prominent  as  a  poet,  and  in  the  discussion  of  the  principles 
which  should  regulate  poetic  writing,  was  the  Spaniard, 

arcus  Aureluis  Clemens  rrudentius,  wlio  nourished  in 
tlie  last  half  of  the  fourth  and  the  beginning  of  tlie  fifth  century. 
Until  his  fiftieth  year  liis  life  was  passed  in  i)ublic  service,  chiefly 
as  an  advocate.  He  then  resolved  to  witlub'aw  from  the  affairs  of 
state  and  devote  liimself  exclusively  to  the  Church.  In  common 
with  so  many  otliers  of  tlie  teachers  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  cen- 
turies he  clearly  perceived  what  service  jjoetry  might  render  for 
the  education  and  edification  of  the  Christian  assemblies,  and  for 
the  defence  of  doctrine.  His  poems  were  of  both  a  didactic  and 
lyric  character.  Of  his  clearly  authenticated  writings  there  have 
been  preserved  more  than  ten  thousand  lines.  Of  these  His  works  and 
his  (Jatlieineruwn,  a  collection  of  twelve  hymns  origi-  nu'iichara.icr. 
nally  designed  for  daily  use  in  the  worship  of  the  Church  which 
the  i)oet  frecpiented,  was  widely  accepted  by  the  Latin  fathers, 
and  incorporated  into  the  early  hymnology.  These  poems  are 
characterized  by  simi)licity  of  diction,  sublimity  of  thought,^  and  a 

'  D;miel :  T/iisfttir.  hymn.,  Bii..  i.  p.  12,  adds  largely  to  the  number  given  by  the 
Dominicans.  Mone :  Loteinisclie  Ilijmnen,  Bd.  i,  lias  ascribed  to  him  three  oUiers. 
So  also  Rarnbach:  Antholnrjie.  Bd.  i,  s.  60.  and  Wackernapol :  Das  deubche  Kirchenlicd, 
are  inclined  to  increase  the  number  of  gennine  Aml)rosian  hymns.  Neale :  The 
Ecclesiastical  Latin  Podry  of  the  Middle  Ages,  reduces  them  to  ten. 

*Bahr:   Op.  cit ,  Bd.  \v. 

*  Among  the  most  valued  of  liis  hymns  are  the  celebrated  doxology,  Te  Deian 
laudamus,  Vent,  Redemptor  gentium,  and  Deus  Creator  omnium.  They  have  found 
their  way  through  translations  into  many  modern  collections.  His  Teni,  Redemptor 
'jentium  has  been  translated  In-  Luther,  "Xun  komnie.  der  Heiden  Heiland ;  ''  by  John 
Franck,  "  Komm,  Heiden  Heiland,  Losegeld ; "  bj-  J.  M.  Neale,  "  Come,  thou  Re- 
deemer of  the  earth;  "  by  Ray  Palmer,  "0  thou  Redeemer  of  our  race."  Hia  A  solis 
orttli  cardine  has  been  well  translated,     v.  Schaflf:    Christ  in  Song, 

*Bahr:   Op.  cit.,  Bd.  iv,  s.  77. 


294  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

spirit  of  ardent  piety;  they  have  been  cherished  by  the  universal 
Church  as  expressive  of  the  believer's  richest  experiences.  His 
JPeristejyhcoion  is  a  like  collection  of  fourteen  poems  in  celebration 
of  the  praises  of  the  martyrs  who  have  won  their  heavenly  crown. 
The  growing  honor  paid  to  the  witnesses  for  the  truth  here  finds 
expression.  The  spirit  animating  these  poems  is  born  of  a  high  and 
holy  faith,  but  they  cannot  take  rank  among  the  foremost  Christian 
writings  of  the  first  six  centuries.  In  his  Apotheosis,  consisting 
of  one  thousand  and  eighty-five  hexameter  verses,  he  attempts  to 
set  forth  and  defend  the  orthodox  doctrine  of  the  true  divinit}'' 
and  humanity  of  Christ  as  against  the  Sabellians,  the  Jews,  the 
Manichoeans,  the  other  heretical  sects.  In  his  Psydwrnachla,  of 
about  one  thousand  verses,  the  conflict  of  virtue  with  vice  in 
the  human  soul  is  portrayed.  This  poem  contains  some  truly 
eloquent  passages  which  rise  almost  to  the  intensity  of  the 
dramatic. 

The  attempt  of  Symmachus  to  reinstate  heathen  worship,  by  re- 
building the  altar  of  Victory^ has  already  been  referred  to  {v.  p.  66). 
The  Christian  apologist  was  temporarily  successful.  But  the  spirit 
of  the  old  faith  was  not  thus  easily  subdued.  Tlie  too  common  view 
that  heathenism  was  ah'eady  effete  is  evidently  erroneous.     A  crit- 

„^       ,       .,     ical  examination  of  the  teachinofs  of  the  leading  minds 

The      tenacity  °  ~ 

of  heathen  of  heathen  Rome  from  A.  D.  150  to  A.  D.  450  will  show 
thought.  \\i2d.  the   number  of  atheistic  and  purely  materialistic 

thinkers  was  quite  insignificant.  Even  Lucian  substantially  con- 
firms this  view,  though  his  interest  is  evidently  against  it.'  Thus 
while  the  triumph  of  Ambrose  seemed  at  the  time  complete,  and 
Theodosius  refused  to  reinstate  the  altg-r  of  Victor}^,  Symmachus 
renewed  this  attempt  under  the  reigns  of  Arcadius  and  Ilonorius. 
This  was  probaby  the  occasion  for  Prudentius  to  write  the  Lihri 
duo  contra  Symmadmm,  in  the  first  book  of  which  he  most  zeal- 
ously defends  tlie  excellencies  of  the  Christian  faith  as  against 
the  absurdities  and  defects  of  heathen  philosophj^  and  showed  that 
the  evils  which  the  empire  was  suffering  were  the  direct  effect  of 
the  corruptions  and  moral  delinquencies  of  the  heathen  teachers.  In 
the  second  he  refutes  the  arguments  of  Symmachus."  The  intelli- 
gent zeal  of  the  writer  appears  most  conspicuously  in  tliis  poem. 
"While  at  times  indulging  in  extravagant  statements,  it  must  be 
ranked  among  his  most  vigorous  writings. 

The  works  of  Prudentius  mark  a  new  period  in  the  history  of 

'  Jup.  T)-agoed.,  quoted  by  Friedlander :  Darstellungen  aus  d.  SiUengescMchle  Eoms, 
5te  Ausg.,  Bd.  iii,  s.  552. 
2Teuffcl:   Op.  cit,  s.  1029. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN   POETRY  AND  IIYMNOLOGY.  295 

Cliristian  poetry.     His  iiiHiicnce  was  lastiiii;,  and  tlic  ]\Ii<Mlo  Acjcs 

cherislu'd  most  carctully   Ins   jtoi'ins    and   imitated   his   treatment.' 

His  peculiar  themes  initiated  Iiini  into  an  ahnost  unex-   nis    intiuence 

])loreil  department  of  literature.     His  early  trainint;  put   isistiiif?. 

him  into  sympathy  with  classical  writers,  and  UmI  him  to  incorporate 

into   his  poi'uis   classic   constructions.      Yet   the   spirit   of   the   new 

religion  and  the  sublimity  of  the  themes  introduce  into  these  ])oems 

a  novel  and,  at  times,  almost  <;rt»tes(jue  iidiarmoniousness.^     While 

liis  talent  was  so  great,  it  was,  however,  insuthcient  to  found  a  new 

school  of  poetry.' 

Another    eminent    writer    of    the    sixth    century,    whose    poems 

have  been  itreservetl  in  the  hymnolon'v  of  the  Church, 

-,  .        T-.  I>      1      ,■     '        1  ,•  Foilunalus. 

was  \  enantuis  rortunatus.       l>oth  trom  the   reierences 

found  in  the  works  of  Gregory  of  Tours  and  of  Paul  Diaconus, 
as  well  as  from  his  own  writings,  we  gain  a  fair  idea  of  the  char- 
acter and  works  of  this  renowned  Christian  poet.  The  date  of 
his  birtli  is  unknown.  According  to  his  own  account  he  was 
educated  in  llaveima,  the  seat  of  superior  schools  for  training 
the  young  in  the  principles  of  the  Roman  law.  He  afterward 
journeyed  into  Austrasia,  where  he  became  the  friend  and  adviser 
of  King  Sigibert.  He  wrote  the  KpUlMhiininm  on  the  occasion 
of  the  marriage  of  Sigibert  with  Brunihild,  daughter  of  Atliani- 
gild,  king  of  the  West  Goths.  Soon  after  he  was  ai)pointed 
su})i'rior  of  a  cloister  of  nuns  at  Poitiers.  Here  he  took  uj)  his 
residence,  and  became  bishop  of  Poitiers  toward  the  close  of  Ids 
lifi'.  He  dii'd  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixth  century,  and  was  l)uried 
in  the  Basilica  of  St.  Hilarius.  He  was  of  noble  character, 
and   his   name  was  held    in    highest  veneration   by  the  media'val 

Church.       His  poems,   like   those  of   most  of  his  con-   „, 

*  '  .  .Hispoems, 

temporaries,  were  largely  narrative  and  panegyric,  their  cimrac-ter 
In  this  respect,  as  well  as  in  the  form  of  his  poetry,  """"^  i"«"ence. 
he  was  in  harmony  with  the  fashion  of  the  time.  Of  the  eleven 
books  of  his  poems,  the  largest,  as  de  vita  S.  Mortim,  (le  exckfio 
ThnrliKjhi',,  etc.,  are  descriptive  and  eulogistic.  John  of  Fritten- 
heim  speaks  of  seventy-seven  hymns  composed  by  Fortunatus,  but 
scarcely  more  than  a  dozen  have  bi-en  preserved  to  (»ur  time.^  Sonu' 
have  gone   into  the  hymnology  of  the  general  Church,  and  arc-  of 

'  B;ilir:   Op.  cit..  Bd.  iv,  s.  86. 

«  Hcniluircly:    GesrU.  d.  Rom.  Lit.,  s.  995. 

'  ScliafT:  CItri.st  in  Soinj,  lias  prouomiced  llic  Jam  mrv.stn  quicce  querela  his  master- 
piece. It  lias  been  vory  Ix^autifiilly  tr.inslaU'd  by  Mrs.  Ciiarlcs — "Ahl  htish  now 
four  mournful  coniplaininjrs,"  etc.,  ami  In*  many  others. 

*  Teuffel:   Op.  cit.,  ss.  1177-1181.     Balir:   Op.  cit,  Bd.  iv,  s.  155. 


296  ARCH.i:OLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 

great  excellence  and  breathe  the  spirit  of  a  pure  devotion.  The 
beautiful  hymn  on  the  Nativity,  Agnoscat  oinne  smculum,  and 
the  two  in  celebration  of  the  passion  of  the  Lord,  Pange  lingua 
gloriosi,  and  Vex'dla  regis  prudtant,  are  still  greatly  prized.  Their 
spirit  of  simple  i:»iety  is  in  strong  contrast  with  most  of  his  de- 
scriptive jjoems  and  panegyrics.'  In  some  of  his  works  there  is  a 
close  imitation  of  the  style  and  metre  of  the  earlier  classic  poets, 
while  occasionally  the  influence  of  Claudianus  is  clearly  discernible. 
Close  attention  is  not  always  given  to  the  measure  and  rhythm, 
while  all  traces  of  what  we  understand  by  rhyme  are  wanting.  The 
Church  has  placed  very  high  value  on  the  few  gems  contributed  by 
this  author  to  her  hyninology.  As  a  theologian,  scholar,  and  pub- 
licist he  held  high  rank  among  the  men  of  his  century;  while  as 
poet  he  is  scarcely  excelled  by  either  heathen  or  Christian  of  his 
time. 

The  genuineness  of  most  of  the  hymns  once  attributed  to  Gregory 
the  Great  is  now  questioned.  The  Yeni,  Creator  Spiritics,  formerly 
reckoned  among  his  noblest  productions,  is  now  believed  to  be  the 
work  of  another;  so,  also,  the  All  Saints'  hymn,  Chrlste,  nostra  nunc 
et  semper,  the  Advent  hymn,  Christe,  redemptor  oinnium,  and  the 
Baptismal  hymn,  Ora  primnni  tu  pro  uobi.s.  A  few  which  are 
believed  to  be  genuine  are  found  in  the  hymnolog}^  of  the  modern 
Church.  His  morning  hymn,  Eccejam  te)iuatur  uniltra,  with  No.  15 
of  the  appended  doxologies,  has  been  translated  by  Caswell: 

"Lo,  faiiitei'  now  lie  spread  the  shades  of  ni(fht, 
And  upward  shoot  the  Irenibhiig  gleams  of  morn." 

Other  writers,  as  Augustine  and  Ctelius  Sedulius,  wrote  a  number 
of  hymns  of  considerable  excellence;  but  the  genuineness  of  much 
which  M\as  formerly  attributed  to  them  has  been  seriously  ques- 
tioned, and  their  influence  upon  the  hyninology  of  the  West  has 
been  comparatively  unimportant. 

We  give  six  specimens  of  doxologies  used  in  the  Latin  Church 
during  the  first  six  centuries.  The}^  are  taken  from  Wackernagel's 
work,  Das  deutsche  Klrclienlied,  and  are  numbered  as  they  there 
stand : 

1. 

Deo  patri  sit  gloria, 
Eius  que  soli  filio 
Cum  spirito  paraclito 
Et  nunc  et  in  perpetnum. 

'  Some  of  his  h3'mns  have  been  frequently  translated,  notably  b}'  Neale,  Caswell, 
and  Mrs.  Cliarles,  and  have  been  very  widely  used  by  die  modern  clnu'ches. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN   I'OETRY  AND   IIYMNOLOGY.  29< 

4. 
Glori;i  ot  lioiior  doo 

usque  quo  allissimo, 
Una  pnlri  lilioque, 

iiiclito  puraclito, 
Ciii  laus  est  ct  potestas 

per  eterna  sieciila. 


Gloria  pairi  iii;;oniU) 

eiiis  que  uiiigcuico 
Una  cum  saiicto  spiritu 

in  senipiteiiia  siucula. 

11. 
Laus,  honor,  virtus,  gloria, 

deo  patri  ciun  lilio, 
Sanclo  sinuil  paraclilo 

iu  seaipitenia  siccula. 

15. 
Pra;3tct  lioc  nobis  deitas  bcaia 

patris  ac  nati,  pariter  sancli 
Spirilus,  cuius  reboal  iu  oiiini 

gloria  mundo. 

IS. 
Sit  laus,  pcreiuiis  gloria 

deo  patri  cum  (ilio, 
Sancto  simul  paraclito 

ia  sempiterna  siecula. 


298  AKC1I.E0L0GY   OF   CHlllSTIAN   ART. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

EARLY    CHRISTIAN    MUSIC. 

The  strict  religious  education  received  by  every  Jew  put  him  in 

sympathy  with  the  history,  the  trials,  and  the  hoijes  of 
Educational  J      i         J  ..''..  ^      . 

value  of  Jewish   his  people.      1  he  repetition  or  the  synagogue  service 

ceremonies.  three  times  a  day,  the  duty  of  private  prayer,  the  cere- 
monial at  every  meal,  the  imposing  ritual  on  the  occasion  of  new 
moons,  new  years,  feasts  and  fasts,  and  the  great  national  festivals 
celebrated  with  unequaled  pomp  and  solemnity,  must  have  kept 
alive  in  every  Jewish  heart  a  warm  affection  for  his  nation,  and 
thoroughly  indoctrinated  him  in  the  truths  which  were  regarded  as 
essential  to  life  and  salvation.'  It  is  not,  therefore,  surprising  that 
the  converts  from  Judaism  to  Christianity  were  sometimes  slow  to 
distinguish  between  the  symbol  and  the  reality,  and  clung  with 
fondness  to  what  had  become  so  venerable  from  age,  and  had  per- 
vaded their  history  as  the  chosen  peoi)le  of  God.  Eveiy  j)art  of  the 
temple  and  synagogue  service  had  been  prescribed  with  the  utmost 
minuteness,  and  maintained  Avith  scrupulous  care.  It  is  therefore 
Hebrew  music  Somewhat  disappointing  that  no  records  of  the  Hebrew 
lost.  music  have  been  preserved  to  our  time.     The  contrary 

opinion  of  De  Sola^  relative  to  the  great  antiquity  of  some  of  tlie 
Hebrew  melodies,  as,  for  example,  "  The  Melod}^  of  the  Blessing  of 
the  Priests "  (No.  44  of  his  collection),  "  The  Song  of  Moses " 
(No.  12  of  his  collection),  etc.,  can  scarcely  be  accepted  l)y  the  best 
historic  criticism.  It  is  likewise  true  that  no  tune  from  the  first 
two  centuries  of  the  Christian  Church  has  come  down  to  our  time. 
In  the  absence  of  actual  examples  by  which  a  comparison  may  be 

'  V.  Ederslieim:  Tlie  Life  and  Times  of  Je^Ji.s  the  Messiah,  bk.  ii,  cliap.  ix.  Geikie: 
Life  and  Words  of  Christ,  vol.  i,  chaps,  xiii,  xiv,  Shiirer:  Tlie  Jeivish  Church  in  tlie 
Time  of  Chrift,  Clark's  Foreign  Theological  Library,  vol.  ii,  §§  27,  28. 

2  The  Ancient  Melodies  of  the  Litunjy  of  the  S]>anish  and  Portuguese  Jei'js,  by  E. 
Aguilar  and  D.  A.  de  Sola,  p.  15,  et  al.  The  attempts  of  Delitzscli:  Physiologie  u. 
Musik  in  ihren  Bedeutung  fiir  die  Grammntik,  besonders  die  hehxdsche.  Leipziji',  1868; 
Saalschiitz :  Geschichte  u.  Wiirdigung  der  Mmik  hie  den  Hehraern,  Berlin,  1 829,  and  many 
others,  have  failed  to  convince  the  unprejudiced  tiiat  any  remnant  of  tiie  old  temple 
music  has  been  preserved.  The  traditions  in  tiie  East  and  Wcsido  not  at  all  agree^ 
and  the  methods  of  set  vice  of  the  Jews  in  Germany,  in  Kn-hmd,  and  in  f^ pain  are 
widely  dill'orent. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   MUSIC.  299 

instituted,  we  must  betake  ourselves  to  other  sources  of  information 
relative  to  the  early  C'luistian  music. 

The  first  converts  to  Christianity  were  Jews.     They  were  there- 
fore entirely  familiar  with  the  Jewish  forms  of  worship. 

rill       /•  .•  e  I      /  ,1     •     •  ,  ,.  First  Christians 

1  he  tew  notices  of  early  C  hnstian  assemblies  touiid  m  familiar  with 
the  New  Testament  indicate  that  the  infant  Church  ^^"^'^^  ^""us. 
laru:ely  observed  the  services  of  the  synaL^ogue,  and  that  little 
peculiar  or  original  was  at  first  introduced.  Prayer,  the  reading 
of  the  Scriptures,  the  chanted  psalm,  and  the  exjiosition  and  ex- 
hortation by  some  chosen  rabbi  or  educated  member  of  the  congre- 
gation constituted  the  chief  features  of  the  Jewish  synagogue  service. 
But  what  was  the  character  of  the  music  then  used?  The  char- 
acteristic   chanting   or   singing   called    eanlillation,   so   cantiiiationaf- 

Avidely  practiced  by  oriental  peoples,  as  well  as  the  fix-   ^°'"'''*  ""  ^"K- 

1  r   ^i  •      .    1  ,       ,        «  .  Ki'xtionastothe 

eclness  ot  the  oriental  type  both  of  music  and  instru-   andm  music. 

ments,  might  at  first  sight  seem  to  furnish  a  suggestion  of  the 
probable  character  of  the  Hebrew  music  in  the  time  of  Christ.  But 
to  supi)ose  that  the  Jewish  music  of  that  period  was  the  music 
practiced  in  the  Solomonic  temple  service,  or  even  in  that  of  Zerub- 
babel,  would  be  misleading.  By  the  wide  con(piests  of  Alexander 
Greek  infiuence  hail  been  disseminated  throughout  the  subject  na- 
tions. For  three  hundred  years  prior  to  the  Advent 
Greek  thought  had  l)een  powerful  in  modifying  the  Jew-  enoeli  power- 
ish  philosopliy  and  literature.  Not  only  in  Alexandria  ^"'^''<"^""- 
and  other  chief  Greek  cities  M'here  the  Jews  had  congregated,  but  in 
Jerusalem,  and  csjiecially  in  Samaria  and  Syria,  this  Greek  infiuence 
was  felt.  The  Sei>tuagint  translation  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  is 
a  conspicuous  illustration  of  the  mutual  interpenetration  of  Greek 
and  Hebrew  thought.'  3Iany  of  the  Hellenistic  Jews  acquired  such 
aptitude  and  ease  in  the  Greek  poetic  art  that  they  competed  with 
Greek  masters,  and  produced  remarkable  ])0('ms  whose  subjects  were 
derived  from  their  own  history  and  religion.  The  truths  of  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures  were  thus  cast  in  a  Greek  mould.  Frequently 
their  teachers  assumed  the  costume  of  the  ancient  (4reek  poets  anil 
philosophers.  This  syncretism  of  thought  continued  into  the  ear- 
lier years  of  Christianity,  and  must  have  seriously  affecte<l  the  po- 
etic and  musical  art  of  the  Jews.' 

'  For  the  ex'ont  of  the  Dispersion  and  Us  influence  on  Jewish  ihonjrlit,  rehgious 
observances  and  manners,  amonir  otl)crs  v.  Shiirer:  Op.  cit,  ^  31 :  Friedlandor:  Die 
Siltiwjeschichte.  Roms,  1881,  ss.  5T0-rj84;  Weslcott:  article  -'Dispersion,"  in  Smith's 
Did.  of  the  Bible. 

*  V.  Evvald:  The  Ifi.stonj  of  Israel,  translated  by  J.  Estlin  Carpenter,  London,  187-1. 
vol.  V,  pp.  2G0-2G2,  and  vol.  iii,  p.  283.     '^The  music  of  the  temple  services  was 


300  ARCILEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

The  old  temple  service,  in  which  the  prescribed  forms  were  ob- 
The  old  temple  served  with  scrupulous  inflexibility,  served,  indeed,  as  a 
tfaVconLrva  P^^'^i^l  breakwater  to  this  insetting  tide  of  Greek  inno- 
tor.  vation.     "  The  old  Hebrew  music  must  have  been  re- 

sumed in  the  new  temple  of  Zerubbabel,  and  pursued  with  great 
zeal.  This  is  plain  from  the  superscriptions  of  many  of  the  Psalms, 
which  were  then  collected  afresh,  and  fi'om  the  historic  representa- 
tions of  the  Chronicles.  But  the  Greek  translators  of  the  Psalter 
evince  only  an  imperfect  and  obscure  knowledge  of  the  art  terms  of 
the  ancient  music,  which  clearly  proves  that  the  whole  of  this  an- 
cient art  suffered  severely  through  the  entrance  of  Greek  music,  and 
by  degrees  entirely  disappeared."  ' 

The  purity  of  the  temple  service,  including  music,  thus  lost  under 
the  Greek  conquerors,  was  not  recovered  under  the  Roman.  The 
Asmonean  princes  sedulously  cultivated  the  friendship  of  their  new 
masters.  Only  b}^  Roman  protection  and  suiferance,  indeed,  Avas 
this  house  j^erpetuated.  Moreover,  the  grand  old  festivals,  which 
in  the  time  of  religious  fervor  had  been  celebrated  with  such  pomp, 
had  been  partialh^  displaced  by  others  of  more  recent  origin.  The 
Influence  of  I'etirement  from  public  life  of  the  most  devout  sect,  the 
Jewish  sects.  Essenes,  the  proud  holding  aloof  from  state  affairs 
by  the  Sadducees  during  the  period  immediately  prior  to  the 
advent,  and  the  obscuration  of  the  law  by  the  teaching  of  the 
Pharisees,  tended  to  the  neglect  of  the  temple  worship,  and 
strengthened  the  desire  for  a  Grreco-Roman  style  of  music.  The 
magnificent  temple  of  Herod,  though  reared  in  accordance  with  the 
requirements  of  the  law,  and  by  the  encouragement  of  the  priests 
while  wearing  their  sacred  vestments,  failed  to  restore  the  purity 
of  the  service.  The  temple  itself  had  originated  in  selfish  ambi- 
tion; its  architecture  was  essentially  Greek;  its  ritual  had  become 
contaminated. 

The  first  converts  to  Christianity  probably  adopted  the  modified 
music  then  in  use  in  the  temple  and  synagogues.  The  music  used 
in  the  celebration  of  the  heathen  rites  could  not  be  tolerated  by 

doiihtless  conducted  on  a  splendid  scale,  after  Solomon's  regulations,  in  all  tlie  sub- 
sequent centuries;  and  we  k)io\v  for  certain  tliat  Solomon  set  a  great  value  on  mu- 
sical instruments  of  costl}^  workmanship  (1  Kings  X,  12).  .  .  .  All  knowledge  of  it 
was,  however,  srradually  lost  after  the  Greek  period,  and  cannot  now  be  recovered; 
for  even  tlie  Chronicles,  from  which  we  derive  most  light  for  understanding  it,  con- 
tains no  more  than  faint  reminiscences  of  the  ancient  music."  Contra,  Martini,  G.  B. : 
History  of  Music,  vol.  i,  p.  350.  Saalsciiiitz:  GeschicJde  u.  Wiirdigung  der  Musik  hei 
den  Hd)7-liern,  §  61. 

'■  Ewald:   Op.  cit,  vol.  v,  p.  2G7. 


EARLY   CIIUISTIAN   MUSIC.  301 

convcM'ts    wlio    li;i(l    Ijcfii    s:ivcil     rrnm    the    iiDlluiinix    praclice'S    of 
huatlieiiisiu.' 

Paul  probably  refers  to  tlu-  then  extant  tciii|ilc  ami  synagogue 
music  when  lie  exhorts  the  churehes  which  hv  IkhI  xfiD  nrst 
plante«l  "to  be  tilled  with  the  Spirit  ;  speaking  to  your-  I^J',,'",u.d^  what 
selves  in  psalms  and  hymns  and  spiritual  songs,  singing  was  in  use. 
and  making  melody  in  your  heart  unto  the  T^ord  "  (Kph.  v,  is,  19); 
"Let  the  word  of  Christ  dwell  in  you  richly  in  all  w  i>dom,  teaching 
and  admonishing  one  another  in  psalms  and  hymns  and  spiritual 
songs,  singing  with  grace  in  your  hearts  to  the  Lord"  (Col.  iii,  Iti). 

This  custom  of  the  early  Christians  seems  to  he  conlirnied  by 
heathen  testimony,  notal)ly  by  the  younger  Pliny  in  his  ^.„„nnned  by 
letters  to  the  Emperor  Trajan,  in  which  he  states  that  iieaiiiL'Q  testl- 
they  were  accustomed  "  to  sing  responsively  a  hymn  to  "'""^' 
Christ  as  God."*  Tiie  meaning  of  this  passage  has  been  variously 
understood;  but  according  to  the  comments  of  the  Christian  writers 
of  the  first  four  centuries  its  evident  intent  is  to  speak  of  responsive 
ciiants  or  songs  wdiich  the  Christians  were  accustomeil  to  use  in 
their  early  meetings.*  The  positive  testimony  of  Justin  christian  lesti- 
Martyr^  as  to  the  custom  of  the  Eastern  church,  of  Ter-  >"ony- 
tuUiaii  regarding  the  African  church,  of  Origen  as  to  the  church  of 
Alexandria,  of  Eusebius,  who  (piotes  from  earlier  authorities  to  prove 
the  anti(|uity  and  continuity  of  this  custom,  leaves  little  <loul)t  re- 
specting the  use  of  music  in  the  services  of  the  Church  from  the 
apostolic  period.  An  expression  used  by  TertuUian  in  describing 
the  worship  will  aid  us  to  understand  the  growth  or  develop- 
ment of  Christian  music.  When  he  says  that  each  one  of  the 
assembly  was  invited  to  sing  unto  God,  either  from  the  Scriptures  or 
something  indited  by  himself — "  de  projirio  ingenio  " — we  may  well 

suppose  tliat  thus  early  was  in-acticed   a  sacred   inipro- 

.       .  ,  •   ,    ,        T       ■  ,1-       ,  •  P  1-1      Improvisation, 

visation  wliicli  by  degrees  crystallized  into  iornis  mIucIi 

by  frequent  use  and  repetition  became  the  common    jiroperty  of  the 

Church.    The  original  style  of  singing  was  evidently  tin-  chant.     The 

antii)lionv,  in  its  earliest  form,  is  no  more  than  a  resiion- 

sive  chant  conducted  by  the  priests  and  the  congregation. 

Yet  the  chant  bears  the  same  relation  to  music,  properly  so  called, 

'  Forkol :  Grxrhirhte  der  }fii<>n:.  Bd.  ii.  S3.  01.  92.  We  have  only  to  rfnH  the 
oJcs  of  Iloiiicc  wliich  describe  the  choral  processions  to  be  convinced  that  tlie  mu- 
sic used  in  such  associations  nnist  have  been  exclnded  from  the  services  of  the  Christ- 
ian assemblies. 

'  Epistoiw,  Lib.  10,  97.     "Carmen  Christo  quasi  Deo  diem  socnm  invioom." 

'  Tertiillian :  Apohgeticus,  c.  2.  "  Ca?tii3  antehicanas  ad  canendnni  Christo  ut 
Deo,"  etc. 

*  Apologia,  c.  13.     "  Rationalibus  cum  pompis  et  hymnis  celebrare?" 


302  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

as  does  speech  to  a  developed  language.  Speecli  is  spontaneous, 
while  a  grammatically  constructed  language  is  the  product  and 
property  of  peoples  more  or  less  advanced  in  culture  and  enlight- 
enment. So  man  may  sing  by  virtue  of  his  nature;  yet  it  is  no 
more  difficult  to  develop  a  literary  language  from  primitive  speech 
than  to  construct  a  methodical  and  scientific  music  from  the 
Music  is  not  I'wdimentar}^  chant.'  Nor  are  we  to  suppose  that  music 
iraitatiou  of  comes  from  imitation  of  sounds  in  nature.  There  is  no 
music  in  nature,  neither  melody  nor  harmony.  The 
many  expressions  regarding  "  the  harmonies  of  nature,"  "  the  music 
of  the  spheres,"  etc.,  are  to  be  regarded  as  purel}^  metaphorical. 

From  the  simplest  musical  utterance  in  the  chant  or  improvisation 
the  musician,  with  almost  infinite  pains,  must  work  out  the  complex 
results,  also  the  orderly  and  harmonious  combinations  called  music, 
which  becomes  the  most  effective  means  for  the  expression  of  the 
deeper  emotions  of  the  soul.^  At  what  precise  time  the  first  attempt 
The  beginning  of  the  Church  to  develop  a  music  peculiarly  its  own 
musicoiuncer-  ^'^^  made  we  have,  unfortunately,  no  means  of  deter- 
tain  date.  mining.     In  this,  as  in  mau}^  other  historical  inquiries, 

we  are  left  to  conjecture  and  tradition,  or  are  compelled  to  reach 
conclusions  from  analogical  reasoning.  From  the  circumstances  of 
povert}'^,  persecution,  and  obscurity  with  which  the  earl^^  Church 
was  surrounded,  it  might  be  expected  that  little  or  no  effort  would 
at  first  be  made  to  develop  the  simple  chant  into  a  more  methodi- 
cal and  scientific  form.  The  Christian  assemblies  Avere  generally 
only  tolerated,  sometimes  they  were  under  the  severest  ban.  These 
conditions  of  hardship  and  proscription  were  most  unfavourable 
to  the  cultivation  of  the  fine  arts.  Moreover,  the  natural  disin- 
clination to  use  either  Jewish  or  heathen  forms  in  their  own 
services,  through  fear  of  some  misleading  influence  upon  the  wor- 
shipers, probabl}'  induced  in  the  overseers  of  the  Church  of  the  first 
two  centuries  a  measure  of  indifference  to  whatever  of  musical 
science  might  then  have  been  extant.  Doubtless,  by  frequent  repe- 
tition of  chants  and  antiphonies  a  considerable  body  of  simple  melody 
had  come  to  be  the  common  propert^^  of  the  Church.  But  it  was  not 
until  a  period  of  quiet  and  toleration,  when  the  erection  of  buildings 
for  the  worship  of  God  called  for  a  more  methodical  arrangement 

'  Fetis:  Ilisfoire  r/e7ierak  lie  la  Mu-siqne,  Varls,  1869,  p.  2.  See  also  J.  Grimm  :  Uthe?' 
der  Ursprung  der  Sprache,  ss.  1 9,  55,  et  al.  Renan :  J)e  V  Origine  dii  langage,  Paris,  1858, 
chap.  V.  Max  Miiller:  Science  of  Language,  London,  18G2,  especially  Lect.  ix.  Con- 
tra, Clement,  Felix:  Histoire  de  la  miisique  depuis  les  temps  ancierts  jiisqu'a  nos  jours, 
Paris,  1885.  pp.  n,  4.  5.  etc. 

2  Haweis:  Music  and  Jhrals.  London,  1877,  pp.  7,  8,  et  al. 


EAKLV   CIIKISTIAX    .MUSIC.  303 

of    tho    public    wur.sliip,    that    iiuisic    could    have    been    carefully 
cultivated. 

Tlie  first  well-authenticated  account  of  the  f^)nnal  arranp^emont  of 
church  music  is  Ljiven  b^'  the  historian  Theodoret,  pir^t  recorded 
wliere  he  describes  the  efforts  of  T'lavianus  and  Diodo-  utu?nipts. 
rus,  who  divided  the  choristers  of  the  church  of  Antioch  into  two 
parts,  and  instructed  theiu  to  sing  responsively  the  jtsalins  of  David.' 
It  is  probable  that  this  did  not  originate  a  new  era  of  musical  in- 
vention so  much  as  methodize  what  was  already  known.  15ut  the 
occasion  of  this  innovation,  as  given  by  the  surviving  authorities, 
is  most  suggestive,  and  renders  it  i)robable  that  from  this  time  the 
cultivation  of  music  received  greatly  increased  attention,  ^rian  influ- 
The governor  of  the  church  of  Antioch,  Leontins,  was  an  ence. 
avowed  Arian,  while  the  monks,  Flavianus  and  Dio(h)rus,  were  zeal- 
ous and  saintly  defenders  of  the  ortho(h)x  faith.  To  draw  away  the 
people  from  the  heretical  preaching  of  their  bishop  these  earnest 
men  instituted  the  antiphonal  service.  It  i)roved  so  attractive  that 
the  bishop  was  in  turn  compelled  to  intnxbice  the  same  practice  into 
his  own  church.  Thus  from  the  powerful  capital  of  the  East  the 
practice  extended  to  the  provincial  societies,  and  soon  prevailed 
in  many  leading  churches  of  the  West." 

The  growing  attention  to  the  study  of  church  music  is  shown 
frona  the  fact  that  it  soon  after  became  a  subject  of  con-  conciiiary  ac- 
ciliary  action.  The  council  of  Laodicea  (3()()-370),  t>""- 
in  order  to  the  promotion  of  good  order  and  the  edification  of  be- 
lievers, decreed  that  none  but  the  canons,  or  singing  men  wlio  ascend 
the  ambo  (or  singing  desk),  should  be  permitted  to  sing  in  the  church. 
Much  diversity  of  opinion  relative  to  tlie  intent  of  this  canon  lias 
been  entertained  by  commentators.  Baronius  seems  to  regard  it  as 
a  ])ositive  i)rohibition  of  the  laity  to  engage  in  the  public  singing, 
tlius  confining  this  part  of  the  service  to  an  ofticial  class.     IJingham^ 

is  inclined  to  the  same  view  from  the  fact  that  from  the   -," ,  , 

OpJnlon    rela- 

time  of  this  council  the  singers  were  regarded  as  officers   five  to  this  ac- 
of  the  Church,  being  called  KavoviKoi  xpaXrai,  canonical    "°"' 
singers.     lie,  however,  believes  that   this   was  only  of  temporary 
authority.      Xeander,''  on    the    contrary,   regards  this  as    nothing 
more  than  a  jirohibition   of  the  laity  to  attemjjt  the  office  of   the 

'  Hist.  Eccl,  1.  ii.  c.  xix.  "  Hi  prim',  psallcntium  ciioris  in  pnrtcs  divisis,  lij^innos 
Davidicos  aUcrnis  canere  docuerunt." 

'^Tlieodoret  suys:  "  Ubiqiie  deincepsol)tiniiit,  et  ad  ultimos  tcrrae  fines  pervaait" 
{in  loc.  cit). 

^  Antiquities  of  the  Church,  b.  iii,  c.  vii. 

*  History  of  the  Church.,  b.  ii,  p.  674,  n.  4,  Torrey's  tranSi 


304  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 

regularly  appointed  singers  in  conducting  the  church  rausic.  He 
believes  that  such  prohibition  of  the  laity  to  engage  in  the  singing- 
would  have  been  in  direct  contradiction  to  the  instruction  of  the  most 
noted  Church  fathers,  as  Basil,  Chrysostom,  etc.,  and  the  almost 
universal  practice  of  the  Eastern  Churches.  The  opinion  of  Nean- 
der  is  entitled  to  great  respect,  since  it  seems  to  find  confirmation 
in  the  teaching  and  practice  of  these  saintly  men.  It  is  certain  that 
Basil,  during  his  education  at  Antioch,  came  to  enter- 
°^'  ^  '  tain  an  ardent  love  for  the  forms  of  worship  there  preva- 
lent, so  that  when  he  was  installed  bishop  of  Csesarea,  in  Cappado- 
cia,  he  introduced  the  Antiochian  rausic  into  his  own  diocese,  and 
greatly  encouraged  it  both  by  practice  and  public  teaching.  From 
the  account  preserved  in  his  own  writings  we  may  suppose  that  the 
singing  in  the  assemblies  of  CjBsarea  in  Basil's  day  somewhat  re- 
sembled the  informal  praise  service,  or  service  of  song. 
The   character  ^  .  .  ,       ,    "^ 

of  the  singing  in  modern  social  religious  gathermgs,  barring  the  har- 

service.  mony,  which  was  not  yet  known.     Nevertheless,  we  are 

not  too  hastily  to  conclude  that  the  use  of  simple  melody  by  an 
entire  congregation  was  necessarily  less  effective  to  awaken  re- 
ligious emotions  than  the  more  involved  harmonies  of  later  times, 
since  it  has  often  been  remarked  that  by  the  uncultivated  car 
the  simple  succession  of  sounds  may  be  better  appreciated  than 
the  more  involved,  which  may  be  pitched  above  the  popular 
comprehension.^ 

When  he  became  bishop  of  Constantinople,  Chrysostom  likewise 
cultivated  the  music  to  which  he  had  earlier  become  accustomed 
at  Antioch.  In  the  severe  contest  with  the  Arians,  he, 
like  Basil  and  others,  used  the  new  music  to  hold  the 
people  loyal  to  the  orthodox  faith.  But  in  those  times  of  passion- 
ate and  brutal  encounters  the  services  of  the  Church  were  fre- 
quently interrupted  by  exhibitions  of  anger  and  party  strife 
entirely  at  variance  with  the  spirit  of  Christian  worship.  Only 
with  greatest  difficulty  could  the  people  be  restrained  even  by  the 
entreaties  and  authority  of  this  most  eminent  and  spiritually  minded 
father. 

Thus  it  seems  fairl}^  probable  that  the  more  serious  and  success- 
ful attempts  to  improve  the  music  of  the  public  services 
originated  in  the  Syrian  churches,  and  that  the  Syrian 
modes  were  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  adopted  by  the  East  and 
West. 

To  St.  Ambrose,  bishop  of  Milan,  has  usually  been  attributed  the 
further  reform  and  improvement  of  the  music  which  was  afterward 
'  V.  Wallis:  Pliilusopldcal  Transadioiis  (Abridgment),  vol.  i,  p.  618. 


EARLY   CHinSTIAN   MUSIC.  305 

cx'tonsivoly  used  in  the  Latin  cliurches.  This  attempted  inoiH- 
tieation  dates  from  the  last  quarter  of  the  fourth  eeiitury.  The 
Cantus  Ambrosianus  has  come  to  be  applied  t<)  a  style  of  iiuisic 
which  Ambrose  is  said  to  have  arran<j^ed  for  his  own  Ambrosian 
eathedral,  and  whieh,  in  modified  form,  is  ])elievc<l  by  t'hunt. 
some  to  have  continued  in  the  Western  ehurchi's  to  the  ]>resent 
time.  The  subject  is  beset  with  diftieulties,  and  opinions  are  at 
variance  with  respect  to  the  orii;-inality,  nature,  and  extent  of  the 
reform  introduced  by  Ambrose. 

As  to  its  originality,  it  must  be  recollected  that  the  Church  had 
now  emerged  from  the  catacombs,  and  had  received  the  protection 
and  patronage  of  the  imperial  government.  Instead  of  obscure 
upper  rooms,  private  houses,  subterranean  retreats,  or  humble 
cliurches,  the  Christians  now  had  well-built  and  splendid  chanired  cir- 
cdifices,  to  whose  erection  even  emperors  felt  honored  cumstances  of 
in  making  contribution.  The  circumstances  Tiecessi-  ^  ®  ""^^  * 
tated  a  change  in  the  church  appointments.  The  ceremonial  now 
assumed  a  splendor  and  an  impressiveness  before  unknown.  This 
is  evidejit  from  the  notices  of  contemporary  writers  both  Christian 
and  pagan.  Christianity  was  now  the  state  religion.  Its  votaries 
occupied  the  highest  positions  of  trust  in  the  government.  Men 
thoroughly  versed  in  the  heathen  philosophy  were  now  high  ofHce- 
l»carers  in  the  Cluirch.  Prejudice  against  the  literature  and  the  art 
of  heathendom   had  been  greatly  allayed. 

The  introduction  of  art  forms  into  the  churches  had  long  ceased 
to  be  regarded  as  sinful  or  misleading.  All  that  was  truly  useful  and 
educating  was  now  pressed  into  the  service  of  Christ,  and  thus  be- 
came sanctified.  Every  analogy  of  the  other  arts  which  we  have 
traced  is  convincing  that  the  Christians  of  the  fourth  Appropriation 
century  freely  ai>proj)riated  whatever  might  contribute  "'  'i''^- 
to  the  effectiveness  of  public  worship.  If  they  had  not  been 
offended  by  the  statue  of  Hermes,  the  ram-bearer,  if  they  had 
pictured  uj)on  the  walls  of  the  catacombs  Orpheus  as  a  type  or 
heathen  prophecy  of  the  subduing  ])ower  of  Christ,  if  they  had 
adopted  the  Greek  style  in  the  sculpture  of  their  sarcophagi,  if 
from  their  general  convenience  of  form  the  heathen  basilicas  fur- 
nished suggestions  for  church  architecture,  it  cannot  be  reasonably 
supposed  that  music  alone,  of  all  tlie  fine  arts,  was  an  exce])tion  to 
this  general  Christian  appropriation  and  use.  With  resi)ect  to 
music  and  poetry,  as  to  philosophy  and  the  arts  of  form,  it  was  but 
natural  that  the  attention  of  the  Christian  fathers  should  be  turned 
toward  the  writingsof  tlu'  (Treeks  for  sugLjestions  in  their  atti'mpte<l 
development  of  the  congregational  chant,  which  had  grown  up,  from 
20 


806  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 

long-continued  repetition,  into  more  regular,  scientific,  and  imposing 
forms.^ 

By  his  careful  training  prior  to  conversion  Ambrose  was  pre- 
pared to  successfully  examine  whatever  of  useful  helps  might  be 
contained  in  the  Greek  writers  on  music,  and  to  develop  a  system 
more  in  harmony  with  the  conditions  and  needs  of  the  Church. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  term  "  music  "  had  among  the 
Musicofbroad-  early  Greeks  a  much  broader  significance  than  in  mod- 
anfcfne^^'he  ®^''^  times.  It  embraced  poetry,  the  dance,  and  the 
Greeks.  drama,  as  well  as  the  melody  of  sounds.     It  was  inti- 

mately connected  with  moral,  intellectual,  and  even  physical  train- 
ing; it  was  not,  therefore,  chiefly  studied  as  a  fine  art.  It  ranked 
rather  among  the  disciplines  necessary  to  the  best  and  completest 
education,  and  was  regarded  more  as  a  means  to  an  end  than  as  an 
independent  art.  Based  upon  certain  harmonic  and  rhythmical  pro- 
portions, it  was  believed  to  contribute  to  the  best  mental  training  and 
the  highest  moral  development.  There  is  an  essential  agreement 
among  the  best  historians  that  during  the  most  flourishing  period 
of  Grecian  art  instrumental  music  had  no  separate  existence.  Mu- 
sic, recitative,  and  poetry  were  inseparably  united.  Musical  rhythm 
was  governed  by  the  poetical  cadence.  Musicians  were  the  poets; 
and  poets  invented  melodies  to  which  they  chanted  their  verse  at 
the  national  games.  The  early  music  of  the  Greeks  had  no  higher 
aim  than  to  supply  the  language  of  the  poet  with  melody  and  mus- 
ical accents.  They  never  strove  to  invest  music  with  a  dignity  that 
should  make  it  independent  of  poetry.^  It  was  only  in  the  later  his- 
tory that  music  and  poetry  attained  to  a  separate  existence.  Yet 
Plato  complains  of  this  divorce,  and  argues  that  it  is  a  departure 
from  the  original  lofty  ethical  aim  of  music,  and  it  is  certain  that 
as  an  independent  art  Greek  music  thus  suffered  a  real  decadence. 
Music  and  po-  Its  closc  association  with  epic  and  lyric  poetry  in  the 
■etry  associated,  religious  life  and  ceremonial  had  dignified  and  inspired 
it.  The  decay  of  religion  brought,  therefore,  like  decay  to  poetry 
and  music.  The  departure  of  the  spirit  left  the  body  lifeless,  as  in- 
stitutions do  not  long  survive  the  wants  and  the  spirit  that  call  them 
into  being.  With  the  prevalent  scepticism  came  the  neglect  of  all 
which  religion  and  devotion  had  devised  to  aid  in  their  cultivation 
•and  expression.^ 

'  Kiesewetter :  Geschichte  der  europcBisch-dbendlandischen  oder  unser  heutigen  Musik, 
Leipzig,  1846,  p.  2.     Ambros:    Geschichte  der  Musik,  vol.  li,  pp.  9,  10. 

^  Naumann:  History  of  Music,  translated  from  the  German  by  F.  Praeger,  London, 
1885,  p.  137. 

^Schliiter:  Allgemeine  Geschichte  der  Musik,  etc.,  Leipzig,  1863,  p.  4. 


EAKI.Y    f'III{ISTIAX    Ml'SIC.  307 

While  Christianity  iiloiu-  has  liroiii^fht  imisic  to  its  liii^hest  perfec- 
tion as   a   tine  art,  i'.\i)ressive   of   the   deeiiest   s|)iritual    _^ 

'  '  '  Thocjrefks  fur- 

emotion,   the  Greeks,   ncvc  rthcK'ss,   (K'vcI()|km1    a    most   nistitdumusic- 

eornplicated  and  ingenious  system  of  musical  nota-  ■*' "'•^'^'""• 
tion,  whose  influence  was  felt  far  into  the  centuries  of  the 
Christian  era.  Their  writers  on  music  were  the  mathematicians, 
who  treated  it  as  a  mathematical  science.'  The  drama  was  little 
more  than  a  musical  recitative,  while  the  chorus  was  intoned.  Their 
theatres  being  open,  roofless  areas,  where  thousands  gathered,  it  was 
often  necessary  to  resort  to  the  use  of  metallic  masks  to  increase  the 
sonorousness  of  the  voices  of  the  actors. 

The  systems  thus  developed  were  complex  and  difficult  in  the  ex- 
treme, and  were  capable  of  being  understood  and  prac-  71,0  notation 
ticed  by  only  a  favored  few,  who  must  give  years  compUcated. 
of  study  to  their  mastery.  ^Moreover,  tliere  was  little  attempt  to 
popularize  these  systems  and  to  bring  them  into  general  use.  On 
the  ccmtrary,  there  seems  to  have  been  a  design  on  the  part  of  those 
who  treated  this  subject  to  make  it  the  property  of  the  few  who 
were  initiated  into  the  mysteries  of  the  science  as  it  was  taught  by 
the  philosophers.  Their  musical  notation  was,  therefore,  most  in- 
volved and  perj)lexing.  The  characters  invented  by  the  Greek  writ- 
ers on  musical  harmonics  have  been  placed  as  high  as  sixteen  hundred 
and  twenty.'  Since  these  were  no  better  than  so  many  jjere  arbitrary 
arbitrary  marks  or  signs  placed  on  a  line  over  the  words  signs, 
of  the  song,  and  had  no  natural  or  analogical  signification,  the  sys- 
tem must  have  imposed  on  the  memory  an  intolerable  burden.'  Be- 
fore the  advent  of  Christianity  the  Greek  system  had  somewhat 
fallen  into  disuse,  and  the  i)ractit'al  spirit  of  the  c(»n<iuer-  „^ 

'  '  '  'The    Romans 

ing  Romans  was  unfavourable  to  the  cultivation  and  not  patrons  of 
patronage  of  the  fine  arts.  Their  great  men  were  en-  "'"'^' 
gaged  in  the  affairs  of  state,  and  in  developing  and  jterfecting 
political  policies  for  a  now  practically  unified  nation.  They  had, 
indeed,  rejected  the  complex  musical  notation  of  the  Greeks,  which 
had  been  the  product  of  refined  speculation,  and  in  place  of  the  six- 
teen hundred  and  twenty  characters  had  substituted  the  first  fifteen 
letters   of   their   own   alphabet.       Thus    the    eidiarmoiiic   and   eveJi 

'  Hawkins:  A  General  History  of  Oit  Science  and  Pi-actice  of  Mime,  London, 
1853,  vol.  i,  p.  103.  "With  this  view  agree  Dr.  AViillis  and  many  other  hiirh 
iiutliorities. 

'  Some  authorities  place  tiie  number  at  twelve  hundred  and  forty.  It  is  very  dif- 
ficult to  determine,  but  fortunately  the  question  is  of  slight  archseological  import- 
ance. 

'  Hawkins:   History  of  Music,  vol.  i,  p.  104. 


308  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 

chromatic  scales  had  fallen  into  disuse,  and  the  more  natural 
The  diatonic  diatonic  with  its  greater  simplicity  and  sweetness  had 
adopted.  been  accepted. 

The  old  Greek  music  had  virtually  perished  in  its  childhood, 
and  the  world  lost  little  or  nothing.  It  is  highly  probable  that  the 
Western  Church  first  developed  a  truly  Christian  music,  such  as 
contributed  to  the  highest  edification  of  believers,  when  it  com- 
pletely broke  away  from  Greek  influences.'  The  art  of  Greece 
Greece  had  no  was  largely  objective.  In  music,  therefore,  the  Greeks 
high  music.  ^[^  not  attain  to  those  grand  results  -which  in  sculp- 
ture, architecture,  and  poetry  have  been  entirely  incomparable. 
The  best  authorities  are  in  substantial  agreement  that  they  were 
not  acquainted  with  music  in  consonaiice,  or  with  harmony  in  its 
modern  sense.  Their  music  was  simply  a  succession,  and  not  a 
harmon}^,  of  sounds.^ 

But  with  Christianity  began  an  era  of  feeling  and  contemplation. 
„^  .  ,.    ..         From  the  studv  of  tjovernment  and  the  state  it  directed 

Christianity  _  ... 

first  developed  attention  to  the  life,  obligations,  and  destin^^  of  the  in- 
^^'  dividual.     This  tendency  to  introspection,  and  to  the 

study  of  the  condition  of  the  feelings,  gave  occasion  for  their 
expression  by  methods  in  harmony  with  this  new  view  of  individual 
life  and  duty.  Music  is  the  art  which  of  all  others  is  expressive 
of  the  feelings  of  the  soul.^  Unlike  poetry,  architecture,  sculpture, 
or  painting,  music  can  express  itself  freely  and  completely  without 
the  aid  of  other  arts.^  Hence  it  might  be  supposed  that  each 
nation  and  each  independent  religious  or  psychical  de- 

Ea,oh  nation  d6-  j.    «/ 

veiops  its  pe-  velopment  would  have  its  own  music  to  express  its 
cuiiar  music,  peculiar  emotional  condition,  just  as  each  nation  or 
tribe  has  had  its  own  language  or  idiom."  Since  every  religion  has 
had  much  to  do  with  the  sentiments  and  emotions — Christianity 
most  of  all — this  new  revelation  of  God  to  man  in  Jesus  Christ 
would  greatly  quicken  the  emotional  nature  and  lead  its  followers 
to  devise  means  for  its  appropriate  expression. 

'  Kiesewetter:  Geschichte  der  europdisch-ahendliindischen  oder  unser  heutigen  Mu- 
sik,  s.  2. 

■■*  This  has  been  a  subject  of  protracted  controversy.  Doubtless  the  lack  of  clear 
definition  has  been  one  cause  of  the  great  diversity  of  opinion.  The  preponderance 
of  authority  is  in  favour  of  the  statement  of  the  text. 

*  Haweis :  Music  and  Morals,  p.  10. 

■*  "The  musician  has  less  connection  with  the  outward  world  than  any  other  artist. 
He  must  turn  the  thought  inward  to  seek  the  inspiration  of  his  art  in  the  deepest 
recesses  of  his  own  being."  Goethe:  Wilhelm  Meister,  bk.  ii,  cap.  ix.  Brendel: 
Geschichte  der  Mtisik,  s.  8. 

*  P.  Clement:  Histoire  genei-ale  de  la  Musique  Rdiijimse,  p.  4. 


EARLY    CHRISTIAN    MUSIC.  30!) 

In  obodience  to  this  i>riiici|tk'  Ambrose  was  led  to  dcviso  a  more 
appropriate  music  for  his  churches.  It  is  to  be  deeply  re;;ret- 
te«l  that  we  liave  such  scanty  materials  by  whidi  to  judi^e  of  the 
cliaracter  aud  e.vteiit  of  the  Ambrosian  reform.  From  the  few  his- 
toric notices,  and  from  the  musical  traditions  of  the  I^atin  Church, 
it  is  believed  that  he  simplified  the  then  })revalent  Ptolemaic  sys- 
tem by  reducin<^  the  seven  recognised  modes  to  ft>ur.  Reduced  tht! 
He  deemed  these  sufficient  for  the  proper  conduct  of  the  mtKJ«s  t«  four. 
Church  service.  He  believed  that  thus  the  various  tunes  which  had 
been  hitherto  in  use  coidd  be  reduced  to  systematic  form,  and  yet 
be  so  simple  that  the  congregation  might  use  them  to  their  own  profit 
and  to  the  common  edification. 

The  four  modes  which  he  thus  borrowed  are  indicated  as  follows: 


The  Antique. 

Mediaeval. 

Ambrosian. 

Phrygian 

D  to  D 

was  tiie    Dorian         was  tiie 

Ist   tone  or  mode. 

Dorian 

K  to  K 

"     "      Plirygiau        "       " 

2d 

Ionian 

F  10  F 

"     "      Lydian           "       •' 

3d 

Hj'pophrygian 

G  toU 

"     "      Mixolydiaa    " 

4  th       " 

These  seem  to  have  been  distinguished  frttm  one  another  only  by 
the  place  of  the  half  tones  in  the  gamut,  thus: 

1st  mode  D.  1L~Y.  G.  A.  1I~(:.  D, 

2d         "    E.  F.  G.  A.  Uril  D.  K.  Scheme. 

3d         "     P.  G.  A.  \Cg.  D    hPf. 

4th        "     G.  A.  lire;.  D.  E.I'.  G. 

In  tliis  reform  the  tetrachord  s^-stem  was  abandoned,  and  the 
metric  of  the  poetry  determined  the  musical  accent.  It  is  believed 
that  attention  was  given  only  to  the  pitch,  and  not  to  the  volume 
or  length  of  note.  In  the  time  of  Charlemagne  an  attempt  was 
made  to  displace  the  Ambrosian  by  the  (xregorian  chants.  Tluis  the 
Ambrosian  notation  was  lost.  It  is  not  even  known  whetlin-  Am- 
brose devised  an  inde])endent  notation,  but  since  his  system  was  of 
Greek  derivation,  it  is  conjectured  tliat  the  (ireek  nota-  peii  into  di»- 
tion  was  retained  in  so  far  as  was  consistent  with  his  "s*'- 
purpose.  The  notation  found  in  tlie  so-called  Ambrosian  singing 
books  is  certainly  of  later  origin:  of  the  original  nothing  has  sur- 
vived. Also,  in  how  far  the  traditional  Ambrosian  chant  resembles 
the  original  is  matter  of  pure  conjecture.' 

While  the  range  of  the  Ambrosian  chants  must  have   Effect  upon  the 
been  very  narrow,  the  influence  of  the  service  of  song 
upon  the   church  of  Milan  was  most  happy.     Augustine,   who  was 

'  V.  Forkel :  Allgerri'iine  Geschichte  der  Musik,  Bd.  ii,  83.  163,  164. 


310  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 

accustomed  to  visit  this  then  noted  church,  speaks  of  its  inspira- 
tion to  himself.'  He  afterward  introduced  the  same  form  into  the 
churches  of  his  own  diocese,  and  by  personal  efforts  and  the  writing 
of  a  systematic  treatise  became  a  zealous  promoter  of  sacred  poetry 
and  music. 

During  the  following  two  and  one  half  centuries  the  Ambrosian 
chants  seem  to  have  been  widely  used  in  the  Latin  Church.  This 
is  evident  from  the  fact  that  they  are  mentioned  in  the  acts  of  the 
fourth  Council  of  Toledo,  A.  D.  633,  as  forming  a  part  of  the  ser- 
vice in  the  Spanish  churches.  They  gave  form,  method,  and  dig- 
nity to  the  public  singing.  The  adaptation  of  words  to  these  modes 
became  a  matter  of  deep  interest  to  the  bishops,  so  that  even  in  the 
most  trying  and  stormy  times  of  Roman  history  the  impressiveness 
and  solemnity  of  the  public  services  were  maintained. 

The  writings  of  Macrobius,  Capella,  Cassiodorus,  and  Boethius  ex- 
other  writers  crted  little  modifying  influence  on  the  music  of  the 
on  music.  Church.     They  lost  sight  of  the  practical  needs  of  the 

times,  and  returned  to  the  study  of  the  theor}^  of  proportions  as 
developed  by  the  aid  of  arithmetic  and  geometry.  Even  the  pious 
Boethius,  in  his  labored  work,  de  Musica,  does  not  once  refer  either 
to  the  use  of  instruments,  to  the  voice  as  used  in  the  singing  of  the 
sanctuary,  or  to  any  practical  application  of  his  ab- 
struse speculations.  He  was  a  close  adherent  of  the 
Pythagorean  theory,  that  consonances  or  harmonies  are  to  be 
determined  by  mathematical  ratios  and  not  by  the  ear.  His  chief 
merit  is  that  he  has  preserved  the  elements  of  the  ancient  systems 
of  music;  which  fact  makes  it  possible  to  compare  them  with  Avhat 
is  now  extant,  and  thus  determine  the  originality  of  the  modern 
masters  of  harmony.* 

So  far  as  can  be  inferred  from  either  literary  or  monumental 
evidence,  no  further  musical  reform  was  effected  until  near  the 
close  of  the  sixth  century.  After  his  elevation  to  the  pontificate, 
Gregory  the  Great  gave  much  thought  to  the  improvement  of  the 
Church  ritual,  and  originated  a  style  of  music  which  has  borne  his 
name.  The  Gregorian  chant  [Vantus  Gregoricmus)  marks  a  revo- 
lution no  less  distinct  than  useful.  Such  has  been  the  tenacity  of 
its  life  that  it  is  still  the  leading  fonn  in  nearly  all  the  Catholic 
churches,  and  has  modified  the  singing  in  some  Protestant  churches, 
notably  the  Lutheran  and  Anglican. 

By  his  patrician  rank,  his  sound  learning,  his  wide  experience  of 
pliblic  affairs,  and  his  thorough  acquaintance  with  the  most  noted  men 
of  his  age,  Gregory  was  thoroughly  qualified  to  exert  a  commanding 

'  Confessiones,  ix,  vii.  *  Hawkins:  History  of  Music,  pp.  124,  125. 


EARLY    CIIUISTIAN    MUSIC.  811 

influence  on  both  (he  temporal  and  spiritual  interests  of  the  West- 
ern  Empire.  The  missionary  ami  iclormatory  sehenu'S  •wliich  he 
suceessl'ully  executed  <;ive  to  his  i»uiitilicatc  a  ]H'ominent  oroRory's 
place  in  the  history  of  the  Church.  His  efforts  to  Kreat  services, 
mitigate  the  severities  of  slavery,  and  to  secure  a  more  com- 
plete rcc(»nnition  of  the  rights  of  the  j)oor  before  the  law,  often 
brought  him  into  contlii-t  with  the  temporal  authorities.  lie  has 
been  accused  of  undue  ambition;  but  this  charge  is  not  sustained, 
since  in  all  his  efforts  he  seems  to  have  had  little  thought  of  per- 
sonal aggrandiy.ement,  but  was  oidy  zealous  for  the  honor  and  suc- 
cess of  the  Church.  The  service  which  he  renderetl  Church  music 
was  great  and  lasting.  Besides  substituting  the  Roman  letters  for 
the  Greek  characters  in  his  notation,'  he  reformed  the  antiphonary, 
and  founded  and  endowed  seminaries  for  the  study  of  music.  liy 
the  aid  of  singers  herein  trained,  the  imprcjvements  which  Gregory 
had  devised  were  widely  introduced  into  the  public  worship  of  the 
West,  and  thus  the  influence  of  his  reform  was  more  lasting  than 
otherwise  had  been  possil)le. 

"  He  also  took  time,  even  amid  the  great  cares  that  severely  taxed 
his  frail  body,  to  examine  with  what  tunes  the  psalms,  MaimhourR's 
hymns,  orisons,  verses,  responses,  canticles,  lessons,  estimate, 
epistles,  the  gospel,  the  prefaces,  and  the  Lord's  Prayer  were  to  be 
sung;  what  were  the  tunes,  measures,  notes,  and  moods  most  suit- 
able to  the  majesty  of  the  Churcli,  and  most  proper  to  inspire  devo- 
tion." *  The  accounts  given  by  John  the  Deacon  in  his  life  of 
(iregory  relative  to  the  services  of  this  ])ontiff  are  quite  circum- 
stantial, and  awaken  our  admiration  of  his  energy  and  tireless 
industry  to  perfect  the  Church  service.' 

The  so-called  Ambrosian  system  was  the  basis  of  the  (Gregorian 
improvement.  The  four  modes  of  this  system  were  retained.  To 
these  were  added  four  others,  so  that  the  first  note  in  the  Gregory's  re- 
Ambrosian  became  the  fourth  of  the  Gregorian.  The  '•"""'• 
original  Ambr()sian  modes  were  viiWed  Authentic,  ixnd  tlu'  four  aihled 
ones,  l*la(j((l,  as  follows: 

1st  Ambrosian  or  authentic  mode  D.KTF.G.A.tTc.D.  ^ave  rise  to  1st  Plagal  A.H.C.D.E.F.G.A. 

'-'il            "            K.K.Ci.A.tTc.D.E.  "      "        2d      "  H.C.D.E.F.G.A.H. 

3<1            "            "            "            "  K.ti.A.HX'.D.ETF.  "      *'       :kl      "  C.D.E.F.CJ.A.H.C. 

4th          "            "            "            "  G.A.HX\D.£f.G.  "      "       4th     "  n.R.F.GAH.C.D. 

'That  Gregory  was  not  the  inventor  or  the  Latin  notation  is  sliown   by  Fetis : 
Histoire  generale  de  la  i]fusitjue,  t.  iii.  pp.  521-528. 

'Maimboiirpr:   Ilistoire  du  Pontifical  de.  St.  Gregnire.  P.iris,  lOSt').  pp.  330.  331. 
'Johannes  Diaconns:   in  Vila  Greg.,  \\h.  ii,  cap.  vi. 


312 


ARCHAEOLOGY  OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 


The  following  modern  notation  is  believed  to  represent  these  Au- 
thentic and  Plasral  modes: 


1st  Authentic. 


1st  Plagal. 


m 


f^  "^^     i 


p-  /.Jf-f^f  ^ 


2d  Authentic. 


2d  PlagaL 


»7rr"rf 


?•  ^^f}"r^^^ 


3d  Authentic. 


3d  Plagal. 


{ 


m 


=»= 


4th  Authentic. 


4lh  Plagal. 


With  Ambrose,  Gregory  exchanged  the  irrational  system  of 
the  Greek  tetrachord  for  the  system  of  the  octave,  which  is  now 
recognised  as  the  only  natural  system.  He  also  liberated  the  melody 
from  the  metric  accent,  thus  allowing  to  the  melody  a  more  free  and 
independent  development  according  to  its  own  laws.' 

'  TCiesewetter :  Op.  a' f.,  Bd  i,  p.  5.  Reissmann  :  Gregnrianischer  Gesanrj  m  Musi- 
calischex  Conversations- Lexicon,  Bd.  iv.  ss.  346,  347.  In  a  melodic  sense  (Gregory  be- 
ing unacquainted  with  liiirmony)  an  authentic  mode  was  a  melody  moving  from 
Tonica  to  Tonicn.  It  is  thought  thnt  by  .«uch  modes  the  ancient  Christians  gave 
expression  to  firmness,  deep  conviction,  or  abounding  joy.     Those  melodies  that 


LIVA 


'-M 


NIMAMMfADiM*}   lyre  CON  fiflo 
noneruter.r-    PixLMUJ-  \;,»rTv^»r Jn^ 

f?iuer   fi     cjui  tf-  t^p^cTxnv 


/j 


^ 


)r> 


i/v 


^o^    ,.ir^/- 


vw  >? 


^.z^ 


Plate  IX.- Facsimile  of  the  flrst  papre  of  the  Antiphonarlum  of  Gregory  the  Great. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   MUSIC.  3l:J 

The  contrilmtioii  to  tlio  iinprovcnu'iit  of  music  by  this  increase'  of 
tones  CUM  be  better  aiipreciated  l»y  observing  tlie  change  effected 
ill  tlie  place  and  use  of  the  Domhuint  and  the  JFinal  note.  The 
Ambrosial!  chant  recognized  but  four  modes,  or  eiglit  sounds  in  a 
natural  or  diatt)nic  order  of  progression,  jiroceeding  from  future  of  this 
D,  E,  F,  an<l  (t  to  the  octave  of  the  .same.  This  sys-  reform, 
tern  re(|uired  the  chant  to  begin  and  end  on  the  same  note.  The 
Dominant  (so  called  from  the  note  which  was  most  prominent  in 
the  rendering  of  the  chant,  "  the  note  on  which  the  recitative  is  matle 
in  each  psalm  or  canticle  tune")  did  not,  therefore,  accord  with  the 
fundamental  or  key  note  of  modern  music,  upon  which  all  the  har- 
mony must  be  based.  In  the  Ambrosian  chant  the  frequent  return 
to  the  fundamental  note  was  necessary  in  order  to  keep  the  voices 
of  the  chanters  and  of  the  congregation  in  unison  by  being  sustained 
at  the  proper  pitch,  and  holding  to  the  mode  to  which  the  chant  was 
set.  The  Gregorian  chant  differed  from  the  Ambrosian  also  in  the 
place  of  ending.  While  the  latter  must  return  to  the  note  of  begin- 
ning, the  former  permitted  the  final  to  be  other  than  the  lowest 
note,  thereby  giving  a  greater  variety  to  the  ending  of  the  chants. 
"  Each  of  the  Plagal  modes  added  by  Gregory  is  a  fourth  below  its 
corresponding  original,  and  is  called  by  the  same  name,  with  the  pre- 
fix hypo  (  vTTo)  beloWy  as  follows:  5.  Ilypodorian;  6.  Ilypophrygian; 
7.  Ilypolydian;  8.  Hypomixol^'dian.  Each  scale  here  also  consists 
of  a  perfect  fifth  and  a  perfect  fourth,  but  the  positions  are  re- 
versed; the  fourth  is  now  below,  and  the  fifth  above.  In  the 
Plagal  scales  the  Final  is  no  longer  the  lowest  note,  but  is  the 
same  as  that  in  the  corresponding  Authentic  scale.  Thus  the  final 
of  the  Ilypodorian  mo<le  is  not  A,  but  D,  and  a  melody  in  that 
mode,  though  ranging  from  about  A  to  A,  ends  regularly  on  I), 
as  in  the  Dorian.  .  .  .  The  semitones  m  each  scale  naturall}^  vary 
as  before.  The  Dominants  of  the  new  scales  are  in  each  case 
a  third  below  those  of  the  old  ones,  C  being,  however,  substi- 
tuted for  B  in  the  IIyi)omixolydian,  as  it  had  been  before  in  the 
Phrygian,  on  account  of  the  relations  between  B  and  the  F  above 
and  below."  ' 

This  system    was  subsequently  developed  by  the  ad-    Furthor  devel- 
dition  of  two  other  Authentic  modes,  called  the  ^Eolian   °'"""'  • 
and  the  Ionian,  and  of  their  corresponding  Plagals — the  Hypoajolian 

moved  around  the  Tonica  were  called  Plapral.  Tlicse  are  believed  to  have  been 
expressive  of  variable  emotions,  or  of  a  more  pensive  and  subdued  state  of  religious 
feeling. 

'  V.  Rev.   Thomas  Helmore   in    Grove's  Musical  Dictionary,  vol.  i,  p.  626,  article 
"Gregorian  Modes." 


314  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHKISTLVN   ART. 

and  the  Ilypoioniau.  Thus  resulted  a  coinplete  scheme  which  has 
powerfully  influenced  the  ecclesiastical  music  of  the  Western  Church. 
The  Ritual  Service  books  have  been  a  means  of  preserving  this  im- 
proved system,  so  that  in  most  churches  of  Western  Europe  the  psalm 
and  canticle  tunes,  the  Gloria  in  Excelsis,  the  Benedictus,  the  Anti- 
phones,  the  Nicene  Creed,  the  Processions,  etc.,  are  based  essentially 
on  the  scheme  which  Gregory  devised,  and  on  whose  strictest  observ- 
ance he  so  strongly  insisted.' 

Gregory  also  invented  a  system  of  notation  for  his  improved 
Gregorian  An-  method.  Tradition  sa^'s  that  his  Ant iplionar turn,  the 
lipiionurium.  book  containing  this  notation,  was  kept  chained  to 
the  altar  in  the  Basilica  of  ISt.  Peter's  at  Rome,  in  order  that  it 
might  be  immediately  consulted  in  case  of  any  suspected  inno- 
vation in  the  choral  service.  In  order  to  conform  the  music  in 
the  churches  of  his  empire  to  this  standard  it  is  claimed  that 
Charlemagne,  in  A.  D.  790,  applied  to  Pope  Adrian  I.  for  a  co])y 
of  this  manuscript  Antiphonarium.  The  copy  is  now  one  of  the 
most  valued  treasures  in  the  libi'ary  of  the  Abbey  of  St.  Gall  in 
Switzerland.' 

Plate  IX  represents  the  first  page  of  Lambillotte's  facsimile  of 
this  famous  manuscript.  It  contains  ])ortions  of  Psalm  xxv;  on  this 
page  are  parts  of  verses  1,  2,  3,  5.^  The  extreme  care  with  which  this 
work  was  prepared  proves  the  thoroughness  of  the  Gregorian  re- 
form.     The  various  marks  connected  with  the  words. 

The    niUnaS.  ^        •         ■,^  ^^       -,  1  ^^      •  1        ^  PI 

technically  called  niiuife,  have  elicited  the  most  careful 
and  patient  study;  but  their  meaning  and  use  have  not  j^et  been 
determined.  Whether  the}^  were  a  system  of  musical  notation,  or 
were  indications  to  the  singers  of  variation  in  quality  and  volume  of 
tone,  is  still  a  matter  of  debate.     Already  in  the  time  of  Guido  of 

'  Helmore:    Op.  cit,  vol.  i,  p.  627. 

*  This  copy  at  St.  Gall  was  most  faitlifiillj-  facsimiled  under  the  direction  of  the 
zealous  Jesuit,  Lambillotte,  in  1848  (v.  his  work  Antiphonaire  de  Saint  Gregoire,  Fac- 
simile du  Manuscript,  de  Saint- Gall,  VIII'  Siecle,  Paris,  1851,  4to.)  He  claims  that 
tlie  manuscript  is  authentic,  and  contains  the  system  as  it  was  instituted  by 
Gregory.  Against  the  objections  to  its  antlienticit}'  urged  bj-  Daujou,  Fetis,  and 
others  (who  claim  that  it  is  of  a  later  origin)  Limbillotto  gives  what  he  regards  abun- 
dant evidence,  both  external  and  internal,  of  its  genuinenesis.  The  art  worl<  con- 
nected with  the  Antiplionarinm  would  point  to  an  origin  not  later  th«n  the  tenth 
centurj',  possiblj'  considerably  earlier,  v.  also  Conssemaker:  Histoire  de  Vharmonie 
an  moyen  age. ;  and  Schubiger:  Sdngerschule  St.  Gallens  vom  nchten  bis  zwul/ten  Jahr- 
hunderte. 

^  The  text  is  sufficiently  clear  to  most  readers:  Ad  to  levnvi  auimam  meam,  Deus 
mens,  in  te  confido  non  erubescam.  [Psalmns.]  Vias  tuas,  Domine  [ad  repeten- 
dum],  dirige  me  in  veritate  tua  [responsorium  graduale].  Universi  qui  te  expectant 
non  cunluudenlur,  Domine.     Vias  tuas,  Domine,  etc.   . 


A 


imyiA.' 


^jjjjjd    ^=3:i=^ 


AUe       \\x  -  ja 

Enrejfna  torcocle    sti    ujn     e( 

>ro.  1. 


a 


i'^ 


i^i'n^ 


\  ^^   ^   ^    ^Ti^    ''^ 


Clio  ria       in     er  eel  sis      de  -  o 


"^  r        It, 


Co    CJomurmea  <::/^Tn  ufo'-at  u>nif  ixocatitwr 


^  ^  ^    .-n.r  B  w^    f 


^ 


DomvLs       me       a     do    tuus      o  ra   tt   o    nis. 

No.   .{. 


\l 


Tecum  princi pi  um  in  di  -'        e   virtu 

Xo.  4. 

Pi.ATK  X.— FaoHlinlll»<  of  earliest  luuslcul  inanuscrlpU. 


EARLY    ClIlilsriAN    .ML'SIC.  JJir, 

Arozzo  (t'lovonlli  ccnturv)  tlicii-  sii^nilicatidu  li;i<l  been  lost.'  Much 
leiiriu'd  c'oimiieiit  upon  tliem  liiis  a]»|»e;ire(l,  and  a  few  writers  claim 
that  the  key  to  their  ineaniuijf  lias  been  (lisc<)vere(l. 

We  give  exam|>Ies  from  foui-  most  ancient  and  interesting  codices, 
now  preserved   in    the  al)beN'  libraries  of  St.  Gall   and      ,„    ,    ., 

^  .  ■  Illustrations 

Einsiedeln,  Switzerland  (/;.  Plate  X).     No.  1  is  a  "Hal-      and  trausiu- 

lelujah"  from    the   tenth    century,^  giving  the   accom-      '^''""" 

panying  numne  and  the  suggested  translation  into  modern  musical 

notation.     It  is  from  the  library  of  St.  (tall. 

No.  li  is  a  facsimile  of  an  early  Gloria  in  excelsia  from  a  codex 
now  i)reserved  in  the  abbey  library  of  Einsiedeln.'  The  numa;  are 
well  defined;  the  manuscript  is  among  the  earliest.  It  is  very  inter- 
esting as  giving  this  noble  hymn  of  the  early  Church,  and  seems  to 
justify  the  earnest  attempts  to  find  the  key  to  the  strange  notation 
whose  discovery  would  so  materially  aid  in  the  appreciation  of  the 
work  of  Ambrose  and  of  Gregory  in  tlie  reform  of  ecclesiastical 
music. 

Nt).  3  is  from  the  same  codex,  sliowiiig  a  still  more  complicated 
system  of  numa'.^  In  the  appended  scale  is  given  the  proposed 
equivalent  in  the  modern  notation. 

No.  4  is  tlie  copy  of  a  }>ortion  of  a  very  early  codex  in  the 
abbey  library  of  St.  Gall,^  in  whicli  the  nunue  are  found  in  their 
greatest  complication.  As  in  the  foregtMiig,  the  accompanying  scale 
is  a  tentative  translation  of  the  same. 

While  names  and  values  liave  been  given  to  every  distinct  numa 
and  to  their  combination  in  these  early  manuscripts,  it   nq  key  to  the 
is  exceedingly  doubtful  whether  any  of  the  interpreta-  numse. 
tions  have  proved  satisfactory;  much  U-ss  have  they  real  historic 
foundation. 

The  Gregorian  s^^stem  contained  the  germs  of  the  later  advanced 
and  perfected  s^'stem  of  Church  music;  but  during  the  stormy  times 
following  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  it  fell  somewhat  into  neglect, 
and  even  the  hymns  which  he  had  so  carefully  prepared  and  ar- 
ranged to  music  for  the  use  of  the  Church  were  in  danger  of  being 
lost.     A  few  leai'ned  men  took  upon  themselves  the  duty  of  saving 

'  V.  Migne:  PcUrologue,  torn.  141,  pp.  41.'),  414.  Alke  GuuIdiii.i  reguloi  de  iijnoto  cantu, 
'•  VLx  deiiiqiie  unus  concordat  alteri,  nou  magistro  di.scipiilii.s  nee  discipiilus  condi.s- 
cipulis,"  etc. 

''  From  Cod.  S.  Galli,  No.  3:i8,  sa-c.  x.  v.  Scliul)igcr:  Sdngerschule  St.  Gallett, 
s.  iv.  No.  22. 

*  From  Cod.  Einsidleim,  No.  121.     Schubiger:    Op.  cit ,  s.  iii,  No.  5. 

*  Scluibijrer;    Op.  cit.,  s.  iii,  No.  12. 

*  From  Codex  S.  Gallic  No.  359.     Scluibi^'er:    Op.  cit.,  s.  iii,  No.  7. 


316  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

to  the  Church  what  it  would  have  been  impossible  to  do  b}'^  means 

„  ,  ,.  of  simple  tradition.  Even  during  the  lifetime  of  Gresr- 
Perpetuatioa  ^  .  .  .  ®  ° 

oftheGrego-  ory  the  ambition  of  musical  leaders  strove  to  break 
rian  reform.  away  from  the  simplicity  of  his  prescribed  methods, 
and  so  frequent  and  serious  were  the  innovations  which  threatened 
the  purity  of  the  choral  service  after  his  death  that  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal court  at  Rome  was  frequently  besought  by  the  temporal  princes 
to  interpose  to  restore  it  to  its  simplicity  and  save  it  from  utter 
extinction.' 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  in  the  development  of  this  new  sys- 
tem Gregory  and  his  helpers  had  a  deeper  insight  into  the  essentials 
of  an  ecclesiastic  music  than  any  of  their  predecessors.  While  he 
betook  himself  without  stint  to  the  study  of  the  music  of  the  Greeks, 

his  system  was  original  in  its  greater  simplicitv,  in  the 
Its  originality.      .,  „.  ,  ^    .      .  .,,". 

richness  oi  its  results,  and  in  its  practical  adaptation  to 

the  wants  of  the  Church.  As  in  other  fine  arts,  so  here,  from  the 
materials  at  hand  Christianity  constructed  a  new  body,  and 
breathed  into  it  its  own  new  spirit  of  life  and  hope."  It  is  probable 
that  the  chants  of  the  Christian  liturgy  had  no  more  resemblance 
to  the  Greek  melodies  than  the  sacerdotal  garments  of  the  Christ- 
ians had  to  those  of  the  Levites  or  the  priests  of  Zeus.  In  these  re- 
spects this  ecclesiastical  music  may  be  regarded  as  original,  and  not 
a  derivation  from  the  old  Greek  musical  tlieor^'^  or  notation.^ 

While  it  is  probable  that  the  Ambrosian  chant,  introduced  into 
Milan,  resembled  in  some  respects  that  which  was  used  in  the 
churches  of  Basil  and  Chiysostom,  it  is  nevertheless  true  that  nei- 
ther these  simple  modes,  nor  even  the  improved  and  perfected 
modes  of  the  Gregorian  chant,  could  satisfy  the  restless  and  fiery 
spirit  of  the  East. 

The  Greek  Church  was  then  expending  her  energies  in  wrang- 

„  .  ^  ,.  ^  ling  over  dogmas  often  the  most  insignificant.  The 
Music  declined  .  .       . 

in  the  Eastern  intimate   relations   of   the   temporal    and   ecclesiastical 

churches.  powers  likewise  subjected  this  Church  to  influences  de- 

structive of  the  simplicity  and  purity  of  Christian  faith.  The  great 
festivals  were  celebrated  with  a  pomp  and  splendor  of  ceremonial 
before  unknown.  It  was  not  the  happy  alliance  of  religion  and  art 
to  express  and  more  powerfully  to  inculcate  the  saving  truths  of 
Christianity,  but  a  degeneration  into  a  semibarbarian  finery  and 
senseless  extravagance  indicative  of  spiritual  bondage,  and  destruc- 
tive alike  of  purity  of  doctrine  and  of  nobility  of  art.     Hence  this 

'  Kiesewetter:    Op.  cit.,  p.  7.     Hawkins:    Op,  cit ,  vol.  i,  p.  131. 
*  Anibros:    Oj).  cit..  vol.  ii,  p.  11. 
3  Clement:    Op.  cit,  p.  22. 


EARLY   (MIUISTIAN   MUSIC.  317 

ronditioii  of  absolutism  in  tlio  state,  and  of  superstition  in  tlio  Church, 
was  most  unfavoi-ahle  to  the  development  of  poetry  and  music,  as 
well  as  of  paiiitinii  and  sculpture.  I lence,  too,  the  simjile  and  imjjres- 
sive  (irenorian  m<><les  were  never  introduced  into  the  (ireek  Church. 
New  anil  extravaL?ant  modes  were  devised,  and  the  sini^iuL?  of  the 
processions  and  of  the  Clmrch  services  was  intermingled  with  the 
braying  of  trumpets  and  the  clangor  of  horns.  Only  eunuchs  were 
admitted  to  the  choirs,  whose  very  dress  was  an  exami»le  of  degen- 
erate finery.  Thus  every  thing  in  the  Greek  Church,  Doraiience  of 
after  the  sixth  century,  took  on  that  type  which  is  the  J'^Ji^,,,'er'^of 
sure  effect,  as  well  as  evidence,  of  a  decadence  of  faith  art. 
and  manners.'  The  bondage  of  art  to  false  and  di-generate  Church 
standards  repressed  all  vigor  and  originality  in  the  artists.  'I'he 
iconoclastic  spirit  declared  war  against  sculptured  images,  while  a 
subsequent  degrading  superstition  came  to  attach  special  sanctity  to 
the  most  grotesque  and  repulsive  pictures. *" 

'  Eirly  Cliristian  music  is  a  subject  of  pecviliar  difficulty.  Tlie  researches  of  the 
liisioriaris  have  been  most  thoroufrli;  yet  with  respect  to  some  features  of  tlie  sub- 
ject there  seems  to  bo  hllle  promise  of  substantial  agreement.  Tlio  iuunense  liter- 
ature of  tlie  subject,  down  to  near  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  ccnturj',  as  given  by 
Forkel:  AUgemeine  Literatur  der  Musik,  etc.,  Leipzig,  1792,  and  by  oilier  writers 
since  his  duj',  may  well  induce  modesty  of  opinion  respecting  many  controverted 
points. 

'  "The  ruder  the  art  the  more  intense  the  superstition.  The  perfection  of  the  fine 
arts  tends  rather  to  diminish  than  promote  sucii  superstition.  .  .  .  There  is  more 
direct  idolatr}'  paid  to  the  rough  and  illsliapen  image,  or  the  flat,  unrelieved,  or  star- 
ing i)icture — the  former  actually  clothed  in  gaudy  or  tinsel  ornaments,  tholatfcr  with 
the  crown  of  goldleaf  on  the  head,  and  real  or  artificial  flowers  in  the  hand — than  to 
the  noblest  ideal  statue,  or  the  Holy  Familj'  with  all  the  magic  of  liglit  and  shade." 
Milnian :  L'ltia  Christianity,  ii,  pp.  30."},  :'>04. 

"  These  mirnciilous  images  were  not  sidmitted  to  be  the  work  of  man,  but  were 
proclaimed  to  have  fallen  from  heaven,  to  have  been  dug  from  the  bowels  of  the 
earth,  or  obtained  in  some  similar  mysterious  manner.  Others  were  said  to  be  as 
old  as  the  religion  itself,  such  as  the  picture  of  Christ  in  Edessa,  given  by  the  Saviour 
himself  to  the  messengers  of  King  Abgarns,  and  the  many  portraits  of  the  Madonna 
painted  by  the  evangelist  Luke,  etc.  Idolatry  of  this  kind  e.\citcd  the  ridicule  of  the 
luilielieving,  the  .serious  disapprobation  of  the  Church,  and,  finally,  the  forcible  inter- 
ference of  the  temporal  powers.  This  destruction  of  earlier  artistic  monuments, 
and  interference  with  the  customary  pictures,  resulted  in  a  change  in  tlie  traditional 
manner  of  represcntati(Ui,  and  gave  to  all  succeeding  Byzantine  art  a  somewhat 
different  cliaracler.  The  objection  had  not  been  raised  agJiinst  painting  itself,  but 
against  the  portraval  of  Christ,  of  tlie  Virgin,  and  of  the  saints:  thus  the  attention 
of  tlie  artists  was  diverted  from  .sjicred  subjects  to  other  themes,  and  tlie  merely 
decorative  treatment  of  the  ecclesiastical  edifices  again  Ijecanie  of  importance." 
Rebcr:   Ilistorn  of  Mediivvnl  Art,  New  Tork,  1887,  p.  92. 

"Let  us  be  thorouglily  penetrated  with  the  thought  that  art  is  also  to  itself  a  kind 
of  religion.     God  manifests  himself  to  us  by  the  idea  of  the  true,  by  the  idea  of  the 


318  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

good,  by  the  idea  of  the  beautiful.  Eacli  one  of  them  leads  to  G-od,  because  it  comes 
from  him.  True  beauty  is  ideal  beautj'^,  aud  ideal  beauty  is  the  reflection  of  the 
infinite.  So,  independently  of  all  official  alliance  with  religion  and  morals,  art  is  by 
itself  essentially  religious  and  moral ;  for,  far  from  wanting  its  own  law,  its  own 
genius,  it  everywhere  expresses  in  its  works  eternal  beauty.  .  .  .  Every  work  of  art, 
whatever  may  be  its  form,  small  or  great,  figured,  sung,  or  uttered — every  work  of 
art,  truly  beautiful  or  sublime — throws  the  soul  into  a  gentle  reverie  that  exalts  it 
toward  the  infinite.  The  infinite  is  the  common  limit  after  which  the  soul  aspires 
upon  the  wings  of  imagination  as  well  as  reason,  bj'  the  route  of  tlie  sublime  and 
beautiful  as  well  as  by  that  of  the  true  and  the  good.  The  emotion  that  the  beau- 
tiful produces  turns' the  soul  from  tliis  world;  it  is  the  beneficent  emotion  that  art 
produces  for  humanitj-."     Cousin:   Tli^  True,  the  Beautiful,  and  the  Good,  p.  164. 


BOOK  SECOND 


The  Archblogy  of  the  Constitution  and  Government 
OF  THE  Early  Christian  Church. 


THE   ARCHEOLOGY 


CHURCH  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 


CHAPTER  I. 

TliU  CHRISTIAX  CHURCH  IN"  ITS  IDEA  AND  OHIGIX. 
§  1.  New  Testament  Idea  of  the  Church. 

Christ  taught  hi8  disciples  to  i>iay,  "  Th}^  kingdom  come  "  (Matt, 
vi,  li>).  Ho  designates  liis  Clmreli  as  "  tlie  kingdom  of 
God,"  rfji'  iSaai/ielav  rou  Oeov  (Matt,  vi,  3;i;  John  iii,  .'5, 
et  al.);  "  tlie  kingdom  of  heaven,"  rf  (iaaiXeia  tCjv  ovpavuw  (Matt. 
V,  3;  xi,  11;  xviii,  1,  et  al.);  or  simply  "my  kingdom,"  or  "the  king- 
dom," 7}  (iamXeia  fiov,  ttjv  (iaaiXeiav  (Matt,  xiii,  38;  Luke  xii,  32; 
Luke  xxii,  30,  et  al.). 

Tha  tevm  eKKXTjcria  is  used  by  Christ  (Matt,  xvi,  18)  to  describe 
the  unified  and  collected  body  of  his  disciples;  in  Matt.        ,„    .     , 

,  .  ',  -111,-,  EKK/j/<7ia. 

xviii,  1  (  this  term  seems  to   he   restricted  an<l  localize<l 

in  its  reference.'  The  term  is  applii'd  by  Luke  to  the  company  of 
the  discii>les  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  ii,  47);  and  to  an 
ordinary  town  assembly  (Acts  xix,  41).  In  other  ])assages  in  the 
New  Testament  it  signifies  the  whole  body  of  sanctified  Christian 
believers  (Eph.  v,  27;  Phil,  iii,  6;  Col.  i,  18,  24,  et  al.);  an  organ- 
ized church  placed  under  pastors  (I  Cor.  xii,  18;  Phil,  iv,  15, 
et  al.);  the  separate  societies  of  a  district  or  province  (Gal.  i,  2; 
2  Cor.  vii,  10);  and  sometimes  the  Christians  gathered  for  wor- 
ship, or  the  assemblies  of  these  societies  (1  Cor.  iv,  17;  xiv,  10-28, 
et  al.).  In  all  these  passages  the  word  measurably  preserves 
its  radical  signification,  KaXeiv,  to  fall,  to  invite ;  KXijm^,  a  rail,  a 
calliiifj,  '■'■the  divine  invitation  to  embrace  salvation  in  tlie  kingdom 
of  God''''  (Thayer's  Grimm  Wilkie,  .s.  v.);  KXtyroi,  the  called,  '■'•the 
invited  to  salvation,^''  etc.  The  fundamental  notion  thus  sugijested 
by  this  word  is  the  body  or  assembly  of  those  called  or  "  invited  to 
obtain  eternal  salvation  in  the  kingdom  of  God  through  Christ" 
^Thayer's  Grimm  Wilkie,  s.  v.). 

'On  the  genuineness  of  Matt,  xvi,  18,  and  xviii,  17,  much  diversity  of  opinion  cxista 
21 


322     ARCILEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNiAIENT. 

Another  characterization  quite  frequent  in  tlie  epistles  is  awjua 
The  body  of  XpiOTOv  (1  Cor.  xii,  27;  Eph,  iii,  6;  iv,  4,  et  al.).  "Ye 
Christ.  are  the  body  of  Christ,''''  and   this   "  body  is  one,"   of 

which  "  Christ  is  the  Saviour," 
The  Church  is  also  represented  under  the  figure  of  a  "  spiiitual 
house,"  oIko<;  -nvevfiariKog  (1  Pet.  ii,  5),  which  is  composed 
of  all  God's  people,  and  M'^hich  he  makes  his  dwelling- 
place   (1   Cor.  iii,  16,  17;  2  Cor.  vi,  16;  Rev.  xxi,  8,  et  al.);  of  "a 
house,  a  holy  temple  in  the  Lord,"  elg  vabv  ayiov  er  Kvpiii)  (Eph.  ii, 
21,  22). 

It  is  also  spoken  of  as  the  Bride,  of  whom  Christ  is  the  Bride- 
groom, TTjv  yvvatKa  Trjv  vvjKpTjv  rov  dpviov  (Eph.  v,  81, 
32;  Rev.  xxi,  9);  the  Light  of  the  World,  to  (pihg  rov 
Koafiov  (Matt,  v,  14),  et  al. 

From  such  characterizations  it  is  evident  that  the  vital  element  of 
the  Church  is  spiritual.  Its  inspiration  is  from  above;  its  essential 
life  comes  from  direct  contact  with  its  Head  and  Lord.  It  is  more 
than  the  aggregated  life  of  those  who  have  been  sanctified  by  the 
Spirit  through  faith  in  Christ;  it  is  a  living  organism, 
in  which  each  feels  the  inspiration  of  the  entire  body, 
and  the  whole  is  sustained  and  invigorated  by  the  abiding  holiness 
•  of  the  individual  members. 

Nevertheless,  like  the  Holy  Scriptures,  it  contains  a  divine  and  a 
human  element — a  spirit  and  a  body.  While  the  life  is  spiritual, 
it  must  have  a  medium  of  manifestation.  The  visible  Church  is 
this  body  of  divinely  called  or  invited  men  and  women,  organized 
for  moral  and  religious  ends,  and  which  is  to  become  the  channel 
through  which,  ordinarily,  redemption  is  brought  to  fallen  men,  and 
they  are  fitted  for  the  comi>anionship  of  the  Church  triumphant." 
The  Church  is  therefore  the  outward  form  which  results 
from  the  Christian  life,  as  this  is  inspired  and  developed 
by  the  divine  Spirit,  and  modified  by  providential  environments 
(Matt,  xviii,  15-18;  Jolin  x,  16;   1  Cor.  xii,  27;  Eph.  iv,  25,  et  al.). 

§  2.    The  Namea  apjiJied  to  if.s  Memhers. 

The  terms  applied  to   its  individual   members  will  further  illus- 
trate the  original  conception  of  the  Church.      In   the 
Disciples.  .     . 

evangelists  they  are  known  only  as  "  disciples,"  fiadrjTai, 

of  Christ;  those  who  are  in  the  relation  of  learners  to  a  master, 

'  This  triumpli  nnd  completion  of  llie  "kiiijfdom  of  lieaven"  would  be  fully  real- 
ized only  at  the  reappenring  of  Clirist  on  earth.  Tlie  powerful  influence  of  this  ex- 
pectation of  iho  speeily  second  coming  of  the  Saviour  is  seen  in  various  passages  of 
the  apostolic  writings. 


THE  ('HKIS'I'I  AN   ClirKCil  IN  ITS  IDKA  AND  OIUGIN.       :523 

W'iiDsi'  iloi'triiK'  they  st-i'k  lo  innliTstiiinl  ;in<l  lu-arlily  cmliiucf.      Tlu'y 
are  bclii'vors,  niaroi,  wlio  ii|i|nvlu'ii<l  the  .McssiuliNliip  of 

.,,     .  ,  II-  1  1  1  r,,,  ,  1  nellcvcrn. 

Christ  tlinmyli  lus  words  and   uniks.      1  luy  arc  l)i('tli- 

ren,  d6EA<poi,  who  art'  horn  of  tlie  saiiii'  spirit,  and  arc  associated  in 

most  intimate  fellowship  with  their  Lord  and  witli  each 

...  Brethren, 

other,  as  in  a  eominon  tanuly. 

In  their  episth's  tht' apost Ii's  rr((|iieiitly  speak  of  the  members 
of  tile  C'imreh  a-  the  "lioly,"  uyioi,  set  apart  to  sacred  uses;  the 
"elect,""  tKAtKTOi,  clu»scn  for  yood  works  to  tlie  honor  of  his 
name;  "a  chosen  generation,'"  to  ytvog  hXtKrov ;  "a  royal 
])riesthood,"  (Saaikeiov  ieQd7evfj,a  ;  "  a  holy  nation,"  tdvog  ayiov 
(I  Pet.  ii,  0).  In  Antiocli  they  were  first  called  "Christians," 
XQiariavoi,  that  is,  the  dependents,  the  clients  of  their  master, 
Ciirist.'  Their  Jewish  enemies  applied  to  them  o])probrious  epi- 
thets, as  Nazarenes,  NaCwpaZot  (Acts  x.xiv,  5);  Gali-  opprobrious 
leans,  FaAtAatof,'  expressive  of  the  low  i)Ojjular  esti-  epithets, 
mate  placed  upon  the  city  and  province  where  was  tlie  home  of 
Christ  and  his  Hrst  followers  (Acts  ii,  7). 


§  J].    The  Apontolatc. 

While  tlie  institution  of  a  church  by  Christ  is  unquestionable, 
and  its  essential  nature  and  design  are  clearly  revealed,  we  search 
in  vain  in  the  acts  and  words  of  our  Lord  foi-  any  traces  of  an  eccle- 
siastical constitution,  lie  spoke  of  a  kiiig<l()iii;  he  chose  it.s  tiiuinph  as- 
and  trained  apttstles  to  ]»reach  the  truth  jtertaining  to  si""ed. 
it;  he  prescribed  the  conditions  of  citizenship  therein;  in  the  last 
Supper  he  provided  a  centre  of  worship,  and  of  jjossible  future 
organization.  The  Church  shall  not  lack  an  infallible  Guide,  for 
"when  he,  the  Spirit  of  truth,  is  come,  he  will  guide  you  into  all 
truth"  (John  xvi,  1.'^).  Nor  shall  the  kingdom  which  Christ  has 
established  fail  ;  rather  must  it  "accomplish  that  which  he  please, 
and  it  shall  i)rosper  in  the  thing  whereto  he  sent  it"  (Isa.  Iv,  2). 
IJut  what  specific  form  it  is  to  assume  in  fulfilling  the  purpose  of 
its  institution  is  not  given  by  the  I'oundi'r  ;  no  type  of  organization 

'  The  origin  of  tliis  iinme  is  not  allofrctlior  certain.  Probiibly  it  was  first  applied 
to  tlie  disciples  by  the  he.itlien  residents  of  Antioch.  It  is  only  in  harmony  with 
other  examples  in  the  history  of  the  Christian  Church,  where  a  name  that  was  at 
fir.st  used  derisively  was  afterward  act-cptcd  by  the  parties  themselves.  For  exam- 
ple, Beghards,  Methodists,  etc.  v.  Lipsins:  Ueher  Ursprung  u.  Gebrauch  den  Chiis- 
trnnnnieiit,  Jena,  187."?. 

'  The  Emi)cror  Julian  "countenanced,  ami  probably  enjoined,  the  use  of  the  less 
honourable  appellation  of  Galileans.  .  .  .  contenipiiblc  to  men  and  odious  to  the 
god.s."     V.  Gibbon  :  Decline  and  Fall,  etc.,  chap.  xxiiL 


S24    ARCHEOLOGY  OF  COXSTITUTIOX  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

is  anywhere  revealed.  The  single  suggestion  relative  to  the  treat- 
ment of  offenders  seems  to  recognise  the  body  of  the  Church  as 
No  inspired  the  depository  of  all  governing  and  disciplinary  power 
i^orm.  (Matt,  xviii,  17);   and  the  decisions  of  the  earl^'  church, 

thus  guarded  from  error  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  were  to  be  final  with 
respect  to  faith  and  morals  (Matt,  xviii,  18;  John  xx,  23;  Gal.  ii, 
7-9,  et  al.).  By  virtue  of  their  receiving  divine  enlightenment,  of 
sharing  the  divine  nature,  and  of  the  impartation  of  those  special 
charisms  by  which  they  could  discern  the  character  of  spirits,  the 
apostles  and  the  primitive  church  were  qualified  to 
bind  or  loose  [deeiv,  Xvetv),  to  remit  or  retain  {a(pLEvai, 
Kparelv),  the  sins  of  the  people. 

The  lack  of  a  distinct  and  thorough  organization  is  likewise 
manifest  from  the  continued  participation  of  the  apostles  and  dis- 
ciples in  the  temple  service  after  the  ascension  of  Christ.  They 
still  observed  the  Jewish  ordinances,  and  acknowledged  the  rightful 
authority  of  those  in  Moses'  seat.  While  often  meeting  by  them- 
selves to  listen  to  the  preaching  of  the  apostles,  to  pray,  and  to 
Tbe  early  con-  Celebrate  the    communion    in  the    breaking    of   bi"cnd, 

verts   adhered   ^]^gy  nevertheless  regarded  themselves  as  still  within 

to   the   temple  •'  * 

service.  the  pale  of  the  Jewish  church,  fulfilled  the  obligations 

thereby  imposed,  and  revered  the  temple  as  the  sanctuary  of  the 
Most  High  God. 

Notwithstanding  the  prevalence  of  the  new  spirit  of  brotherly 
love, which  led  them  to  hold  all  things  in  common,  and  to  sell  their 
estates  and  place  the  price  in  the  apostles'  hands;  and  notwithstand- 
ing the  rapid  increase  of  the  number  of  the  disciples,  from  about 
six  hundred  at  the  date  of  the  ascension  to  fiv^e  thousand  within 
f ort}''  days  thereafter,  there  is  no  evidence  of  an  ecclesiastical  organi- 
zation. The  apostles  ai)pear  ])rominent  as  actors  in  the  histor}',  but 
the  spirit  of  prophecy  rests  upon  the  body  of  believers  as  well.  The 
pungent  preaching  of  Peter  is  scarcel}^  more  effective  than  the  ex- 
christ  alone  ercise  of  the  varied  gifts  of  the  Spirit  bestowed  upon 
was     teacher,   |jqj]^  j^g,^  ry^^fi  women.     The  statement  that  the  multi- 

IDG         ftpOStlGS 

were  disciples,  tude  who  were  converted  under  the  preaching  of  Peter 
"continued  steadfastly  in  the  apostles'  doctrine"  (Acts  ii,  42) 
might  at  first  appear  to  clothe  the  apostles  with  the  authorit}' 
of  original  teacher.s,  to  whom  the  others  stood  in  the  relation  of  dis- 
ciples (fj,adr]rai).  This  view  appears,  hoAvever,  untenable  from  the 
positive  injunction  of  Christ  himself,  "But  be  not  ye  called  Rabbi: 
for  one  is  your  master,  6  6i6d<7h'aAog,  even  Christ;  and  all  ye  are 
brethren,"  ol  dSeXcpoi  (Matt.  x.\iii,  8).  The  apostles  imposed  no  doc- 
trines of  their  own  origination  ;  they  claimed  no  power  to  found 


THE  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH  IN  ITS  IDEA  AND  ()KI(;IN.       ;5-25 

sciiouls  or  iiiakf  disripU's;  '  nitluT  were  tlicy,  and  all  wlio  slioiiM  be- 
lievf  oil  Christ  througli  llii'ir  j>rcac'l»iiiy,  alike  disciples  [naOrjrai)  of 
one  common  Master.  This  view  was  strongly  emphasized  by  Paul 
when  he  rebuked  the  Corinthian  believers  for  their  factious  attach- 
ment to  ditfereiit  teaclu'rs,  thus  fosterin^•  contention  and  dividing 
the  body  of  Christ  (I  Cor,  i,  li',  13;  iii,  4-0).  Tlu'  business  of  the 
apostles  was  not  to  make  law  for  the  Church,  nor  to  institute 
any  exclusive  form  of  ecclesiastical  constitution;  but  they  were  to 
])reach  the  Gospel  as  they  had  received  it  from  their  .Master,  and 
inspire  in  the  hearts  of  men  faith  in  the  doctrines  which  Jesus  had 
taught  them,  and  in  the  kingdom  which  he  had  come  to  establish 
(Matt.  X,  7,  ct  6'(v/. ;  Acts  ii,  32;  iii,  15,  10;  xiii,  31;  xxvi,  22,  23; 
1  Col",  iv,  5;  P]ph.  iii,  et  al). 

Tiie  bond  existing  Ijctweeii  the  early  discii)les  was,  in  its  es- 
sential nature  and  ])urpose,  far  other  and  much  more  wide-reach- 
ing than  that  implied  in  a  "  school,"  or  "  guild;  "  it  was  Ijest  ex- 
l»ressed  by  the  word  "fellowship"  [noiviovia);'  they  being  jiar- 
takers  of  a  like  faith  in  Christ,  which  was  the  iuspira- 

„       ,,      ,     .  ...  ...  .  A  felldwsliip. 

tion  of  all  their  activities,  and  having  a  consciousnes.s 
of  common  citizenshij)  in  the  kingdom  of  (iod.  This  helps  us  to 
understand  the  fact  already  hinted  a:  ;  namely,  that  the  apostles  and 
tirst  disciples  <lid  not  wish  to  be  considered  apostates  fi"om  the  old 
faitli,  but  because  they  remaineil  Jews  they  regardi'd  theinst-lves 
subject  to  the  local  authorities,  and  recognised  tlie  Sanhedrin  as  the 
su[)reme  court. ^  A  special  and  indepeiulent  c<^nsLitution  was  not 
yet  thought  of. 

Tile  apostolate  was  originally  institutecl  as  a  means  of  extending 
the  Church  tlirough  the  jtreaching  of  d<ictrines  which  t^,,  ,j,  y  ( ,.  ^ 
had  been  communicated  by  the  infalli))le  Christ  (^lark  runiicr  iiius- 
xiv,  15).  Its  original  number  (corresponded  to  that  of  """'*'''• 
the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel,  and  was,  therefore,  chosen  in  deference 
to  the  history  and  ))rejudices  of  the  existing  Jewish  cliurch  (."Nlatt. 
xix,  2S;  Luke  xxii,  3(»).  Hy  careful  training  the  twelve  had  been 
fitted  to  become   tlie   pri'achers   and   custodians  of  the  truth  which 


''•Jesus  wns  110  founder  of  a  sect.  He  bad  no  desire  to  found  a  school;  liis 
ncinistry  was  directed  lo  ilie  people  as  a  nation. "  v.  Weiss:  Life  of  Christ,  Clark's 
trans.,  vol.  ii,  pp.  'i59,  2Gft.  "  He  was  conscious  of  being  in  the  strictest  sense  the 
Kinar  of  liumanity.  and  of  foundinjr  a  kingdom.'  Lauffe:  Lift  of  Christ,  Edinburgli, 
18(]4,  vol.  ii,  p.  188. 

■^Compare  Acts  ii,  42  wiili  Onl.  ii,  9;  also  Acts  i,  13,  sq.,  reveals  the  real  bond  of 
the  first  believers,  and  the  simitlicity  of  iheir  assemblj'. 

^Woizsacker:  Da-s  apostolische  ZeitaUer  der  christlicJien  Kirche,  Freihurg,  1886,  .ss. 
36-38. 


326    ARCH.f:OLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

was  to  be  accepted  by  all  who  would  become  the  disciples  of  their 

Master.* 

The  term  ''  apostles  "  was  in  familiar  use  among  the  Jews.     In 

the  various  centres  where  the  Jews  of  the   Dispersion  had  settled, 

large  sums  of  money  were  contributed  for  the  maintenance  of  the 

temple    service   at    Jerusalem  ;    and   after   the    destruction    of  the 

temple  by  Titus  this  tribute  was  still  collected  by  messengers,  dnoa- 

ToXot,   sent   out  by  the  patriarch  of  Jerusalem   for  this   purpose. 

These  are  referred  to  by  the  early  Christian  writers  and  were  the 

occasion  of  lesral  enactments.'     It  has  also  been   well 
Apostles  ,  ® 

known  to  the  established  that  there  was  a  Jewish  propaganda  for  the 
ewis  urc  .  (jigggmji^ation  of  correct  religious  knowledge  among  the 
heathen,  as  well  as  for  the  preservation  of  the  true  faith  among  the 
Jews.*  Nor  can  it  be  doubted  that  the  Christians  may  have  ac- 
cepted the  institution  of  apostles  and  their  work  from  the  then 
existing  Jewish  apostolate,  and  not  the  contrary.^  The  account 
(Acts  xi,  27-30)  of  the  work  of  Barnabas  and  Saul  in  bringing  aid 
to  the  suffering  brethren  at  Jerusalem  reminds  us  directly  of  the 
functions  of  the  Jewish  apostles,  so  that  before  they  are  called  apos- 
tles (Acts  xiii,  14)  they  are  doing  the  identical  work  which  fell  to 
these  officers  in  the  Jewish  church.  When,  therefore,  Jesus  used 
the  word  "  apostles  "  to  designate  the  disciples  whom  he  called  to  a 
special  work,  the  term  was  not  new  nor  unfamiliar  to  his  hearers.^ 

By  the  spiritual  endowments  vouchsafed  to  them  in  virtue  of  be- 
ing witnesses  of  the  resurrection,  and  by  the  promised  aid  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  they  were  to  be  the  representatives  of  Christ  with  re- 
spect to  matters  of  life  and  doctrine.  They  were  to  be  overseers 
and  guides  of  no  single  society  or  diocese,  but  were  themselves  to 
be  the  pillars  of  the  whole  Church,  Christ  himself  being  the  chief 
corner-stone.  Their  work  was  peculiar,  their  relation  was  unique. 
They  were  without  predecessors;    they   were   to   have   no  succes- 

'  The  exact  lime  and  circumstances  of  the  call  of  tlie  apo-tles  are  not  readil}'  de- 
termined, since  it  is  not  easj^  to  harmonize  tlie  statements  of  tlie  Syiioptists.  It  is 
very  probable  that  tliey  were  called  at  different  times,  as  Jesus  found  men  wiio  were 
judged  fit  to  be  trained  to  become  preachers  of  liis  doctrine. 

"^  V.  Schiirer:  The  Jewish  Peoj)le  in  the  time  of  Jcsus  Christ.  Edinburgh,  1885,  vol. 
ii,  pp.  269,  289.  S.  quotes  the  following  authorities:  Kusebins:  Comment  ad  Jtsaj., 
xviii,  1.  Epiphanius:  Haer^  xxx,  4,  11.  Jerome:  ad  Gal,  i,  1.  Codex  Theodos., 
xvi,  8,  14. 

^v.  Hausratli:  Neidestamentliche  Zeitgesrhichfe.  Bd.  ii,  ss.  95,  set)..  101,  seq.;  Shiirer: 
Op.  cit.,  pp.  297-307;  and  the  authorities  cited  by  S.,  pp.  304,  305.  Harnack  : 
Lehrbuch  der  Dogm.engeschichte,  Freiburg,  1886,  bd.  i,  ss.  7.^-75. 

*v.  Lightfoot:    Com.  on  Galatians,  p.  94,  note  1. 

'v.  Seufert:  Der  Ursprung  u.  die  Bedeutung  des  Aposiolates,  etc.,  s.  13. 


THE  nmiSTiAX  ciii'rcii  in  its  idea  and  okkjin.     327 

sors.'  'riic  picaciiiiii,'  of  llu'  word,  the  raiv  of  all  the  fliui-clics  ;iii<l 
tlu'ir  Lfrouiidiiig  in  tlie  truth,  the  cari'lul  Ljiiartliiii^  of  tlic  (hx-trirn- 
which  they  had  received  from  all  adinixtinv  ol'  error,  tlic  care  of 
souls,  and  the  relief  of  the  prcssiiii,^  needs  of  the  poort'r  brethren 
were  the  distini,^uislung  features  of  the  apostolic  function. 

With  the  apostolic  aii^e  tliis  function  ceased.  The  term  apostle 
was  not,  however,  confined  to  the  ori;i;inal  twelve,  but  other  miiiis- 
was  e.vtended  to  those  who  hail  been  intimately  associ-  ^^lts. 
ated  with  them,  and  with  Paul  and  IJarnabas,  in  the  extension  of  the 
Gospel  an<l  in  the  care  of  the  churches.  At  this  time  the  word 
seems  to  have  liad  a  broader  application.  I'aul  calls  Titus  and  hi.s 
fellow  laborers  "apostles  of  the  churches,'"'  d-ruaroXoi  tKKXijaiwv, 
(2  Cor.  viii,  23);  and  he  speaks  of  himself,  Timothy,  and  Sylvanus, 
as  the  "apostles  of  Christ,"  d-JoaToXoi  Xqcotov  (I  Thess.  ii,  G);  he 
is  associated  with  Barnabas  under  the  expression,  avv  Tolg  dixooTO- 
Xoig  (Acts  xiv,  4);  IJarnabas  and  himself  are  eipial  to  the  other 
apostles,  the  brethren  of  the  Lord  and  Ceplias,  a)g  itai  ol  koirroi 
d-jooTO/ioc  K.T.X..  in  matters  of  Christian  freedom  and  privilege 
(1  Cor.  ix,  5);  and  James  seems  to  be  reckoned  among  the  apostles, 
IrEQov  (Je  rCdv  drroo-rdXo)v  kt.X.  (Gal.  i,  19). 

From  these  passages,  as  well  as  from  the  statements  in  the  a])os- 
tolic  fathers,  and  of  the  "  Aidaxfj  t(^v  6(l)6eKa  'AttocttoAwv,"  "  it  nmst 
be  inferred  that  there  was  no  strict  limitation  of  the  term  apostle  to 
the  number  of  twelve.  "  The  twelve  "  was  a})plied  to  xiie  twelve— 
the  apostles  of  the  circumcision  as  representative  of  itssiKnmcanoe. 
the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel,  and  continued  to  be  the  leading  id-ja  in 
the  Apocalypse,  whose  whole  imagery  is  essentially  Jewish.'  Paid 
(1  Cor.  XV,  5,  7)  distinguishes,  however,  between  "  the  twelve"  and 
"all  the  apostles,"  role  d-orrroAoig  rrdaiv,  who  had  seen  the  Lord. 
His  statement  may  help  to  understand  the  ground  of  the  extension 
of  the  term  "apostle"  to  the  seventy  whom  Christ  had  sent  forth, 
and  to  those  who  had  seen  him  after  his  resurrection,  and  were 
therefore  competent  witnesses  to  this  vital  truth. 

While  these  various  persons  were  performing  duties  which  might 
characterize  them  as  "the  sent,"  they  were,  nevertheh'ss,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  Jewish  Christians,  lacking  in  some  of  the  qualifica- 

'"The  twelve,  as  llio  first  prcacliers  of  the  Gospel  tniliud  l>y  ilm  Lord  for  iliat 
end,  occupied  a  position  in  tlie  Chiircli  that  could  be  tilled  by  none  tiiat  cjime  ivrier 
them.  Tliey  were  the  foundation  stones  on  wliich  the  walls  of  tlie  Church  were 
built.  They  sat,  so  to  speak,  on  episcopal  tiirones,  judjtinir.  ;:niding,  ruling  the 
twelve  tribes  of  the  true  Israel  of  God,  the  holy  commonwealth  embracing  all  who 
professed  faith  in  Christ."     v.  Bruce:   Training  of  the  Twelvt,  p|>.  '2^>1,  258. 

'  Teaching  of  the  Tvclvi',  ch.  xi. 

'  Lightfoot :  EpisUe  to  l/ie  GaUitians,  p.  96. 


328    ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

tions  essential  to  the  real  apostolate.  As  Paul  here  informs  us,  these 
had  "  seen  the  Lord,"  but  had  not  been  immediately  chosen  by 
him  for  their  woi'k,  nor  received  from  him  special  instruction  in  the 
truth,  both  of  which  were  regarded  by  the  Christians  of  the  circum- 
cision as  among  the  peculiar  marks  of  an  apostle.  The 
other  apostles.  ,  <•  i  i  ^  •  i    -^t     ^ 

persons  thus  referred  to  as  apostles,  together  with  Mark, 

Timothy,  Silas,  Apollos,  Trophimus,  and  others,  were  probably  evan- 
gelists, itinerant  preachers,'  fellow-labourers  with  "the  twelve,'' 
ministers  of  the  word,  or  delegates  entrusted  with  some  S2>ccial  mis- 
sion to  the  churches. 

Others,  as  Barnabas,"  Manaen,  Agabus,  etc.,  were  specially  en> 
dowed  with  prophetic  gifts,  and  had  the  peculiar  power  of  dis- 
cerning the  qualities  and  spiritual  condition  of  those  to  whom  im- 
portant functions  were  to  be  entrusted.  They  thus  possessed 
another  indispensable  requisite  for  an  apostle,  to  which  Paul 
appealed  in  his  conflict  with  the  Judaizing  opposers  of  his  own 
claim  to  be  of  equal  rank,  dignity,  and  authority  with  even  the 
The  first  test  of  "pillar  apostlcs,"  namely,  success  in  preaching  the  word 
aposueship.  and  in  building  up  the  kingdom  of  the  Messiah  (1  Cor. 
ix,  1,  2).  When  this  important  test  of  the  apostolic  office  is  applied 
to  those  whom  Paul  calls  apostles,  it  may  be  safely  inferred  that 
only  by  the  Christians  of  the  circumcision  could  this  term  be  limited 
to  "  the  twelve,"  while  in  the  thought  of  those  who  had  embraced 
the  universalism  of  tlie  apostle  to  the  Gentiles  the  apostolate  was  of 
broader  scope  and  deeper  import.  This  struggle  between  narrow 
and  exclusive  limitations  on  the  part  of  the  Judaizing  sects  and  the 
Gentile  Christians  continued  in  the  second  centuiy,  long  after  the 
death  of  the  original  twelve. 

'It  is  iuterestino;  to  notice  tlie  use  of  tlio  term  "apostle,"  a7r(5ffro?i,of,  in  tlie 
"Teaching  of  the  Twelve,"  which  probably  belongs  to  the  last  quarter  of  tlie  first,  or 
the  first  quarter  of  the  sc-cond  centur3^  He  is  a  sort  of  itinerant  preacher,  having 
less  cliiim  to  honour  than  the  prophet,  rrpo^^r^f.  "But  in  regard  to  the  apostles 
and  prophets,  according  to  ihe  ordinance  of  the  gospel,  so  do  ye.  And  every  apostle 
wlio  conieth  to  you,  let  him  be  received  as  the  Lord;  but  lie  shall  not  remain  niore 
than  one  day;  if  however  there  be  need,  then  the  next  day ;  but  if  he  remains  three 
days  he  is  a  false  prophet.  But  when  the  apostle  departeth,  let  him  take  nothing 
except  bread  enough  imtil  he  lodge  a^/ain ;  but  if  he  ask  money  he  is  a  false  pnipin  t." 
V.  chap.  xi. 

5  Barnabas  by  special  ordination  (Acts  xiii,  3),  and  by  intimate  association  wiih 
Paul  (Acts  xiv,  12;  xv,  2;  Gal.  ii,  1,  d  al),  stands  specially  near  the  twelve  in  dig- 
nity and  honour. 


APOSTOLIC  CIIUHCII— ITS  COMPOSITION  AND  OFFICERS.  329 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  APOSTOLIC  CIIUUCII— ITS  COMPOSITION  AND  OFFICERS. 
§  1.    The  Ajiontles  and  JJiacoiu: 

Ix  the  earliest  stage  of  the  history  of  Christianity  scarcely  a  trace 
of  a  distinctive  organization  is  noticed.  The  Christian  imperfect  or- 
church,  as  sliarply  distinguishe<l  from  the  .Jewish,  did  Ku'i'^i'i'i'"- 
not  yet  exist.  OH  a  distinctive  cliurcli  otiice,  and  of  a  formal 
church  constitution,  there  is  as  yet  no  evidence.  The  apostles 
Avere,  for  the  most  part,  the  mouthpiece  and  representative  authority 
of  the  C'hristian  community  while  it  was  yet  one  and  undivided  at 
.Jerusalem.  To  them  the  freewill  offerings  were  brought,  th:ough 
their  word  the  first  ecclesiastical  discipline  was  inflicted  t/rst  discipline 
in  the  death  of  Ananias  and  8api)hira.'  As  helpers  in  intiii^ted. 
the  performance  of  mere  manual  labor  they  appear  to  have  had 
some  younger  men,  oi  veiorepoi,  of  the  company  (Acts  v,  C-IU),  whose 
service  was  voluntary  rather  than  ofticial.  This  superiority  and 
leadershij),  and  the  consequent  limitations  of  the  authority  of  the 
body  of  believers,  seemed  due  rather  to  the  })ersonal  endowments 
of  the  twelve,  their  authority  derived  from  Christ,  and  the  manifest 
success  of  their  ministry,  than  to  the  prerogatives  attaching  to  a 
specific  oftice''  (I  Thess.  ii,  V-10;   1  Cor.  ix,  2;  2  Cor.  xii,  12,  etc.). 

The  large  accessions  to  the  body  of  believers,  however,  early 
brought  with  them  the  necessity  for  a  more  methodical  adminis- 
tration. The  diversity  of  elements  already  found  in  the  Christian 
society  occasioned  an  uncfpial  distribution  of  the  charities  Avhich 
had  been  so  liberally  provided  under  the  first  impulse  of  a  new  faith 
and  experience.  To  remove  the  cause  of  complaint,  tlie  recommen- 
dation of  the  twelve  that  "seven  men  of  honest  rei»ort, 
full  ot  the  Holy  (Thost  and  ot  wisdom  (Acts  vi,  3),  be 
appointed  to  this  business,  resulted  in  a  division  of  labour  most  sim- 
]ile  and  salutary.     The  choice  of  the  "multitude  of  the  disciples," 

'  Tiiicrscii  calls  this  piniislimciit  '•  tlic  fearful  act  of  divine  ecclesiastical  disci- 
pline."    V.  Die  Kirche  tin  apmtolvicUen  ZtUaWr,  Hte  Aiifl.,  1879.  s.  75. 

'  Amonj?  others  v.  Bickell:  Gtschichte  ties  Kirchenrechts,  Frankfort,  1819,  8.  71. 
Neandor:  Planting  and  Ttdinin-j,  etc.,  trans,  by  Ryland,  New  York,  1844,  p.  33. 
Wcizsiicker:  Op.  cit.,  s.  Gil.  Lechler:  Bus  apottolische  u.  nachapoatuliadie  ZcilalUa\ 
Leipzig,  1885,  s.  91. 


330    ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

"  the  whole  multitude,"  fell  upon  seven  devout  men  "  whom  they 
set  before  the  apostles;  and  when  they  had  prayed  they  laid  their 
hands  upon  them"  (Acts  vi,  6).  Such  was  the  occasion  and  such 
were  the  circumstances  of  the  institution  of  the  earliest  distinct 
class  of  officers — the  deacons.' 

While  the  terras  dcaKovia,  StaKovelv,  etc.,  are  used  both  in  the 
New  Testament'  and  by  the  early  Christian  fathers^  in  connection 
with  any  one  who  ministers,  it  is  likewise  applied  to  presbyters  and 
bishops,  and  even  to  the  apostles  themselves.  From  the  history 
But  one  order  given  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  no  conclusive  evi- 
at  flrst.  dence  appears  that  in  the  apostolic  Church  there  was 

more  than  one  order  of  ministers,  aside  from  the  apostles.^  While 
there  is  a  variety  of  terms,  these  are  neither  clearly  defined  nor  are 
the  duties  easily  determinable.  This  was  in  harmony  with  the 
existing  conditions  of  religious  activity  and  devotion,  and  is 
entirely  analogous  to  other  institutions  in  the  incipient  stages 
of  their  organization.  Not  until  the  second  century  is  the  term 
deacon  used  with  absolute  precision  of  reference  and  function. 
Who  were  the  Nevertheless,  when  Irenaeus^  marks  with  definiteness  this 
deacons?  term,  he  also  insists  that  the  order  instituted  by  the 

apostles  was  identical  with  that  of  his  day.  The  almost  uniform 
traditions  sustain  this  view,  while  the  Latin  Church,  in  deference  to 
the  apostles'  institution,  long  restricted  the  number  of  deacons  in  a 
single  church  to  seven.  At  a  later  period,  when  the  organization 
of  the  Church  had  become  more  formal,  the  original  functions  of 
"the  seven"  were  more  clearly  limited  to  the  deacons,  until  the  in- 
stitution of  hospitals,  almshouses,  orphanages,  etc.,  transferred  to 
others  the  services  at  first  assigned  to  them. 

The  qualifications  for  this  office,  as  enumerated  by  Paul  (1  Tim. 
Gravity  of  their  ii'j  8,  se(j.),  are  just  of  that  nature  to  fit  them  for  min- 
functions.  gling  with  the  church  in  most  familiar  relations,  to  as- 

certain and  relieve  the  wants  of  the  poorer  members  with  delicacy, 
appropriate  reticence,  and  freedom  from  temptation  to  avaricious 
greed.  It  is  noticeable  that  gravity,  honest  words,  temperance,  un- 
selfishness, probity  in  themselves  and  in  their  households,  and  an 
honest  faith  outrank  "  aptness  to  teach,"  which  in  the  context  is 
said  to  be  an  indispensable  qualification  of  the  presbyter  or  bishop. 

'  While  Luke  does  not  call  the  seven  ''deacons,"  the  word  was  evidently  derived 
from  diaKnvla,  the  distribution  of  aim?,  which  was  their  original  function. 

*  Acts  i,  24;   1  Cor.  iii,  .'3;   2  Cor.  vi,  4:   Eph.  iii,  7,  et  al. 
^  Chrysostotn :  Horn.  1  in  Phil,  i,  I,  ct  ul. 

*  Neander:    Op.  rit.,  p.  ?>'.i. 

*  Irenajus,  i,  2G,  A:  iii,  12,  10. 


APf^sTOLir  ciirRcii    its  composition  and  oFKiri:us.  -.va 

'I'luTv'  is  almiidaiit  evitU'iicc  I  hat  tliis  uttico,  first  iiistituU'(l  in 
Jcrusali'in   in    a   cIiuitIj    (•i)inpi>si'(l    almost   i-xdusivelv    .,    .  .  ^  ... 

'  "      Adopted  by  tht; 

of  Jcwisli  converts,  was  also  widely  adopted  by  churclK's  (iciuiiechurLh- 
of  Gentile  ori^fin.  At  Corinth  and  K(Mn(',  likewise  in 
the  societies  of  Asia  Minor,  are  met  those  "lielps,"  a rr/ A ?/•«/>« r 
(1  Cor.  xii,  28),  and  "ministrations,"  dre  tSiaKoviai' tv  rij  (haKoviu 
(Rom.  xii,  7),  which  were  the  peculiar  duty  of  the  deacons.'  The 
office  seems  to  iiavc  been  generally  recognized,  although  thci-e  are 
intimations  that  it  was  not  regarded  as  absolutely  indispensable.' 
A  little  later  in  the  apostolic  period  is  noticed  a  further  pi-ovision 
for  the  more  com])h'te  oversight  and  care  of  the  poor.  "The 
strict  seclusion  of  the  female  sex  in  (jireece  and  in  some  Oriental 
countries  necessarily  debarred  them  from  the  ministrations  of 
men;  and  to  meet  the  want  thus  fi'It  it  was  found  necessary  at 
an  earlv  date  to  admit  women  to  tlu-  diaconate.  A 
woman  deacon  belonging  to  the  church  of  Cenchrea^ 
is  mentioned  in  the  Papistic  to  the  Romans. '  .  .  .  Again  ]tassing 
over  an  interval  of  some  years  we  find  St.  Paul,  in  the  First  Epistle 
to  Timothy  (1  Tim.  iii,  s,  siu/.),  about  A.  T).  G6,  giving  express 
directiojis  as  to  the  (pialifications  of  men-deacons  and  women- 
deacons  alike."  ^ 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  to  the  deacons  and  deaconesses  Avas  assigned 
primaril}'-  the  duty  of  ministration  to  the  poor,  and  the  oversiglit  of 
the  temporal  affairs  of  tlie  Christian  societies,  yet  the  deacons 
retaining,  as  in  the  case  of  Stephen  and  Philip,  the  right  to  teach 
and  baptize.^  "The  deacons  became  the  first  preachers  of  Christian- 
ity; they  were  the  first  evangelists,  because  they  were  tlie  first  to 
find  their  way  to  the  homes  of  the  poor.  They  were  the  construc- 
tors of  the  most  solid  and  durable  of  the  institutions  of  Christianity, 
namely,  the  institutions  of  charity  and   Ix-neticcnce.""     Of  all   the 

offices   of   the   Church    the   diaconati'    seems   in-culiarly   ^^     ., 

'  ►      The   diaconate 

Christian   in  conception  and  origin.     The  attempts  to   peculiarly 
derive  it  from  the  synagogue  '  have  proved  unsatisfac-   '^hrisUan. 
tory.      The   peculiar  exigencies  of  the  early  a])ostolic  Church  com- 

'  V.  Liglitfoot:    The  Chrittian  Miniitrij ;  in  Commeutary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Philip- 
pians,  8th  edition,  London,  18S5,  p.  101. 
'  V.  Titus  i,  5,  seq. 
'  Cliap.  xvi,  1.     ^ifiiiv  tt/v  at)E?xl>//v  tj/io>v,  ovaai>  AiaKovov  rr/q  tKKXr/aiaq  k.t.X. 

*  Lijrhtfnot:    Op.  cit.,  id. 

*  Acts  vii :   viii,  35—40. 

•>  Stanley:    Christian  Institutions.  Now  York,  ISSI,  pp.  2I(».  211. 
'  Vitrinjr.i:  de  Syn.  Vet.,  p.  SS."!.   Wf/.,   cspecinlly   insists   that   the  deacon   of  tlio 
riiristian  Cluirch  finds  its  suggestion  in  the  cliazan  of  tlie  syn  'goguc. 


333    ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

pelled  its  institution.      It  was  almost  entirely  independent  of  all 

then  extant  models  and  precedents,  and  in  nature  and  function  was 

original  and  unique.' 

To  their  humbler  work  of  the  administration  of  charities  were 

united,  in  the   case  of  some,  at  least,   certain  spiritual    functions. 

Stephen,  a  Hellenist,  "  with  a  remarkable  depth  of  historical  per- 

spective,"  shocked  the  narrow  exclusiveness  of  the  orthodox  Jews 

,       by  clear  intimations  that  the  temple  might  not  remain 
They      also      -^  .  :  . 

preached    the   the   center  of  the   national  worship,  but   that  the  prin- 

'^'^^^'  ciple  expressed  by  Christ  to  the  Samaritan  woman  might 

be  an  accomplished  fact  in  the  history  of  the  favored  people  (John 
iv,  21-23).  His  powerful  preaching  precipitated  a  crisis,  and  the 
disciples  "  were  scattered  abroad  "  by  the  persecution  that  followed. 
Another  of  the  seven,  Philip,  exhibited  his  broad  catholicitj^  of 
spirit  by  preaching  to  the  Samaritans  and  to  the  Ethiopian  eunuch. 
His  baptism  of  the  latter  also  illustrates  the  nature  and  importance 
of  the  functions  of  the  diaconate.  Added  to  distribution  of  alms 
for  the  relief  of  the  poor,  the  work  of  preaching  the  Gospel  and  the 
administration  of  baptism  are  here  connected  with  the  woi"k  of  a 
deacon. 

The  dispersion  which  resulted  from  the  persecution  after  the  mar- 
tyrdom of  Stephen,  and  the  large  accessions  of  believers  through 
preaching  of  the  Gospel  in  other  parts  of  Judea,  in  Samaria  and  in 
^     Syria,  com])elled  a  new  order  of  supervision.     Prior  to 

Prior    to     the       "'.  ^.  .     .        .         , 

first  persecu-  this  scattering  abroad  the  distinction  between  a  simple 
^^°^  congregation  of  believers  and  a  church  had  not  been  rec- 

og^nised.  It  was  but  natural  that  the  new  societies  should,  in  their  or- 
der  and  management,  be  modeled  after  the  parent  church.  Moreover, 
no  proper  in  Jerusalem  and  the  adjacent  districts  there  seems  to  have 
church.  been  a  method  of  supervision  and  government  somewhat 

similar  to  that  which  later  obtained  in  the  cathedral  churches  of 
other  great  capitals,  and  in  the  suburban  societies.  No  sooner  does 
news  come  to  the  apostles  of  the  acceptance  of  the  Gospel  in  any 
part  than  a  delegation  is  sent  to  make  examination,  to  direct  the 
work,  and  confirm  the  believers  in  the  truth  (Acts  vii,  14,  seq.;  xi, 
22,  seq.). 

This  fact  assists  to  answer  the  question:  hoAV  far  the  different 

'  111  this  view  Neander,  Baumgarteii,  Schaff,  Baur,  Renan.  Lightfoot,  and  otliers 
subslantiallj^  agree.  Bohnier  supposes  that  '■  tlie  seven"  had  been  elders;  and 
with  him  Ritschl  agrees:  AUkath.  Kirche,  2te  Aufl.,  ss.  353,  seq.  Lauge  holds  that 
from  "the  seven"  the  two  orders  of  deacons  and  of  elders  were  afterward  differ- 
entiated. V.  Apostolische  Zeitfiller,  Bd.  ii,  ss.  73,  539,  seq.  This  is  also  the  opinion  of 
Dollinger;   Tiie  Fust  Age  of  the  Church,  vol.  ii,  p.  111. 


APOSTOLIC  CIIURCII-ITS  COMPOSITION  AND  OFFICERS.  333 

soc-ii'tic's  of  Jt'wisli  Cliristians  wi-iv  tlu'iiccforth  niiiticd  in  what 
may  properly  be  calle*!  "the  C'hureii."  A  eareful  stmly  (if  all 
the  circuinstiinces  attendiiiLf  these  visitations  will  iinpri'ss  us  that 
the  various  societies  were,  to  a  larije  dej^ree,  united  in  Tf„,r,.  ^as  a 
sjiirit,  life,  doctrine,  and  government.  Tlie  apostles  had  ""'""• 
an  ovci-si^jht  and  care  of  tliese  as  Avell  as  of  the  mother  church  in 
Jcrusali-m.  This  is  manifest  from  their  sendinj^  liarnahas  to  cou- 
iirm  the  disciples  at  Antioeh  (Acts  xi,  '22).  True,  no  definite  proof 
is  t'ound  in  the  history  that  this  union  was  les^al,  formal,  or  ex- 
pressed through  the  appointment  of  officers,  or  Ly  the  adoption  of  a 
formal  constitution;  but  the  conduct  of  the  Apostles  during  their 
visitations  shows  that  by  virtue  of  their  own  jtersonal  character, 
of  the  authority  derived  from  C'hrist  in  their  first  call  to  be  the 
leaders  of  his  Church,  and  of  a  common  spirit  that  animated  all 
believers,  there  was  a  unity  of  the  various  societies  into  xhe  church 
a  virtual  Church.'  It  is  remarkable  that  the  historian  urst orirauized. 
says  (Acts  ix,  81):  "So  f/ie  Church,  r/  EKKArjaia,  throughout  all 
Judea  and  Galilee  and  Samaria,  liad  peace,  being  editied;  and, 
walking  in  the  fear  of  the  Lord  and  in  the  comtort  of  the  Holy 
Giiost,  was  nuiltiplied.''' ^ 

The  second  stage  in  the  development  of  the  organization  of  the 
Church  is  further  marked  through  the  occupancy  by  janK's-bis  of- 
.Tames  of  the  chief  place  at  Jerusalem.  While  the  "^■*^- 
apostles  were  absent  upon  their  missionary  journeys,  proclaiming 
tlie  (xospel  of  the  kingdom,  or  visiting  the  new  communities  that 
h  id  believed,  he  became  their  mouthpiece  or  vicar.  His  personal 
character,  as  brother  of  the  Lord,  gave  to  his  leadership  dignity 
and  authority  which  were  generally  recognised  by  the  churches  of 
Samaria,  Judea,  Galilee,  the  Piienician  coasts,  and  b\-  the  congrega- 
tions of  the  Dispersion.  While  he  is  never  in  the  Scriptures  called 
a  bishop,  and  while  there  is  no  evidence  of  his  spccinl  ordination  to 
this  office,  his  functions  seem  to  have  been  very  similar  similar  to  the 
to  those  of  the  bishops  of  the  following  century;  he  is,  luttr bishop, 
therefore,  sometimes  recognised  as  the  first  bishoj)  of  Jerusalem.' 
At  other  times,  however,  he  appears  as  a  meniber  of  a  council  with 

•Compare  Rothe:  Op.  cit.,  ss.  278,  seq.,  nnd  Lechler:   Op.  cit..  ss.  8G-91. 

The  propoiiderance  of  aullioriiy  is  certainly  in  favor  of  i)  eKK/.rjaia  ratlicr  tlian 
al  eKK?^aiai.     The  New  Version  adopts  the  former  as  t)ie  true  text. 

^Rolhe:  Die  An/ange  (h-r  chrislUchi'u  Kirclie,  9.  271.  Lijjhtfoot:  Tlie  Christinn 
Mi nint nj.  '\\\  Qom.  on  Pliil.,  p.  197.  Ciinninjchain :  TIte  Groiclh  of  the  Church,  ftc, 
London.  ISSIJ,  p.  60.  "It  is  pos.sihie  liis  position  may  have  'adumbrated'  llie 
opi.'^copnto,  or  even  have  done  soniethinfr  toward  pnvinp  the  way  lo  it.'  'But  it  is 
more  prol>ahle  that  lie  owed  this  lo  ids  persoual  character." 


334    ARCHEOLOGY  OF  COIn'STITU TION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

the  apostles  and  i)resbyters,  of  commanding  influence,  but  with  no 
official  character.' 

§  2.   Preiibyters  unci  Bishops. 
In  the  apostolic  Church  are  found  other  officers  called  indiffer- 
ently  npeofivrepoi,  presl)yters,  or  eldei'S,   and  enioKOiroi,  bishops,  or 
overseers.     This  office  pertained  to  local  congrea^ations,  and  was  ex- 
„.   ^         .    ^   tended  as  the  churches  niultiijlied  under  the  i)reachinff 

First  pertained        _  ^  ... 

to  local  socle-   of  the  apostles,  prophets,  and  evangelists.     In  distinc- 

*"■'*■  tion  from  the  deacons,  both  "  presbyter  "  and  "overseer" 

were  terms  in  common  use  by  the  Jewish  church,  by  the  heathen 

municipalities,  and  by  the   religious  clubs,  which  were   numerous 

Presbyters  throughout  the  Roman  Empire.     While  the  record  is 

conimou       to   silent,  it  is  nevertheless  probable  that  peculiar  exigen- 
Jewish        and      .  <.i        ^,i         i  nic  i        •  •  f     ^ 

Christian  soci-   cies  ot   tlie   Church  called    tor   the  nistitution  oi   the 

^^^^^-  presbyters,  as  had  been  the  case  in  the  choice  of  "  the 

seven."  They  first  come  into  prominence  on  the  scattering  abroad 
of  the  disciples,  and  the  withdrawing  of  the  apostles  from  Jerusalem, 
in  consequence  of  the  persecution  following  the  death  of  Stephen. 
In  the  absence  of  apostolic  advisers,  a  body  of  presbyters  is  associ- 
ated with  James  to  give  direction  to  the  affairs  of  the  Churcli. 
The  manner  in  which  they  are  mentioned  in  Acts  xi,  30  (rovg  irpeo- 
(ivrepovg)  indicates  a  class  of  officials  Avell  known  and  established, 
and  their  connection  with  the  reception  of  gifts  for  the  poor,  in  the 
opinion  of  some,  allies  their  duties  with  those  of  the  deacons." 
They  come  into  greater  prominence  in  Acts  xv,  2,  in  association 
with  the  apostles.  These,  with  tlie  "  brethren,"  constitute  the  coun- 
cil to  which  Paul  and  Barnabas,  and  the  other  messengers  from  the 
society  at  Antioch,  refer  the  questions  respecting  circumcision. 
They  unite  with  the  apostles  and  the  Church  {avv  oX-q  ry  EKKkrjaia) 
in  sending  delegates  to  Antioch  and  other  churches, 
counci .  ^^  j^^  should  bear  the  decision  of  the  council  (Acts  xv, 
22,  23).  When  Paul  visits  Jerusalem  for  the  last  time,  he  be- 
takes himself  to  James,  the  i)resident,  where  he  finds  all  the  elders 
assembled  (Acts  xxi,  18,  seq.). 

'Neitlier  Acts  xii,  17,  nor  xv,  i:!-21,  fnrnislios  positive  proof  of  the  presidency  of 
James,  miicli  less  of  a  distinctivelj-  episcopal  function.  Acts  xxi,  18,  seg.,  and  Gal.  i, 
19 ;  ii,  9,  point  somewhat  more  clearly  to  an  officinl  position.  Hegesippus,  among  the 
very  earliest  of  the  writers  of  the  second  century,  does  not  call  James  a  bishop,  but 
represents  him  as  sharinf>;  with  the  apostles  the  government  of  the  Ciuirch  at  Jeru- 
salem. Eusebius:  Hist.  Ercl,  ii.  2:),  24.  v.  Lechler:  Dos  apostolische  u.  das  nach- 
apostolische  Ztitalter,  3te  Aufl.,  s.  8;!.     Ritsclil:    Op.  rit.,  ss.  417.  seq. 

'This  is  one  ground  for  Ritschl's  opinion,  already  referred  to,  thnt  from  "the 
seven"  and  their  functions  both  the  future  dinconate  and  eldcrate  were  differentiated. 
V.  Die  Entstehung  der  altkath,  Kirclie.  s.  358. 


APOSTOLIC  (HrKClI     ITS  COMPOSITION   AM)  OFFICERS.  3:r> 

The  presbyters  already  appear  as  the  representatives  aii<l  direetors 
of  tlie  society  at  Jerusalem.  Since  their  oriijinal  function  was  chiefly 
oversiLjht  or  trovernnient,  the  Jewish  Christian  coni^n-i^ations  fouml 
in  till'  Jewish  synau;o<;ue  a  model  which  they  readily  adopted,  and 
t]ie(ientiK'  i-hurclies  found  in  the  tnioKonog  of  the  religious  cluhs 
an  othcer  very  similar  in  authority  and  function.  It  was  liis 
duty  to  care  for  the  general  order  and  preside  at  public  delibera- 
tions. Nevertheless,  it  is  manifest  from  various  |)assages  in  the  Acts, 
as  well  as  from  the  e])istles,  that  the  whole  Cliurch  j)articipated 
in  such  deliberations,  and  sanctioned  the  decisions.  In  The  entire  so- 
tlie  various  Jewish  coinmunities  of  tlie  Dispersion,  to  l,',*''J,e'',ieiiU'r 
which  the  apostles  first  betook  themselves  in  the  preach-  atious. 
ing  of  tlie  Gospel,  "there  existed  a  governing  body  of  elders  whose 
functions  wci'e  ]>artly  administrative  and  ])artly  disci])linary.  "With 
worshi])  and  with  teaching  they  ajtpear  to  have  had  no  direct  con- 
cern. For  those  purposes,  so  far  as  they  re(piire(l  officers,  another 
st't  of  officers  existed.  In  other  words,  the  same  community  met, 
probably  in  the  same  place,  in  two  capacities  and  with  a  double 
organization.  On  the  ISabbath  there  was  an  assembly,  a  diubie  func- 
])resided  over  by  the  dpY<''^^''«y^^yo?  *•'"  aQXiffwdyoyot,  t'""- 
for  the  purposes  of  prayer  and  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures  and  ex- 
hortation; on  two  other  days  of  the  week  there  was  an  assembly, 
presided  over  by  tlie  yepovmdpxv^  or  ap;^oi'T£f  or  Trpea/iirepof,  foi" 
the  ordinary  purposes  of  a  local  court.  Each  community,  whether 
assembling  for  the  one  class  of  purposes  or  the  other,   „   ^ 

■^  •       I  '    Each     conpre. 

apjtears  to  have  ]>een    in    most  cases  iiKh'pendent.   .   .   .    Ration      indc- 

( 'onsccjucntly,  when  the  majority  of  the  members  of  a  p*" ''°  • 
Jewish  coinmunity  wei'c  convinced  that  Jesus  was  the  Christ,  tliero 
was  nothing  to  interruj>t  the  current  of  their  former  common  life, 
'riiere  was  no  need  for  secession,  for  schism,  for  a  change  in  the  or- 
ganization.  The  old  form  of  worshiji  and  the  old  modes  of  govern- 
ment could  still  go  on.  .  .  .  Tlu  re  is  no  trace  of  a  break  in  the  con- 
tinuity; and  there  is  consi'(|uently  a  strong  ))resuin)ition,  whicli  sub- 
sequent history  contirms,  that  the  officers  who  continued  to  bear  the 
same  names   in    the  same    community  exercised   functions  closely 

analowus  to  those  which  thev  had  exercised  before;   in    „^         ^  . 

■^  "...         The  presbyters 

other  w<»rds,  that  the  elders  <»f  the  Ji'wish  communities   onicers  of  ud- 

which  had  ])ecome  Christian  were,  like  the  elders  of  the   """'stra"""- 

Jewish  communities  which  rcmaincil  .IcwisJi,  otticers  of  atlministra- 

tion  anil  discipline.'"  ' 

The  fact  that  the  Jewish  Christians  regarded  themselves  as  only 

a  sect  within  the  Jewish  church  cannot  be  too  much  emphasized. 

'  Ilatcli :    TTie  OiganizaUon  »/  the  Early  Christian  Churches,  pp.  59-Gl. 


S36    ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

The^^  only  recognised  Jesus  as  the  Messias,  and  were  awaiting  the 
Jewish  Christ-  time  when  all  should  receive  their  King,  and  Christ 
in" the *Je\v2h  *^ho"lfl  i'<?turn  to  set  up  his  universal  reign.  The  more 
Church.  thorough  examination  of  all  the  hopes  and  expectations 

of  the  Jewish  Christian  societies,  prior  to  the  destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem, leads  to  the  belief  that  they  looked  upon  their  provisions  for  a 
special  service,  the  care  of  their  own  poor,  and  the  maintenance 
of  order  and  regularity  in  their  assemblies  as  something  merely 
temporary,  or  as  a  means  of  influencing  the  whole  chosen  people  to 
unite  themselves  with  the  new  kingdom  which  was  soon  to  be 
established,' 

The  function  of  this  body  of  Christian  presbyters  being  at  first 
like  that  of  the  Jewish  presbyters  in  the  synagogue,  they  must 
be  regarded  as  an  advisory  board,  whose  decisions  were  looked 
upon  with  respect,  and  whose  care  for  the  congregations  was 
The  early  type  official.  Nor  is  there  evidence  that  each  ruled  over  a 
republican.  separate  congregation,  or  over  a  section  of  the  same  con- 
gregation, without  associates.  The  monarchical  type  of  government 
which  appeared  at  a  later  date  does  not  accord  with  the  genius  of 
Not  monarchi-  the  apostolic  age.  The  elders  constitute  rather  a  free 
cai.  deliberative  body,  which  more  resembles  the  meetings  of 

the  councils  in  the  republics  of  early  Greece.  While  no  evidence 
exists  that  they  or  any  other  class  monopolized  the  right  of  spiritual 
teaching  and  edification,  they  nevertheless  so  far  directed  it  that  it 
might  be  saved  from  confusion,  and  not  degenerate  into  license  or 
into  the  inculcation  of  false  doctrine.  Thus,  while  the  apostles  and 
evangelists  wei"e  doing  their  work  for  the  whole  Church,  the  dea- 
cons and  the  body  of  presbyters  became  the  instrument  for  the 
governnient  of  local  societies,  and  for  the  regulation  of  its  teaching, 
its  worship,  and  its  charities.  The  x^9''^[^^  didaoKaXia^  being  of 
only  transient  utility,  the  more  permanent  and  regular  provision  was 
necessary. 

Nevertheless,  the  teaching  function  is  clearly  recognised  as  per- 
taining to  this  office.  Especially  after  the  rapid  spread  of  the  Gos- 
pel subsequent  to  the  death  of  Stephen,  when  the  apostles  were  no 
longer  able  to  superintend  the  work  in  person,  nor  give  direct  in- 
struction, the  need  of  special  and  careful  teaching  by  the  elders 
was  felt  to  be  of  chief  importance.  Doubtless  the  customs  of  the 
synagogues  had  direct  influence  in  the  appointment  of  the  presby- 

'Lechler:  Op.  ciL,  s.  93.  This  autliorsays  witli  reg^.Trd  to  the  seemino;  contradic- 
tion of  this  view  in  the  fact  of  the  fierce  opposition  of  the  Jews  to  the  Christians, 
"The  sundering  of  the  band  binding  them  to  the  theocracy  was  at  first  regarded  as 
only  possible,  next  as  desirable,  and  finally  as  necessary."  ss.  93,  94. 


APOSTOLIC  CHURCH— ITS  COMPOSITION  AND  OFFICERS.  U37 

tiTs  in  tlic  Cliristiaii  societies.  Just  as  tliere  was  no  distinct  line  of 
(lemarkat ion  l»et\veen  the  ordinary  members  of  the  synatxo<^iie  court, 
whose  chii'l'  function  was  oversiiifht  and  watchcare,  and  the  learned 
members,  wise  men  and  scribes,  who,  in  tlie  time  of  Christ,  had 
come  to  form  a  ])retty  weil-detined  class,  l)nt  each  did  that  for 
which  his  peculiar  i^ifts  or  traininij  best  fitted  him,  so  in  Christian 
con<;rei;ations,  chietly  of  Jewish  orii;in,  there  was  no  sharp  distinc- 
tion between  the  teachint;  and  <;overnint^  function,  ])ut  a  lari,'e  lil>- 
«'rty  was  rec<\Ljnised,  oidy  that  it  be  exercised  in  obe<lience  to  that 
wise  law  of  spiritual  economy  inculcated  alike  by  both  the  foremost 
apostles:  "Aocordinir  as  each  liath  received  a  tfift,  ministering 
it  amoiiij  yourselves,  as  s^ood  stewards  of  the  manifold  <;race  of 
(4od."  "  l>ut  to  each  one  is  t^iven  the  manifestation  of  the  Spirit 
to  profit  withal,  .  .  .  but  all  these  worketh  the  one  and  the  same 
Spirit,  divi<lin<r  to  each  one  severally  even  as  he  will"  (1  IVt.  iv, 
l(>,  seq.;  1  Cor.  xii,  7,  scq.). 

In  the  later  Pauline  writings,  especially  in  the  pastoral  epistles 
and  Ephcsians,  church  officers  and  their  duties  are  more  fullv 
treated  than  elsewhere  in  the  New  Testament.  The  laniifuacfe  of 
tlu'  instructions  suixtifests  a  more  a<lvanced  statje  of  church  ortjan- 
i/ation  than  is  implied  in  the  writings  of  Peter  or  in  the  earlier 
epistles  of  Paul.  The  simple  associations  of  the  first  believers,  per- 
vaded by  a  common  si)irit,  and  realizing  the  truest  idea  of  fellow- 
ship, are,  in  these  later  writings,  instructed  as  to  the  character  and 
endowments  of  their  office-bearers  and  the  use  of  their  gifts.  The 
elders  are  here  represented  as  overseers  of  the  Church,  and  com- 
bine therewith  the  teaching  function;  but  the  distinction  between 
a  body  of  so-called  "  ruling"  elders  and  of  "teaching"  elders  is 
not  clearly  made;  the  same  persons  are  represented  as  acting  in  this 
double  capacity  (Eph.  iv,  11;  I  Tim.  v,  17-10).  Nevertheless, 
among  the  sjiecial  (pialifications  for  this  office,  as  enumerated  bv 
Paul,  is  "aptness  to  teach"  (1  Tim.  iii,  2;  iv,  1.3-1(5;  2  Tim.  ii, 
2,24;  Tit.  i,  9,  scq.)-,  and  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  this  function 
became  increasingly  important  after  the  death  of  the  apostles  had 
deprived  the  Church  of  authoritative  living  teachers,  and  when  the 
prediction  of  Paul  respecting  heretical  doctrines  had  been  sadly  ful- 
filled (Acts  XX,  20,  ,30). 

The  origin  of  the  presbyters  in  those  cliurches  which  were  com- 
jtosed  chiefly  of  Gentile  converts  is  not  so  manifest.  It  has  been 
suggested  that  it  was  spontaneous,  and  at  first  inde-  preshyters 
pendent  of  Jewish  influence.  In  the  Grreco-Roman  •"  fifntiie 
world  the  two  elements  peculiar  to  the  Jewish  system  ''"""'"'■'' 
of  svnacrogical  government,  namelv,  a  council  or  committee,  and 
"22  " 


338    ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

seniority,  were  widely  recognised.  "  Ever}'^  municipality  of  the 
empire  was  managed  by  its  curia  or  senate.  All  associations, 
political  or  religious,  with  which  the  empire  abounded  had  their 
committees  of  officers.  It  was,  therefore,  antecedently  probable. 
even  apart  from  Jewish  influence,  that  when  the  Gentiles  who  had 
embraced  Christianity  began  to  be  sufficiently  numerous  in  a  city  to 
require  some  kind  of  organization  that  organization  should  take  the 
prevailing  form;  that  it  should  be  not  wdiolly,  if  at  all,  monarchical, 
nor  wholly,  though  essentiall}^,  democratical,  but  that  there  should 
be  a  permanent  executive  consisting  of  a  plurality  of  persons.  .  .  . 
:So  strong  was  this  idea  (respect  for  seniorit}^)  that  the  terms  which 
were  relative  to  it  were  often  used  as  terms  of  respect  without  ref- 
(crence  to  age.  In  the  philosophical  schools  the  professor  was 
sometimes  called  6  Trpea/^irepof."  ' 

It  must  not,  however,  be  forgotten  that,  during  the  missionary 
^activity  of  Paul  and  his  associates  in  founding  the  churches  which 
afterward  were  very  largely  composed  of  Gentile  converts,  the  first 
.believers,  constituting  the  germ  of  these  churches,  were  Jewish 
Christians,  to  whom  the  government  of  the  synagogue  was  entirely 
familiar.  When  it  is  further  considered  how  carefully  Paul,  in  his 
•extensive  journeys,  provides  for  the  spiritual  oversight  of  the 
churches,  for  the  discipline,  and  for  the  general  administration  of 
their  affairs;  how  he  appoints  elders  in  the  churches  of  Pisidia  and 
Lycaonia,  in  Ephesus,  Thessalonica,  Philippi,  Rome,  and  Colossae; 
how  he  declares  to  Titus  that  the  chief  reason  of  his  being  left  in 
Crete  was  to  "  set  in  order  the  things  that  are  wanting,  and  ordain 
■elders  in  every  city"  (Tit.  i,  5),  the  conclusion  is  almost  inevitable 
that  the  Jewish  synagogue  system  must  have  had  a  ver^^  marked 
influence  on  the  organization  of  the  Gentile  churches. 

§  3.   Essential  Identity  of  Bivliops  and  Prculn/ters. 

The  essential  identity  of  presbyters  and  bishops  in  the  apostolic 

age  is  a  matter  of  well-nigh  absolute  historic  demonstration.    "  They 

appear  always  as  a  plurality  or  as  a  college  in  one  and  the  same 

congregation,  even  in  smaller  cities,  as  Philippi.     The  same  officers 

of  the  church  of  Ephesus  are  alternately  called  pi-esby- 

-'™      •       ^pj.^  j^nd  bishops.     Paul  sends  greetings  to  the  bishops 

and  deacons  of  Philippi,  but  omits  the  presbyters  because  they  were 

included  in  the  first  term,  as  also  the  plural  indicates.     In  the  pas- 

sciiaiT's    sum-   toral  epistles,  when  Paul  intends  to  give  the  qualifica- 

mary.  tions  for  all  church  officers,  he  again  mentions  onlj^  two, 

bishops  and  deacons,  but  uses  the   term  presbyters  afterward  for 

'Hatch:    Op.  cii ,  pp.  C?.,  Gl. 


APosT(n.ir  nirKcii    its  composition  axd  officers.  ;w9 

lii.sli()|)S.  IV'trr  urycs  the  |ir(sl»yti'is  to  "  tend  tlu'  tloc-k  ul"  (JdiI,  nud 
to  '  i'ullill  tlic  otlicc  <>t"  l»isli(i]»s/ with  (lisiiiti'i-i'stc'd  dcvot  ion  and  with- 
out lording  it  over  tho  charge  allotteil  to  tliein.  The  intereliaiige 
of  terms  eontimied  in  use  to  the  cdose  of  the  first  century,  as  is  evi- 
dent from  the  «'|)istK's  of  ('lenient  of  Rome  (about  A.  I).  95),  and  still 
linLTticd  toward  tlie  close  of  the  second."'  This  is  substantially 
the  opinion  of  the  most  thorough  students  of  the  apostolic  history." 

The  reason  of  the  use  of  two  terms  for  persons  having  the  same 
•sseiiiial  functions  has  given  rise  to  mucli  discussion,  why  two 
With  those  who  hold  to  the  diversity  of  the  offices  the  ^*'""'''- 
Use  of  two  terms  is  but  natural  and  necessary.  To  those  who  re- 
gard tiicse  offices  as  identical,  in  the  apostolic  age,  the  reason  for 
this  doul>le  designation  seems  imj»orlant  to  discover. 

Two  general  suggestions  have  been  made:  1.  The  term  npeojSvTepog, 
presbyter,  has  been  claimed  to  be  of  Jewish  derivation,  ami  to  have 
been  used  at  first  only  by  Jewish-Christian   congrega- 

,  .    .  *        •^,  ,„     .      .  ,  V     ,'      1        First  theory. 

tions.  In  communities  wliere  a  C  liristian  ciiurcli  iiad 
sprung  from  the  bosom  of  the  local  synagogue,  and  was,  therefore, 
chiefly  under  the  control  of  Jewish  tradition  and  thought,  the  term 
presl)yter,  which  was  the  name  of  the  governing  body  of  the  syna- 
gogue, would  be  naturally  transferred  to  otlicers  of  similar  function 
in  the  Christian  societies.'  It  is  likewise  true  that  the  term  *  bi>h- 
op,'  ETTtaKOTTog,  is  used  to  designate  one  of  like  official  duty  in  the 
churches  of  almost  exclusively  (ientile  origin.  Nevertheless,  the 
term  j)resbyter  was  used  by  these  same  congregations,  and  at  a 
somewhat  later  date  it  was  applied  to  the  members  of  that  govern- 
ing body  over  which  the  bishop  presided.*     2.  A  second  theory  is 

'Schuff:  imtonj  of  the  ChrvsUan  Church.  New  York,  ISSt,  vol.  i.  p.  40:?.  lie 
cites  the  following:  Acts  x.v,  17  and  28;  Pliil.  i,  1  ;  1  Tim.  iii,  l-K!;  v.  17-19; 
Tit.  i,  b-7;   1  Pet.  v,  1,  2;  Clem.  Rom. :  Ad.  Cor.,  cc.  42,  44. 

*  t'.  Amonj^  others.  Ncander:  Op.  cif..  pp.  92,  9:i.  Rothe :  Aii/dii'je  dfr  chHttlinhen 
Kirche,  8.  nG,etal.  Lijjlufoot:  Op.  ciL,  pp.  95-99.  Baiir:  Hist.  Fir.it  Three  Cen- 
turies. Stanley:  Op.  ciL,  chap.  x.  Hatch:  Op.  cit.,  Locts.  iii,  iv.  Dollinger:  The 
First  Age  of  the  Church,  vol.  ii,  pp.  110,  111.  Kraiis :  Reol- Encycd'pcedia  de.r  Christ. 
Alterthiimer,  art.  "  Biscliof."  Wciz-^ackor  :  Op.  cit.,  as.  (i.37-G^l.  W.  says  thai  thcf 
were  not  absolutely  identical :  all  hishopg  were  preabylerB,  bnt  not  every  presbyter 
was  a  bishop.  Lechlnr:  Op.  cil.,  \\  [il1,,seq.  "  The  eldor.s,  xpr <T,?i'rf/)o/,  are  not  men- 
lioucd  bccau.se  in  tho  oailicst  Christian  period  'presbyter'  and  'bishop'  were 
identical." 

'  Weizsacker:  Op.  rit.,  s.  628.  rognrda  this  transference  of  the  Icadersliip  and  gov- 
ernment by  presbyters  from  the  Jewish  church  lo  tho  Christian  at  Jerusalem  as 
by  no  means  self-evident,  "  Keineswcgs  cine  selfvcratiindliche  Saohc;  '"  but  there 
is  no  doubt  but  that  the  Jewish  Christian  societies  going  out  from  Jerusalem,  as  well 
as  the  .Tews  of  the  I)iaspora,  had  a  prcsbytcrial  constitution,  s.  029. 

*Lighlfoot:   Op.  cit.,  194. 


340    ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

that  the  bishop  of  the  Christian   (Church  was  analogous  in  office 

and  function  to  that  of  the  president   of  the  heathen 
Second  theory.    „     ^         .   .  ,    ,  ^  ,  ■    ,.   t  p    i  ■        <*. 

iraternities  or  clubs.     One  chiei  duty  oi  this  ofiicer  was 

to  administer  the  funds  of  the  societ}'^,  and  to  be  a  medium  of  com- 
munication between  the  members  who  might  be  widely  separated. 
Christianity  was  established  just  at  a  time  when  poverty  was  wide- 
spread throughout  the  Roman  world,  and  when  government  and 
society  were  in  a  condition  of  fearful  strain.  What  the  state  could 
or  would  not  do  for  its  subjects  must  be  done  by  themselves  through 
association  for  mutual  succor  and  relief.  The  fraternities  were 
numerous  and  influential.  Their  professed  objects  were  various; 
but  into  most  of  them  there  entered  both  a  charitable  and  a  religious 
element.  To  administer  the  funds  of  these  organizations  became  a 
matter  of  primary  importance,  and  the  officer  charged  with  this  duty 
was  termed  an  eplscopus.^ 

The  peculiar  environment  of  the  first  Christian  believers  compelled 
like  provision  for  the  exercise  of  systematic  charities.  Most  of  the 
earl}'  disciples  were  of  the  poorer  class;  and  man}-  more,  upon  pro- 
fession of  the  Christian  faith,  became  outcasts  from  their  families 
and  homes.  The  strict  morality  of  the  Christian  teaching  and  the 
severity  of  discipline  compelled  the  abandonment  of  trades  which 
before  had  been  highly  lucrative,  and  thus  a  measure  of  systematic 
aid  must  be  furnished  b}^  the  fraternity  of  believers.  The  widow, 
the  orphan,  and  the  stranger  journeying  in  foreign  parts  must  have 
issued  to  them  certificates  of  membership,  or  letters  of  commen- 
Systematic  dation,"  on  whose  authority  they  were  admitted  to 
charities.  tiie  sacred   mysteries,  and  received  assistance  and  en- 

couragement. The  importance  of  this  administration  cannot  be 
overrated,  and  it  was  therefore  entrusted  to  those  best  fitted  by  in- 
telligence and  unquestioned  integrity  to  superintend  the  work.  Ac- 
cording to  this  view  the  functions  of  the  early  Christian  bishop 
Avere  similar  to  that  of  the  episcopos  of  the  contemporary  clubs  of 
the  heathen  world,  in  having  chiefly  to  care  for  the  funds  and  to 
administer  the  charities.^ 

'v.  Hatcli:  Op.  ciL,  Lact.  ii.  His  .Ti-giiment  from  the  epigrapliical  evidence  is 
original  and  striking,  if  not  entirely  eonvincing.  Contra,  v.  Gore:  The  Church  and 
the  Ministry,  Second  Edition,  London,  1882.  v.  also  Ilarnack :  Anakktcn,  in  liis 
translation  of  Hatcli.  Heinrici:  Erldiirung  der  Korinthierhriefe.  i,  Leipzig,  1879; 
ii,  Berlin,  1887.     Holtzmann :  IHe  Patoralhriefe,  Leipzig.   1880. 

-  Tlie  custom  of  commendation  by  letters.  i-r^iaToln)  avarariKn!.  is  referred  to  in  Acts 
xviii,  27,  and  2  Cor.  iii,  1-5.  Tlie  same  practice,  dictated  alike  by  affection  and  by 
common  prudence,  also  prerailed  among  the  ancient  secular  fraternities  and  among 
the  ])o\verrnl  guilds  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

^  Hatch :   Ojp.  cil.,  Lect.  ii. 


APOSTOLIC  CHURCH— ITS  COMPOSITION  AND  OFFICERS.  Ml 

§  4.    General  Conclusions. 

WliiK'  tlu'  (listiiu'tioii  of  otliccs  and  iiiiictioiis  m.'iy  be  ascertained 
in  a  most  ijiMU'ial  way,  it  is  niaiiitcst  tliat  tlie  character  and  duties  of 
these,  durintjj  the  litelinie  of  the  aj>ostles,  were  not  sharply  detineil. 
riu'  peculiar  functions  of  the  deacons  are  at  one  time  assunieil  liy 
the  presbyters,  at  another  by  tlie  kmoKOTTOt.  The  cir-  Duties  iw.i 
cunistances  determine  the  behaviour  of  the  different  simrpi>  (i.'ii..c(i. 
ollieers.  In  the  apostolic  church  are  found  germs  of  every  order 
of  the  ministry,  and  indications  of  every  form  of  churcii  gov- 
ernment. P'rom  these  were  to  come  such  forms  as  the  peculiar 
providential  environment  might  most  fully  develop.  At  first  only 
those  who  were  entlowed  with  special  charisms  were  entrusted  with 
the  direction  and  government  of  the  Church.'  The  gift  correspond- 
ing to  this  function  was  the  \;api(T/ua  Ti]g  KviieQV i]n eojq  (I  Cor.  .\ii,  28). 

The  elders  were  cliarged  with  teaching,  the  preservation  of  the 
purity  of  doctrine,  the  direction  of  the  assemblies  of  the  societies, 
the   oversight   of   the   general    secular    affairs   of    the   _,.        ^   i  ..,„ 

>^  f^  _  The     charisms 

churches,  the  care  of  souls,  the  warning  and  encourage-  at  Urst  the 
ment  of  individual  meml)ers,  etc.  Nevertheless,  Paul  P'"'^^''^''' 
in  his  letter  to  the  Corinthian  church,  in  which  ecclesiastical  order 
and  the  functions  of  rulers  are  discussed  at  length,  nowhere  repre- 
sents these  as  ])ertaining  to  an  office,  but  recognises  in  them  a  class 
of  duties  which  depend  upon  the  possession  of  special  gifts  and 
charisms."  With  the  exception  of  his  latest  epistles  to  the  Philip- 
pians,  to  Titus,  and  to  Timothy,  he  never  mentions  deacons,  pres- 
byters, or  bishops.  Even  wdien  he  enumerates  tlie  teachers  given 
by  God  to  the  Church,  according  to  their  gradations  and  jx'culi- 
arities,  the  names  of  deacons,  presbyters,  and  bishops  do  not  occur. 
In  so  important  a  cliurch  as  Corinth  there  seems  to  have  been  no 
bisliop,'  and  it  may  be  reasonably  (piestioned  whetlier  in  any  other 
than  the  lati'st  epistles  can  be  found  any  jnention  of  tlie  office  in 
connection  with  the  Gentile  church.'  In  all  of  his  earliiT  writings  he 
speaks  of  gifts  and  not  of  offices.  From  the  apostles  to  the  hum- 
blest ministers  the  ruling  thought  is  that  of  spiritual  endowments, 
and  not  of  official   functions.'     So  manifest  is  this  in  the  early  apos- 

'  Banr:    Chrustenthum,  s.  241 ;  Ritschl :   Op.  cit..  s.  .362. 

"Liprlitfoot:    Op.  cit,  p.  195. 

^  Weizsiicker :  Op.  cit..  9.  638.  Biinscn:  Tgnatiu-i  u.  seine  Ztit,  f.  10.1.  Liglilfoot: 
Op.  cit.,  p.  205. 

M/isrlitfoot:    Op.  cit,  p.  198. 

*  Dollinvrer:  Tlie  First  Age  of  the  Churrh,  vol.  ii,  pp.  104.  105.  Kusclil:  (>?).  cit., 
B.  :H7.  Heiiirici:  Kirchengemeinde  Korintfui  u.  die  religiasen  Genossensdia/ten  der 
GriecUtn  in  the  Zeitschri/t /Ur  wissenscha/U.  Iheologie,  1876,  a.  478. 


343    ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

tolic  Church  that  the  function  of  teacliing  was  not  confined  to  the 
presbyters  or  bishops,  but  extended  to  the  laity  as  well,  and  in  cases 
of  extreme  necessity  the  latter  could  administer  baptism  and  cele- 
brate the  eucharist.'  Even  in  the  writings  of  John  the  bishop  is 
still  a  minister  of  the  society  and  not  a  church  official,  and  there  is 
no  evidence  of  a  distinct  ordination  or  confirmation  to  a  distinctively 
episcopal  office. 

Aside  from  the  statements  found  in  the  New  Testament,  the  first 
epistle  of  Clement  of  Rome  to  the  Corinthians  is  about  the  only 
contemporary  authority.^  In  this  letter  the  distinction  between 
No  distinction  bishops  and  presbyters  is  no  more  clear  than  in  the 
incienujut.  canonical  Scriptures,  and  these  offices  and  their  duties 
are  generally  noticed  as  synonymous.^  No  priestly  authority  or 
function  is  delegated  to  them.  They  are  in  the  strictest  sense  min- 
isters and  stewards  appointed  to  teach,  to  preach,  and  care  for 
the  discipline  and  charities  of  the  local  churches.  No  irresponsible 
or. sovereign  authority  is  attached  to  their  office,  but  the  body  of 
believers  is  the  real  depositary  of  power.'' 

Nor  is  there  a  trace  of  the  subordination  of  one  bishop  to  another, 
any  more  than  in  the  apostolic  college  a  primacy,  aside  from  personal 
character  and  influence,  is  found.  While  in  the  pastoral  epistles 
{v.  1  Tim.  v,  17,  19,  20)  there  seems  to  be  a  slight  tendency  to 
centralization,  and  the  idea  of  a  special  office  is  somewhat  more 
clearly  developed,  it  may,  nevertheless,  be  regarded  as  historically 
certain  that  prior  to  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  the  officers  of  the 
Church  and  their  functions  were  not  fully  differentiated,  but,  on  the 
contrary,  a  great  diversity  of  practice  and  a  plastic  condition  of 
church  government  Avere  prevalent  throughout  the  empire. 

'Hatch:  Op.  cit.,  pp.  117-119.  "In  regard  to  btiptism  tliere  is  no  positive  evi- 
dence, but  there  is  tlie  argument  a  fortiori  wliich  arises  from  the  fact  that  even  in 
later  limes  .  .  .  baptism  b}'  an  ordinar}'  member  of  the  cliurcli  was  held  to  be 
valid,"  etc. 

*The  chronolopry  of  tlie  Atdaxv  is  not  so  satisfactorilj^  determined  as  to  make  it 
a  strictly  original  autliority  for  the  history  of  tlie  apostolic  churcli. 

''^v.  cc.  42-44. 

"•Bannernaan:  The  Scripture  Doctrine  of  the  Church,  Part  vi,  chap,  iv,  seems  too 
strongly  to  insist  on  a  settled  and  fixed  ecclesiastical  system  in  the  ("orinthian  church 
diM-ing  the  second  period  of  apostolic  Churcli  history.  Such  condition  of  this  church 
in  a  distinctively  presbylerial  form  of  government  is  demonstrable  neither  from  the 
Pauline  enistles  nor  from  the  letter  of  Clement  of  Rome. 


THE    POST-APOSTOLIC    CONSTITUTION.  Wi 


CHAPTER  TIT. 

THE    POST- APOSTOLIC    CONSTITUTIONT    FI^OM    THK    D?:STRUCTION    OK 
JliUUSALKM  TO  IREN.EUS. 

§  I.  Influence  of  the  Death  of  the  Apostles  and  of  the  Dent  met  ion  of  Jerusalem. 

Such  seems  to  have  been  the  condition  of  the  C'hurcli  ami  of 
cluirch  frovenuiient  for  the  first  forty  vears  after  the   . 

_  *^  •     '  ,  Imporlancp    of 

Ase.'iision.  'J^he  death  of  the  apostles,  and  especially  the  tiic  iit^iruciiou 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus,  were  most  moment-  "' J^"''"'"'''"'"- 
ous  events  in  the  history  of  Christianity,'  They  were  scarcely  less 
transforming  to  the  Christian  than  to  the  Jewisli  church.  If  the 
Jewish  polity  was  thoroughly  destroyed  and  the  hope  of  a  temporal 
supremacy  perishetl,  the  separation  of  Jewish-Christian  from  (Jen- 
tile-Christian  churches,  which  had  before  been  so  prominent,  largely 
(iis:ippeared. 

During  their  lifetime  the  apostles  had  been  the  jealous  guard- 
ians of  the  purity  of  Cliristian  doctrine  and  the  defenders  of  Chris- 
tian discipline.  There  had  been  a  general  accpiiescence  in  this 
apostolic  authority,  and  the  extraordinary  spiritual  eidighteiunent 
conferri'il  upon  the  body  of  believers  had  measurably  saved  tlieni 
from  the  destructive  influence  of  the  heresies  which  afterward 
threatened  not  only  the  unity  but  the  success  of  the  Church.  Tiie 
destruction  of  the  sacred  city  hastened  the  consummation  of  what 
had  been  felt  by  all  parties  to  be  a  pressing  need;  namely,  the  union 
of  the  iiulividual  societies  into  a  firm,  compact  organization  in  the 
Christian  Church.  This  event  emancipated  the  disci-  soatten'd  th« 
pies  from  the  buriU'Us  of  the  Jewish  ceremonial;  it  re-  ap«'*"p''- 
vealed  Christianity  to  the  pagan  world  as  an  independent  religion; 
it  c<)iu})letely  fused  the  hitlierto  inharnuuiious  Jewish  -  Christian 
and  (4entile-Christian  elements;'  it  scattered  believers  still  mor.' 
widely  throughout  the  Roman  world. 

But  when  the  original  preaclu  is  and  defenders  of  Christ's  gospel 
had  been  removed,  the  heresies  which  were  lying  latent,  F.nuui.ipnusi 
or  had    been   checke(|   in  their  first   beginnings  bv  the      '•>•'    <'iiur.-ii 

xii-i        i--ix-  r  .\  .1  1        '  from  Jowisli 

watciitul  administration  of  tiie  apostles,  soon  began  to      prfjuiiio.>s. 

.'  For  n  strikiii":  popular  statement  of  the  effects  and  ihe  probabilities  see  Reiiaa : 

Ilibbcit  Ijeclures,  Boston,  1880,  \U  Conference. 
*  Rothe:    Op.  cit.,  ss.  340-343;  Ewald;  vii,  26. 


344    ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

assert  themselves  more  vigorously,  and  to  draw  away  multitudes  from 
the  Church.  The  lack  of  apostolic  guidance  was  now  felt  to  be  a 
most  serious  privation.  The  absence  of  an  authoritative  interpre- 
tation left  each  teacher  free  to  attach  to  the  Scriptures,  and  espe- 
cially to  the  instructions  of  the  apostles,  tlie  meaning  which  best 
accorded  with  his  own  peculiar  dogmas.  The  instinct  of  self- 
preservation  compelled  a  readjustment  of  ecclesiastical  supervision 
and  government.  From  the  closing  years  of  the  first  centuiy 
new  principles  are  recognised,  and  influences  before  hardly  no- 
ticeable become  prominent.  While  during  the  lifetime  of  the 
apostles  there  had  been  a  ministry  of  Christ's  own  institution,  in 
the  second  century  the  distinction  between  clergy  and  laity  is 
more  manifest;  the  priestly  function,  which  before  had  pertained 
to  the  entire  body  of  believers, becomes  circumscribed;^  the  duties 
of  the  deacons  and  presbyters  are  more  clearly  defined;  the  exist- 
ence and  prerogatives  of  the  bishops  as  a  distinct  order  become  more 
trenerallv  recoo-nised.     Admission  to  a  sacred  order  is 

Compelled      a    °  _"  '^  .  „ 

more  compact  now  gained  by  the  solemn  rite  of  consecration  or  ordi- 
orgaaization.  ^^^^^^^  There  are  now  found  in  the  Church  ordiues 
rnajores  and  ordines  ininores,  each  having  a  more  clearl}^  defined 
function. 

Thus  in  the  brief  interval  between  the  death  of  the  apostles  and 
the  middle  of  the  second  century  the  idea  of  the  Church  had  under- 
gone important  transformations,  and  the  orders  and  duties  of  its 
officers  had  become  subjects  of  clearer  definition.  The  believers  on 
Christ  passed  from  the  condition  of  individual  congregations  to 
that  of  an  organized  Church. 

§  2.    The  Ifjnidian  Einaeopacy  and  its  Effects. 

Ignatius  is  the  earliest  writer  Avho  develops  this  new  notion  of 
Functions  of  church  order  and  discipline.  He  defends  the  essential 
the  bishop.  unity  of  the  Church,  to  maintain  which  obedience  to 
the  doctrines  and  authority  of  the  bishops  is  necessary.  Look  to 
the  bishop  that   God  may  also  look  on   thee.''      Plainly  we  should 

'  The  idea  of  the  universal  priesthood  of  believers  did  not  wholly  disappear.  In- 
deed, it  is  rigoronsly  asserted  by  Iren:«ns  {Adv.  IRm:,  iv,  8,  §  3).  Tiie  MonUuiisis 
were  most  strenuous  in  their  advocacy  of  this  doctrine,  and  TertiiUian  (De  Exhort. 
Cast,  c.  7;  De  Bapt,  17)  affirms  that  it  is  tlie  am liority  of  the  Church  alone  lliat 
lias  created  the  di.'^tinction  between  laity  and  clergy.  Even  the  high-church  Cyprian 
u«es  expressions  whicli  sujrgest  tliat  the  body  of  believers  is  the  true  source  of 
ecclesiastical  authority  (ep.  41,  8).  The  mode  of  the  election  of  Athanasius,  Am- 
brose. Aufru«tiue,  and  others  in  the  fourth  century  illustrates  the  power  of  the  laity. 

"  Ad  Polyc,  cc.  5,  6. 


THE   POST-APOSTOLIC   CONSTITUTION.  345 

reofard  tlu'  bishop  :vs  \vi'  iv^rard  tlie  Lonl  himself.'  He  subjcc-t  to 
tlie  bi.shoi»  ainl  to  one  another,  as  Christ  to  the  Fatlier,  in  order 
that  there  may  1)l"  unity  according  to  God  among  you."  Without 
tlie  bishop  let  no  one  attempt  any  thing  in  the  Church.  Let 
that  sacrament  be  accounted  valid  which  is  under  the  directi(Jii 
of  the  bishop  or  one  whom  he  has  appointed.  Without  the  bish(»p 
it  is  not  i)ermitted  either  to  baptize  or  to  celebrate  the  agape.' 
Where  the  bishop  is,  there  is  the  congregation,  as  where  Christ  is, 
there  is  the  catholic  Church.*  This  strong  characterization  of  the 
episcopacy  is  in  most  direct  contrast  with  the  spirit  of  the  New 
Testament  teaching.  Yet  it  is  likewise  to  be  observed  that  the 
episcopacy  of  Ignatius  is  strictly  cojigregational.  The  l)isli<tp  has 
no  authority  outside  of  and  beyond  his  individual  congregation,  in 
which  alone  he  is  tlie  vicar  of  Christ,  as  well  as  an  e(jual  to  every 
other  bishop  of  every  other  cotigregatioii:  no  trace  of  suliordination 
or  j)rimacy  a})i)ears  in  these  episths. 

Nevertheless,  Ignatius  distinguishes  the  bishops  from  the  pi-esby- 
ters, inasmuch  as  the  former  are  the  successors  of  Christ,  uisUiKiu.n  in 
while  the  latter,  on  the  contrary,  are  the  vicars  of  the  "liKiu. 
ajiostles.^  The  institution  of  the  bishops  is,  according  to  his  view,  not 
the  work  of  the  apostles,  but  a  commission,  evtoX/),  or  grace,  ;tapff, 
of  God,  while  the  presbytsri  owe  their  origin  to  the  decree  or  saiic- 
tion,  vojtog,  of  Jesus  Christ."  Inasmuch  as  the  ei)iscopacy  connects 
tlie  individual  churches  with  the  Church  universal,  at  whose  head 
Christ  stands,  it  thereby  becomes  the  organ  of  churcli  unity/  In 
nearly  all  these  letters  of  Ignatius  the  threatening  dangt-rs  to  the 
Church  from  the  current  heresies  are  revealed.  They  contain  warn- 
ings, exhortations  to  concord,  and  to  a  close  athliation  with  the  bish- 
ops, the  presbyters,  and  the  deacons,  since  thus  alone  can  the  unity 
of  the  Church  be  best  maintained.'  Yet  Ignatius  plainly  teaches 
that  wliile  the  congregation  should  un(h'rtake  nothing  without  the 
bishop,  no  more  shouhl  the  bishop  without  the  will  of  God.  The 
ordinances  of  the  bishop  are  valid  only  so  far  as  they  are  at^'ordant 
with   the  divine    will.'       Nevertheless,   from   the   very    nature    and 

'  ad  Ephes.,  c.  6.  ^  ud  Mnqne.i.,  c.  \?,.  s  ^^  Smyrn.,  c.  8 

*  Ep.  ad  Phi.'ad.,  c.  3,  7;  Smyrn..  c.  8,  !),  tt  ul.  v.  also  Baur:  Das  Chrutentfium, 
eic,  2te  Aiisg.,  Tubin<jren,  1860,  ss.  277-279. 

'  ad  Snnjrti.,  c.  8;   ad  Ephes.,  c.  2:  ad  Pulyr.,  c.  6.  •  nd  .\fiigne.s..  c.  2. 

'  ad  Philad.,  c.  3  ;  ad  Smyrn..  c.  8.  8  ad  Smyrn.,  c.  8. 

'Compare  especially  ad  Smy7-n.,  c.  8.  and  Rotlie:  Op.  cit.,  a.  44.');  Ulilliorii : 
Ueber  die  Jgnalianisrhen  Briefe,  in  Ilgenx  Ztitschri/t.  Ud.  21,  8.  282.  Rit'^clil :  Entst>>. 
hung  der  allkatlioUsrhen  Kirdie,  Honn,  1857,  h.  4r>r);  ami  best  of  all,  Lighlfoot:  Tlie 
Apostolic  Fathers:  Part  ii,  St.  Ignatius  and  St.  Polycarp. 


34G     ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

dignity  of  the  episcopate,  it,  before  all  other  offices,  lays  claim  to 
obedience  on  the  part  of  the  societies.' 

§  3.    The  Clementine  Homilies. 

As  we  pass  from  the  Ignatian  epistles  to  the  pseudo-Clementine 
The  monarchi-  Homilies,  which  were  probably  written  from  fifteen  to 
cai  episcopacy,  twenty  years  later,  there  is  a  yet  stronger  claim  for  the 
dignity  and  authority  of  the  bishop's  office.  The  episcopacy  of 
these  writings  is  of  the  high  monarchical  type.  The  bishop  has 
power  to  bind  and  loose.  He  stands  in  the  place  of  Christ;'  the 
presbyters  and  deacons  are  subordinate  to  him. 
Bishops  th  Here,  too,  the  episcopate  is  represented  as  the  sue. 
successors  of  cession  to  the  apostolate,  and  the  bishops  are  the 
the  apostles.  guardians  and  depositaries  of  the  apostolic  doctrine. 
As  usual  in  Ebionitic  writings,^  James  is  the  bishop  of  bishops, 

'  The  importance  of  the  testimony  of  Ignalius  is  manifest  from  the  protracted  con- 
troversy respecting  tlie  gennineiiess  and  iutogrit}'  of  his  writings.  Scarcel}'  less 
earnest  than  that  over  tlie  genuineness  and  autliority  of  the  Gospel  by  Jolin,  the 
Ignatian  question  still  remains  an  open  one.  An  important  literature  has  resulted 
from  these  scholarly  researclies.  There  are  three  versions  of  the  writings  of  Igna- 
tius, namely :  1.  The  longer  Greek  recension,  consisting  of  seven  epistles  and  eiglil 
additional  ones.  2.  Tlie  shorter  Greek  recension,  referred  to  by  Eusebius,  consisting 
of  seven  epistles.  ?>.  The  Syriac  version,  discovered  in  a  monastic  library  in  the 
Libyan  desert  in  1839-1843,  containing  but  three  of  the  seven  epistles  of  the  shorter 
Greek  recension,  and  these  in  very  abbreviated  form.  Of  the  first  it  may  be  said 
that  the  added  eight  epistles  are  now  regarded  as  forgeries.  Respecting  the  second 
and  third  the  schoUrs  are  divided.  The  Tiibingen  school  reject  the  entire  Ignatian 
literature  as  spurious;  another  class  accept  only  wliat  is  common  to  the  shorter 
Greek  and  to  the  Syriac  recensions;  while  the  tendency  to-day  is  to  hold  to  the 
genuineness  of  the  shorter  Greek  recension  and  to  regard  the  Syriac  version  a*?  es- 
sentially an  extract  from  the  older  Greek.  The  most  satisfactory  examinations  and 
defence  of  the  shorter  Greek  recension  are  Zahn :  Ir/nafius  von  Antiocliien,  Gotha, 
1873;  also  his  Jgnatii  et  Polycmyi  Epistulce  Martyria  Fragmenta,  in  the  Patruni 
Apostolicorum  C';)era.  Fasciculus  ii,  Lipsite,  1876;  Uhlhoin:  Article  "Ignatius,"  in 
2d  ed.  of  Ilerzog's  Real ■  Encykl. ;  and  Lightfoot:  The  AjMislolic  Fathers:  Pari 
ii,  St.  Ignatius  and  St.  Polycarp,  London,  1885.  Liglitfoot  formerly  accepted  the 
Syriac  version,  but  in  this  later  work  regards  the  shorter  Greek  version  as  defen- 
sible. The  importance  of  this  controversy  appears  from  the  different  grounds  of 
the  bishop's  authority  in  the  two  later  recensions^.  In  the  Syriac  version  his 
e.^ercise  of  leadership  and  discipline  is  derived  solelj'  from  Iiis  personal  worthiness; 
according  to  the  shorter  Greek  recension,  by  virtue  of  his  oHice  alone  the  bishop 
has  the  power  to  exercise  priestly  teaching  and  ruling  functions.  In  the  Greek 
recension  the  will  of  tlie  bishop  has  unconditional  validity,  while  in  the  Syriac  his 
will  must  liarrnonize  with  the  divine  will  in  order  to  clann  obedience. 

*  Ep.  ad  Jacob.,  c.  14,  hom.  iii,  62. 

^This  expression  is  here  used,  notwithstau'ling  the  opposing  views  of  able  critics. 
Like  much  of  the  earl}-  Patristic  literature,  the  Ckmentines  have  given  rise  to  much 


THE   POST-APOSTOLIC   CONSTITUTION.  847 

6  iiLOKortoc,  ru)V  tTriaKOTTui',^  to  whom  vwn  Pi'tcr  is  suhonliriatc, 
and  Jcrusak':!!  is  the  capital  of  C'liristcndoiii.  In  the  psfudo- 
ClemL'ntinc's  is  first  met  the  e.\i)ressioii,  "  the  ehair  or  seat  of  the 
bishop,"  KaOif^Qa  rov  f:~iaK6rTov,  whieli  denotes  the  hii^ii  dii^iiitv 
of  tlie  bisliop  and  his  rehitiou  to  the  presbyters,  so  ehanLfed  from 
the  New  Testament  idea.  To  the  bishop  specially  beIon<^s  the 
promulgation  of  doctrine,  while  to  the  presbyters  is  assigned  the 
preaching  of  ethical  truths."  The  duty  of  Church  discipline  is  so 
divided  that  the  bishop  and  the  presbyters  e.xerci.se  judicial  func- 
tions, while  the  deacons  are  charged  with  the  duty  of  careful 
scrutiny  of  the  conduct  of  the  members.  The  bishop  Arbiuirof  Uoc- 
exercises  rule  over  the  society  and  is  arbiter  of  doc-  tni'i^- 
trine,  while  the  presbyters  are  his  assistants  in  the  maintenance 
of  moral  conduct.  The  care  for  the  ftoor  is  shared  by  the  bishop 
and  the  deacons.  In  the  oi)inion  of  the  writer,  the  ))iii-pi>se  of  the 
institution  of  the  ei)iscopate  was  the  restoration  of  the  unity  of  the 
C'hurch,  and  the  reconciliation  of  the  conHicting  parties.  Tiiis  recon- 
ciliation was  to  ba  effected  by  the  triumph  of  the  Ebionite  party, 
whose  peculiar  views  of  the  episcopacy  became  at  last  predominant 
in  the  Christian  Churcli.^  The  conception  of  the  episcopacy  com- 
mon to  the  Ignatian  epistles  and  pseudo-Clementines  is  that  the 
bishop  is  the  vicar  of  God  and  Christ.  The  same  eubstantial  unity 
existing  between  God  and  Christ  is  the  relation  whicli  exists 
between  the  bishop  and  Christ;  for  as  Christ  is  the  hypostatic  will 
of  God,  so  should  the  bisliop  be  the  hypostatic  will  of  Christ.'' 

§  4.    T'l'ir  Shcithcrd  of  Hennas  (ind  Pohjrdvp. 

The  Shepherd  of  Hernias  and  the  ei)istle  of  Polycarp,  IJisliop  of 
Smyrna,  belong  to  a  date  internuMliate  between  tliat  of  the  Ignatian 
epistles  and  the  pseudo-Clementines.  These  are  important  as  illus- 
trations of  the  principle  that  not  only  the  episcopate  but  the  entire 
i)olitv  of  the  Christian  Churcli  was  a  development  out  ,^,  .,  .,  . 
of  the  peculiar  needs  of  the  times.  In  the  "Slic|>]u'rd  "  twet'ii  lay  and 
mention  is  made  of  .apostles,  bishops,  doctors,  and  dea-  ^''^'''*'"'- 
cons.      While  tiie  term  doctors   is  somewhat  obscure  in  import,  tlu- 

varied  controversy  and  the  results  li.nve  not  proved  entirely  satisfactory  to  any 
parties.  The  candid  st^itoinent  of  one  of  llio  most  scholarly  of  tliese  iiivestijjatora, 
after  a  criticism  of  tiie  different  opinions,  seems  entirely  truthful.  "  Undoubtedly 
the  questions  ot  the  Clementines  need  evpu  yet  a  further  discussion."  v.  Ulliorii . 
Article  "  Clcmentinen,"  in  Herzoif's  lienl-Encyklupiidie,  Bd.  iii,  s.  28G. 

'  /v/).  ad  Jar  oh.,  suprascriptio.  *  Ep.  ad  Jurob.,  Mom.  iii,  65. 

'  V.  especially  Baiir:    Urs^n-umj  der  Episropats,  Tubingen,  18:58,  s.s.  122,  1  18,  et  al. 

*  V.  Baur :  Das  ChruitentJium,  etc.,  a.  283. 


348    ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

bishops  are  no  longer  identical  with  the  presbyters,  and  the  lay 
function  is  distinct  from  the  clerical.' 

Polycarp's  letter  falls  in  just  that  period  when  a  number  of  Phil- 
ippian  churches  had  preserved  their  autonomy,  and  hence  the  devel- 
opment of  the  monarchical  episcopacy  was  yet  incomplete.  There 
are  evidences  of  a  vigorous  organization,  and  the  officers  of  the 
Church  are  recognised  as  clothed  with  authority  to  exercise  their 
functions;  for  he  strongly  exhorts  the  believers  to  be  obedient  to 
the  presbyters  and  deacons  as  to  God  and  Christ,  ojf  dew  km  Xqiotc^.^ 

From  the  manner  in  which  the  term  presbyter  is  here  used,  it  has 
been  argued  that  Polycarp  recognised  the  identity  of  bishops  and 
presbyters.^  By  some  this  passage  has  been  construed  to  teach  "the 
supreme  oversight  of  the  presbyters  in  all  matters  of  administra- 
tion," *  while  others  have  from  it  inferred  the  absence  of  bishops 
from  the  Philippian  church.^  Whatever  may  have  been  the  facts, 
it  seems  certain  that  in  the  teaching  respecting  the  exalted  position 
which  is  assigned  to  the  bishop  there  is  not  yet  found  the  concep- 
tion of  a  church  office  in  that  specific  sense  which  later  obtained. 
When,  therefore,  in  the  Ignatian  epistles  the  expression  is  met, 
"  where  the  bishop  is  found  there  is  the  congregation, 

No    catholic  ^   .        .  .  .      /- 

Church  yet  even  as  where  Christ  is  there  is  the  catholic  Church," 
existing.  there  is  manifestly  wanting  to  the  idea  of  the  catholic 

Church  an  element  which  was  supplied  in  the  next  century,  namely, 
that  of  unified  doctrine.  In  the  absence  of  this  factor  there  could 
properly  be  no  officer  of  the  catholic  Church,  and  in  the  writings  of 
The  bishop  the  t^^^  ^^'^^  ^^^^^  of  the  second  century  the  bishop  bears  only 
unifying  power,  the  character  of  a  ruler  of  the  congregation.  Never- 
theless, by  the  extension  of  this  office  over  all  congregations,  the 
episcopate  becomes  the  instrument  of  the  unification  of  the  Church. 
This  was  to  be  effected  both  by  correspondence  between  the  soci- 
eties, and  by  conferences  or  synods  of  the  bishops  themselves.  The 
first  was  only  in  imitation  of  the  custom  of  the  apostles,  and  was  a 
most  natural  means  of  fostering  the  spirit  of  unity  and  of  conserv- 
ing a  common  doctrine.  The  catholicity  of  the  Church  was  further 
promoted  by  giving  certificates  of  Church  membership 

Church  letters.  .^'    o  o  x 

or  commendation,  ypdjUjuara  rervnc^fieva,  to  those  who 
were  travelling  into  foreign  parts,  by  means  of  which  the  bearer 
was  admitted  to  the  sacraments  and  privileges  in  other  societies. 
They  were  also  proofs,  ypafifiara  Koivo)viKd,  of  the  agreement  and 
fellowship  of  the  bishop  who  gave,  with  him  who  received  them. 

'  Pii.'itnr;  Vi«.  iii,  5,  G.  2  Epist.  ad  Phil,  c.  5. 

3  V.  especi.illy  Ritsclil:    0/).  ciL,  s.  402;   Hase:   KirchengescMchte,  s.  42. 

■*  Hatch:    Op,  ciL,  p.  67.  *  Bunsen:  Ignatius,  s.  109. 


I'lli:    I'OST-APOSTOLK^    COXSTITrTIOX.  ^49 

AiMt'd  (()  all  this  \v:is  tin-  custom  ot"  v.u-h  society  to  iiifonii  cvi'iy 
other  of  all  important  atl'airs  of  its  comimmion,  and  of  each  hishop 
to  publish  to  every  other  bishop  the  fact  of  his  election  and  conse- 
cration, that  he  miiiiit  in  tuin  receive  the  assurance  of  their  ajiproval 
and  cor»peration. 

It  has  already  been  seen  that  tlu'  apostolic  Church  recoi^nised  no 
ijriestlv  function  or  authority  on  tlie   part  of  its  minis-   ., 

'  ''  .'I  fj,,  piicsi  rccotf- 

ters  of  any  kind  or  j^rade.  The  New  Testament  teach-  nisid  by  uio 
\uiX  that  the  whole  body  of  believers  are  jtriests  unto  "P"^^  ^'^• 
(rod,  and  that  one  alone,  C-hrist,  is  the  IIii,^hpriest,  makint^  offering 
of  himself  for  the  sins  of  the  world,  is  clear  and  uiKpiestioned 
(I  Tim.  ii,  5;  Ilel).  iii,  1;  y,  lU;  ix,  II,  et  <d.).  This  continued  until 
after  the  destruction  of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem.  That  epoch- 
making  event  marks  the  introduction  into  the  Christian  Chinch  of 
two  new  ideas  which  were  familiar  alike  to  Judaism  and  to  the 
(xentile-C'hristian  cliurches;  namely,  the  idea  of  an  offering  or  sacri- 
fice, and  the  i(U'a  of  a  priesthood.  These  correlative  notions  were 
not  foreign  to  the  Gentile-Christian  congregations.  They  had  been 
(converted  from  a  religious  system  which  was  thoroughly  acquainted 
witli  the  tliought  and  ])ractice  of  sacrifice,  and  of  a  priesthood 
whose  functions  inchi(k'<l  the  care  of  the  offerings.  The  smoking 
or  garlanded  altar,  the  ])n)cession  lea<liiig  the  victims,  j^g^  „f  sacer- 
and  the  officiating  priests,  were  most  familiar  sights  in  douiism. 
every  province  of  the  lioman  Empire.  True,  this  priestly  function 
in  the  Churcli  was  not  that  strong  and  comj)lete  sacerdotalism 
which  was  victorious  in  the  following  century;  but  the  references 
to  the  priestly  office  of  the  bishop  are  now  more  frequent.  While 
not  exclusive  or  absolute,  it  is  evident  that  even  the  |)artial  and 
limited  recognition  of  tlie  priestly  offi/e  of  tlie  bishop  may  l>e 
regarded  as  among  the  most  important  facts  in  the  historv  of 
Church  government  and  worship  in  the  second  century.  The  effect 
was  to  limit  the  s])iritual  authority  of  the  presl»\-fei-.  While  he 
might  baptize,  yet  the  complete  endowment  of  faith  rested  with 
the  bishop;  the  bringing  of  the  eucharistic  offering  w  as  only  by  epis- 
copal sanction;  the  institution  of  the  clergy  by  ordination,  and  the 
confirmation  of  the  baptized,  were  tlie  exclusive  prerogatives  of  the 
bishops.  They  were  entrusted  with  the  oversight  of  the 
clergy;  they  were  tlie  she]>lierds  of  the  ihjck,  who  were 
to  teach  the  ignorant,  lift  up  the  fallen,  and  ))unish  the  incorrigible. 
The  presl)yters  were  the  governing  b(»ily  or  council;  teaching  was 
at  first  not  their  necessary  or  even  usual  function.  Tiie  Clementine 
writings  make  a  distinction  between  <h)c"trine  and  morals — the  bishop 
teaching  the   former,   the    presbyters   enforcing    the    latter.      The 


3.")0    AKCn.EOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  x\ND  GOVERNMENT. 

archaic  document,  AfcJa^;?/  ribi'  SojdeKa  'Arrooru/.dyv,  "  'i'lie  Teaching  of 

the  Twelve  Apostles,"  which  seems  to  be  firmly  placed  in  the  first, 

or  early  part  of  the  second  century  (95-130),  speaks  of  a  more  simple 

condition  of  things.     Yet  the  representations  of  the  functions  of 

Church  oflicers   are  not  in   contradiction   with  those   already  de- 

^     scribed.     The  apostles  and  prophets  are  only  itinerant 
The  view  of  ^  ^       ^  \ 

"The  Teach-     preachers  who  are  to  tarry  but  a  day  or  two  m  a  place, 

*"^" '  to  receive  sustenance,  but  not  monej'',  except  for  gen- 

eral charities.  The  genuineness  of  the  apostle's  teaching  function  is 
to  be  judged  by  his  conformity  to  his  own  doctrines.'  The  Church  is 
instructed  to  appoint  for  itself  *  bishops  and  deacons  worthy  of  the 
Lord,  men  meek  and  not  avaricious,  and  sincere  {aXrideiq)  and  tried. 
Such  are  worthy  of  honour  for  their  works'  sake. 

§  5.    The  Form  of  Oovcrnment. 

The  ecclesiastical  government  which  generally  prevailed  by  the 
.  .  middle  of  the  second  century  was  that  of  the  indepen- 

A    congrega-  ,  ''  ^ 

tionai  episco-  dent  congregation,  governed  by  a  college  of  presbyters, 
pacy.  whose  president  was  the  bishop,  and  whose  servants  or 

ministers  were  the  deacons.  Each  congregation  had,  therefore,  its 
separate  bishop,  its  own  governing  body,  its  ministering  servants, 
and  its  private  members.  At  each  gathering  every  element  of  this 
congregation  was  theoretically  present,''  and  the  whole  body  were  the 
depositary  of  power  and  authoritative  govei'nment.  The  i)resence 
of  a  bishop  in  each  congregation  ex])lains  how  at  first  the  teaching 
])Ower  of  the  presbyter  was  limited,  and  the  celebration  of  the  sacra- 
ments of  baptism  and  of  the  eucharist  was  practically  confined  to  the 
bishops,  although  the  presbyter  had  from  the  first  the  right  to  bap- 
tize, and  probably,  also,  the  authority  to  celebrate  the  eucharist.* 

The  change  of  opinion  respecting  the  endowments  required  in  an 
ofl[ice-bearer  is  important  to  mention.     As  before  said,  in  the  apos- 

'  V.  Chap,  xi,  "But  not  everj'  one  who  speaketh  in  the  spirit  is  a  prophet,  but  only 
if  he  liave  tlie  ways  of  ihe  Lord.  .  .  .  And  every  prophet  who  tcachclh  the  triitli,  if 
he  do  not  that  which  he  teacheth,  is  a  false  prophet." 

"^  V.  Oiiap.  XV.  The  expression  ;i;e<po-oi7/(T«7E  ovv  iavro'ig  entaKd-ov^,  etc.,  is  vari- 
ously translated.  If  this  writing:  is  earher  than  the  middle  of  the  second  centnry,  tlie 
terra  ;ife<po-oj'eu,  in  agreement  with  its  general  meaning  in  the  New  Testament,  iu 
•Tosephns,  and  in  the  Ignatian  epistles,  should  be  translated  "appoint."  But  if  it  is 
believed  to  belong  to  the  third  century,  the  word  wonld  iiMturally  follow  the  chau<i-cd 
meaning  in  the  "Apostolic  Canons  "  and  in  the  •Apostolic  Constitutions,"  and  he 
translated  "ordain  by  laying  on  of  hands." 

'  V.  ITatch :    Op.  cit,  p.  79. 

*  This  certainly  is  the  view  maintained  a  little  later  l)y  TertuUiau  in  tlie  Monta- 
nistie  controversy. 


THE    l»()ST-AP()ST()LIC    CONSTlTrTIOX.  nrA 

tolic    Clmri'li    iiu'ii   held    office   and    jK'rforincMl   duties  l)y   virtue  of 

eertain   spiritual    i^ilts,   or  i-liari^ins.     The   hody   of   belii-vers   lion- 

oihcmI  and  obeyed  tlieiii  because  of  tliese  jxifts,  which  were  l)elieve(l 

to  be    bestowed   by  the   Spirit   for   definite   purposes.      About   the 

nii(UlIe  of  the  third  century,  liowever,  the  oftice  is  no  hunger  tenable 

bv  virtue  of  tliese  charisins  ah)ne,  ]»ut  rather  the  cliarisin   „^     ^    , 

The  chiirlsm  a 

is  a  natural  consei|Ucnce  of  the  induction  into  office,  n-siiii  of  uio 
Ordination  comes  not  in  consequence  of  the  spiritual 
tjift,  but  the  ifift  is  imparted  in  the  act  of  ordination.  This  radical 
chan<;e  in  the  conception  of  onlination  was  a  consequence  of  the 
prevalent  idea  of  a  priesthood.'  'i'he  cleri^y  has  assume(l  the  pre- 
roij^ative  of  mediation  between  Clod  and  man,  and  has  become  the 
channel  of  salvation  throui^h  the  disj)ensation  of  the  sacraments.' 

Another  important  chantje  noticed  near  the  close  of  the  second  or 
the  begiiniinLT  of  the  third  centur}'  is  in  the  method  of  The  choice  of 
the  election  of  bishoj»s.  Previously  the  bishop  had  been  bishops, 
chosen  by  the  peoi)le  and  api)roved  by  the  presbyters;^  now  the 
neitj^hbouring  bishops,  in  connection  with  the  presbytery,  nominated 
the  candidate  and  the  people  gave  their  assent;  but  even  this  degen- 
erated into  a  mere  right  of  protest  against  those  who  were  regarded 
as  impropi'r  candidates.''  A  like  cliange  is  observed  in  the  method 
of  ordination.  In  the  first  century  this  was  perfoi-med  by  the  apos- 
tles or  their  representatives,  associated  with  the  presbyters  of  the 
t'ongregation  over  which  the  bishop  was  to  preside;  but  in  the  sec- 
ond century  the  e])iscopate,  as  the  <lepositary  of  spiritual  gifts,  was 
summoned  to  the  consecration  of  the  indiviilual  bishops.  Tlie  ear- 
lier participation  of  the  presbyters  in  this  ordination  was  gradually 
lost  in  all  the  churches  except  the  Alexandrian. 

The  diocesan  episcopate  was  certainly  a  matter  of  dcvi'lopincnt. 
The  question  of  its  origin  has  been  much  debated.  It  Thf  e.^iscopncy 
can  with  confidence  be  said  that  no  other  than  a  congre-  a  dtnciopmcnt. 
gational  episco])acy  is  met  before  the  middle  of  the  second  century. 
A  society  em1»racing  but  a  single  city  is  the  realm  of  the  authority 
of  the  early  bishop,  and  he  was  so  thoroughly  identified  with  this 
single  congregation  that  his  removal  to  another  could  be  allowed 
only  in  rare  and  exceptional  cases. 

To  the  (piestion,  What  was  the  relation  of  the  bishops  and  their 

'  Ritsclil:    Op.  cit.,  s.  394,  el  a!. 

*  Gieseler:  Kirchrngeschirhfe,  4te  .\iifl..  Bd.  i,  ss.  228-2.3:{.  Hagcnbacli:  Dogmen- 
gesctiichte,  5te  Aiifl.,  s.  157. 

*  Kvcn  Cyprian  rocosnises  tliin  riqrlit.  "Plohs  ipsa  mnximam  habet  polcstim  vel 
olojjcncJi  digno3  vacerdotc-*.  vei  indiirnos  reciisamli." — Kp.  GS.  v.  Rlicinwjild:  Die 
lircfUiche  ArckcfAngi:,  s.  ."51.  *  Ep.  G7,  CC.  4,  5. 


352    ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

congregations  or  dioceses  to  each  other?  it  maybe  answered:  In 
,   the  second  century  these  possessed  and  maintained  a  aren- 

Relations       of  "^ .  -,  n  i  • 

bishops  to  each  eral  autonomy  or  independence.  But  tins  coukl  not  be 
°^^^^-  absolute.     This  has  ah'eady  been  noticed  in  the  case  of 

nomination  and  ordination.  The  severe  pressure  of  foes  from  with- 
out, and  the  threats  of  heretical  teachers  from  witliin,  compelled 
a  closer  union  of  the  various  congregations  for  mutual  protection 
against  both  these  dangers.  This  resulted  in  a  kind  of  s^niodical 
or  confederated  authority,  by  which  the  purity  of  doctrine  and  life 
might  be  guarded  and  the  heretical  and  incorrigible  be  exscinded. 
While  the  essential  autonomy  of  the  congregations  had  not  been 
infringed,  the  synodical  authority  was  justified  on  the  ground  of 
Bisbop  of  defence  against  a  common  danger.  In  this  college  the 
Rome.  Bishop  of  Rome  had  already,  in  the  second  centurj^, 

assumed  special  prominence,  so  that  it  became  a  recognised  prin- 
ciple that  the  individual  bishops  should  be  in  harmony  Avith  the 
Bishop  of  Rome  on  all  questions  of  doctrine  and  discipline.  At 
the  close  of  the  century,  Victor  "  was  the  first  who  advanced  those 
claims  to  universal  dominion  which  his  successors  in  later  ages  have 
always  consistently  and  often  successfully  maintained."  ' 

The  changes  which  the  presbyterate  underwent  during  the  first 
century  are  most  interestinij  and  important  to  notice. 

Change    in  •'  .  ^  •  r     i       t  •   i 

presbyteriai  The  gradual  increase  in  the  prerogatives  oi  the  bishops 
power.  necessarily  diminished  the  authority  and  dignity  of  the 

presbyteriai  body.  Its  former  significance  had  been  lost.  More- 
over, the  deacons  had  claimed  many  privileges  which  before  had 
belonged  to  the  presbyters.  Not  until  near  the  beginning  of  the 
third  centuiy  Avere  their  prerogatives  regained,  when  the  deacons 
were  placed  in  strict  subordination  to  the  presbyters.  The  distinc- 
tion which  Avas  afteinA^ard  so  prominent  is  already  beginning  to  as- 
sert itself.  While  presbyters,  as  Avell  as  bishops,  administer  the 
ordinances  of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  they  do  it  by  a  differ- 
ent authority.  The  bishop  acts  upon  an  original  and  independent 
authority;  the  presbyter  upon  authority  derived  from  the  sanction 
or  permission  of  the  bishop.  So  with  preaching,  reconciliation  of 
penitents,  confirmation  of  neophytes,  consecration  of  churches,  etc. 
The  right  to  ordain  seems  to  have  been  very  rarel}'-,  if  ever,  con- 
ceded to  the  presbyters  in  the  second  century.'' 

'  Lightfoot:    Op.  ciL,  p.  224. 

2  Bingham:  Antiquilies  of  the  Christian  Churrh.  bk.  ii.  chap.  iii.  The  exceptions 
urp:ed  by  others  in  tlie  practice  of  the  Alexandrian  Clnirch  are  understood  by  Bing- 
ham to  refer  to  election,  and  not  to  ordination.  Tiiis  view,  liowever,  has  been  gravelj' 
questioned,  and  is  by  some  regarded  untenable. 


ClU:i;CII  COXSTITl'TIOX-IKKN.Kl'S  TO  CO.NSTANTl.Ni:.     ;j,:;j 


CIIAPTEll    IV. 

Till';  ("liri{('Il  CONSTirUTION  from  IRRX^US  to  TllK  ACCESSION  ()!•' 

CONSTANTIXE. 

5  1.    The  Thcorxj  of  Ircnmis. 

TiiK  circumstanct's  oi  tlie  CIuhtIi  toward  tlic  close  of  the  second 

century  were  pecidiar.      Fearful  persecutions  had  visited  some  of  the 

]irovinces,  and  some  of  the  most  ))rominent  leaders  ha<l  sealed  their 

faith  by  a  martyr's  death.     Its  internal  state  was  n<»  more  assuring. 

The  prediction  of  Paul  tliat  after  iiis  de))arture  "shall 

'  .  '  .  Pcculiiircondl- 

sj^rievons   wolves  enter  m   amon^-  you,  nttt   spariMLT  the   tions    of    the 

Hock  "  (Acts  xx,  20),  had  been  fultiih'd,  and  his  exhorta-  ^''""■'■''• 
tion  to  Timothy  "  to  shun  profane  and  vain  babblintjs,  for  they  will 
increase  unto  more  ungodliness  "  (2  Tim.  ii,  10),  had  alreadv  been 
shown  to  be  urgently  neeiled.  Teachers  had  arisen  who,  by  wrench- 
inijf  the  Scriptures  from  their  natural  and  appropriate  meaning',  had 
constructed  systems  no  less  fantastic  and  i)aradoxical  than  they  were 
disturbinsjf  to  Christian  faith  and  corrupt inij  to  Christian  morals. 
The  system  of  alleijorical  inter[)retation  which,  throuirh  the  school  of 
Piiilo,  was  powerful  at  Alexandria,  had  become  wide-  q.,,,.  (;„osti<- 
s])read  throuLfh  the  influence  of  the  Gnostic  teachers,  iiinats. 
Whether  this  ])henomenal  manifestation  is  best  accounti'd  for  from 
the  syncretism  of  Jewish  and  Christian  thought  with  (iri'ck  specu- 
lation,' or  whether,  like  the  orthodo.x;  societies  themselves,  the 
(fuostics,  by  consulting  the  Greek  mysteries,  sought  a  j)ractical 
eiul,'  the  danger  which  they  brought  to  the  very  life  of  Christianitv 
was  real  and  fearful.  While  each  i)arty  recognised  the  fact  that 
Christianity  had  originatecl  with  Christ  and  was  jn-omnlgated  by 
his  apostles,  and  also  that  they  had  left  certain  authoritative  teacli- 
iiigs  which  must  be  heedi'd,  nevertheless  each  laid  claim  to  personal 
freedom  in  the  inter])retation  of  this  teaching,  and  was 
ready  to  attach  to  the  words  of  Christ  and  of  his  apos- 
tles the  meaning  which  was  most  accordant  with  its  own  opinions. 
Thus  was  the  Church  of  Christ  no  longer  aii  organism,  such  as 
had  been   so  vividly   portrayed   by    Paul    (1    Cor.    \ii,    l'J--'7;   Eph. 

'v.  .Foci:   Blicln:  in  <l!f  R-l)qions(jfisr.hkUI'\  Errnrfnoi  If.  Die  Gnosis.  Brcslnu,  1880. 
'  V.  Weincrarten:  in  Von  Svbel's  Historiche  Zeilschrift,  Bd.  xlv.  1881. 
23     "  ' 


C-5I    ARCILEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

iv,  25),  knit  together  by  faith  in  one  common  doctrine  and  com- 
pacted by  a  common  life,  but  the  teaching  of  Gnosticism  plainly 
resolved  Christian  doctrine  into  a  confused  conglomeration  of 
human  opinions,  and  Church  government  and  ordinances  into  mat- 
ters of  individual  caprice.  Hegesippus  vividly  pictures  the  condi- 
Testimony  of  ^ion  of  things.  From  these  (the  various  Gnostic  sects) 
Hegesippus.  sprang  the  false  Christs  and  false  prophets  and  false 
apostles  who  divided  the  unity  of  the  Church  by  the  introduction 
of  corrupt  doctrines  against  God  and  against  his  Christ.' 

Irenffius,  also,  is  powerful  in  his  portraitures,  and  unsparing  in 
irenEeus's testi-  ^^^  denunciation  of  false  teachers.  His  apprehension 
™o°y-  for  the  safety  of  the  Church  is  conspicuous  throughout 

his  entire  treatise."^  All  the  energies  of  his  vigorous  nature  seem 
enlisted  in  this  effort  to  throttle  the  foes  who  were  threatening  the 
life  of  the  Church,  and  to  settle  its  doctrine  upon  firm  foundations. 

What,  then,  is  the  principle  which  Irenasus  recognised  and  raain- 
The  principle  tained  in  the  controversy^  with  the  Gnostic  sects  ?  and 
of  irena^us.  what  influence  did  this  exert  upon  the  constitution  of 
the  Church  ?  The  answer  to  the  first  is  easily  found  in  the  writings 
of  Irenpeus  himself,  and  is  so  often  reiterated  that  we  cannot  be  in 
doubt  respecting  it.  In  the  midst  of  the  conflict  of  opinions  aris- 
ing from  the  freedom  of  individual  interpretation  of  the  Script- 
ures, he  maintained  that  the  supreme  and  only  standard  of  Chi-isi- 
ian  teaching  was  that  Avhich  was  given  b}^  the  apostles  to  the 
churches  in  their  day.  This  teaching  of  the  different  apostles  was 
essentially  harmonious,  and  was  authoritative  throughout  the  Christ- 
ian world  during  their  lifetime.  "We  have  learned  from  none 
,  others  the  i)lau  of  our  salvation  than  from  tliose  through 

Harmony       of  '  ,  ^ 

apostolic  teach-  whom  the  (xospel  has  come  down  to  us,  which  they  did 
'"^'  at  one  time  proclaim  in   public,  and,  at  a  later  period, 

by  the  will  of  God,  handed  down  to  us  in  the  Scriptures,  to  be  '  the 
ground  and  pillar  of  our  faith'  (1  Tim.  iii,  15).  .  .  .  For,  after 
our  Lord  rose  from  the  dead,  they  (the  a]>ostles)  were  invested  with 
power  from  on  high,  when  the  Holy  Spirit  came  do^\'n,  were  filled 
from  above  and  had  perfect  knowledge;  they  departed  to  the  ends  of 
the  earth  preaching  the  glad  tidings  of  good  things  from  God  to  us, 
and  proclaiming  the  peace  of  heaven  to  men,  who  indeed  do  all  equally 
and  individually  possess  the  Gospel  of  God.'  It  is  within  the 
power  of  all,  therefore,  in  every  church,  who  may  wish  to  see  the 
truth,  to  contemplate  clearly  the   tradition  of   the  apostles  mani- 

'Enscbins:    ffisf.  Eccles.,  iv,  22. 

^  Adrersus  fiivraes :  Last  edition  b}'  Il.irvey,  Cambridge.  1S57,  2  vols. 

^  Adversus  Hiereses,  iii,  1,  1. 


CHURCH  CONSTITUTIOX-IREX.ErS  TO  CONSTANTINE.    a.W 

fc'Sted  tlirout^liout  tlu-  wliok-  world. '"  '  Jiut  tn  wlnuii  did  the  apostles 
commit  this  only  and  autlKu-itativc  doct  liiic,  arnl  l»y  what  means  has 
it  been  lianded  down  to  Ii-cna-iis's  liiiic  imc()nt;iniinatiMl  by  itrror 
and  in  all  its  inteij^rity,  so  (hat  himself  and  his  adversaries  aliki'  can 
rest  in  it  as  the  word  of  Christ  'i  To  the  bishops  of  the  churches 
whicli  were  founded  by  the  apostles;  and  by  them  it  has  The  Wshops 
been  handed  down   in  an  uid>roken  line  of  succession  to   J.!'*'   ,*!,*;f"?"n" 

IK'S  of  UIXiHtullC 

his  day.  He  then  appeals  to  l^)nie,  the  best  known  and  uwhinK. 
most  influential  Church  of  the  time,  whose  episcopal  succession  lie 
traces  with  greatest  care.  He  also  mentions  the  well  known  church 
of  Smyrna,  which  had  had  a  succession  of  most  illustrious  men 
whose  teachinsjjs  had  been  heard  b)'- those  with  whom  a  rcRuiar  suc- 
Iren;x>us  and  many  of  his  contemporaries  had  conveiseil.'   w;*-"*'""- 

This  teaching  is,  then,  the  one  unchanging  rule  of  faitli,  rxjithi 
fidi'i,  preserved  by  an  infallible  tradition,  through  an  unbroken 
succession  of  bisho)»s  from  the  apostk's.  IrenaMis  maintains  tiiat 
the  episcopacy  is  the  ti-ue  depositary  of  the  apostolic  tradition, 
and  that  this  tradition  is  the  sure  ground  of  doctrinal  unity  and 
authoritative  teaching  in  the  Catholic  Church.'  Hence  wi'  find  that 
attempts  were  now  made  to  construct  lists  of  bishops  in  compiiaUon  of 
the  various  churches,  especially  in  Rome,  in  order  to  es-  "sts. 
tablish  this  continuity.''  To  confirm  this  historic  argument  was 
added  the  statement  that  to  guard  the  bishojts  against  error  they 
were  endowed  with  a  special  gift.  "  Wherefore  it  is  incumljent  to 
obey  the  presbyters  in  the  Church,  .  ,  .  wlio,  together  with  the  succes- 
sion of  the  episcopate,  have  received  the  certain  gift  of  trutli,  rhar- 
isrna  veritails,  according  to  the  good  ])leasure  of  the  Father."" 
"Where,  therefore,  the  gifts,  charismata,  of  thi'  T.ord  have  been 
placed,  there  it  behooves  us  to  learn  the  truth,  from  those  who  possess 
the  succession  of  the  Church  which  is  from  the  apostles,"  etc'  Such, 
then,  is  the  principle  which  he  defi-iided.      Witli  liim  botli  Hegesip- 

'  III.,  iii,  3,  1.  '  Id.,  iii.  3,  3,  -t ;  iii.  4,  1  :  iii,  f),  1.  el  a/. 

'Id.,  iv.  26,  1,  2;  V,  20,  2. 

*  These  catalogues  are  divided  into  two  general  classes,  characterized  in  a  broad 
and  general  way  as  the  Greek  and  the  Latin.  The  first  includes  the  lists  which  are 
found  in  the  second  century,  largely  those  of  Hegesippus  and  Iren.Tus;  and  in  the 
fourth  and  following  centuries,  those  of  Kuscbuis  and  his  successors.  Tiic  second 
class  embraces  the  lists  of  Auguslino,  Optatus  of  Milcve,  of  the  CataJogus  Liberianus, 
CataUigus  Filicianus,  the  Lib-r  Ponlificalis,  and  tiio  various  early  Afurlijrologies. 
Tiicse  catalogues  are  not  in  agreement  respecting  the  succession  of  the  curly 
Roman  bishops,  about  wliich  there  is  great  uncertainty.  Xor  are  the  modern  critics 
of  the.se  catalogues,  as  Duchene,  Harnacl\.  AVaitz,  Lipsius,  and  others,  nny  more  in 
accord  on  this  very  difficult  problem. 

» Id.,  iv,  26,  2.  « Id.,  iv.  20,  0. 


8jG     archaeology  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

pus  and  T'ertullian  are  in  substantial  agreement.^  The  manifest 
others  in  effect  of  sucli  a  theory  upon  the  constitution  and  govern- 
agreement.  ment  of  the  Church  was  to  magnify  the  relative  import- 
ance and  authority  of  the  bishops.  They  to  whom  were  entrusted 
truths  so  invaluable,  and  upon  whom  were  bestowed  such  extraordi- 
nary gifts,  must  be  reckoned  among  elect  ministers,  whose  persons 
were  of  superior  sanctity  and  whose  words  were  of  the  nature  of  di- 
vine messages.  "  The  supremacy  of  the  bishop  and  unity  of  doctrine 
were  conceived  as  going  hand  in  hand,  .  .  .  the  bishop's  seat  was 
conceived  as  being  what  St.  Augustine  calls  it,  the  'cathedra  uni- 
tatis;'  and  round  the  episcopal  office  revolved  the  whole  vast  ay  in- 
tern not  only  of  Christian  administration  and  Christian  organization, 
but  also  of  Christian  doctrine."  ^  The  earlier  opinion,  that  the 
Chui'ch,  as  such,  had  been  the  heir  of  the  truth  and  doctrine  of  the 
apostles  in  so  far  as  it  retained  the  presence  and  power  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  maintained  its  hold  on  many  minds,  and  even  Irenteus 
and  Tertullian  in  their  earlier  writings  are  imbued  with  this  thought. 
But  in  his  later  writings  Tertullian  teaches  that  the  bishop  holds  his 
office  by  virtue  of  inheritance  from  the  apostles,  and  both  Calixtus 
and  his  opponent,  Hippolytus,  insist  upon  their  succession  from  the 
apostles  by  virtue  of  which  alone  they  have  preserved  Christianity 
in  its  original  purity.' 

§  2.    The  Injiuence  of  Cyprian. 

In  the  third  century  the  constitution  of  the  Church  was  further 
developed  by  the  labors  and  writings  of  Cyprian,  who  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  foremost  exponent  of  the  ecclesiastical  and  episcopal 
sentiment  of  his  age.  The  principle  of  the  unity  of  doctrine  and  of 
authoritative  teaching  is  pushed  still  farther  than  by  Irenreus, 
Hegesippus,  and  Tertullian.  With  Cyprian  the  unity  of  the  Church 
,  ,^     is  absolutely  identified  with  that  of  the  e])iscopate.    The 

Unity     of    the  -^  .  .  t       ^  ^• 

Church  identi-  prmciple  of  the  episcopacy  is  not  only  the  apostolic  suc- 
'^^^  cession,  but  much  more  the  bestowment  upon  the  bishops 

of  the  Holy  Ghost;  so  that  the  unity  of  the  Church  is  secured  by  a 
double  means,  namely,  a  direct  and  unbroken  succession  from  the 
apostles  and  the  communication  to  all  bishops  alike  of  a  common 
With  unity  of  ^pii'it.  Where  this  spirit  is  vouchsafed,  there  the  unity 
episcopacy.  of  the  Church  must  necessarily  be  secured,  for  in  its 
presence  diverse  opinions  and  teachings  must  be  impossible.    "  There 

'Tertullian:  de  prcescr.  Haer.,  c.  21.      Communicamus  cum  ecclosiis  apostolicis, 
quod  nulla  doctrina  di versa,  hoc  est  testimonium  veritatis. 

*  Hatch:    Op.  ciL,  pp  98,  99.     Baur  :    Christenthum,  etc.,  ss.  284,  285. 

^v.  Harnack:  Lehrhuch  der  Dogmengeschichte,  Fieibjwg,  18SG,  Bd.  i,  s.^.  295-97. 


CHURCH  CONSTITUTION— IREN^US  TO  CONSTANTINE.    357 

is  OIK'  (ioil,  iind  Christ  is  ouv,  ;ui(l  (litTf  is  (hii-  ("hiircli,  ami  one 
(.•hair  fouiKk'd  iiitoii  tln'  rock  l»y  tlu'  word  of  tlu-  Lord.  Aiiollicr 
altar  caiiiiot  bi'  c-oiislituted,  or  a  lu'w  |»ricstIioo(|  made  cxcfiit  the 
OIK'  altar  and  the  one  priesthood."'  Eaeh  bisliop  must  he  of  the 
same  mind  as  every  otiier  bishop;  in  the  ejtiseopate  no  iii<lividiial 
exists  for  liiiuself,  but  is  only  a  UK'inber  of  a  wider  orj^^anie  whole. 
"Aiul  this  unity  we  oui^ht  firmly  to  hold  and  assert,  especially  those 
of  us  who  are  bishops  who  jireside  in  the  Church,  that  we  may 
also  prove  the  episcopate  itself  to  be  one  and  undivi<le<l.  .  .  .  The 
ei)iscopate  is  one,  each  part  of  which  is  held  by  each  one  for  the 
whole.""  I>ut  in  the  development  of  the  idea  of  unity  Cyprian 
passes  beyond  his  predecessors  in  that  he  rej^ards  this  whiih  pro- 
unity  as  proceeding  from  one  iletermiiiate  [)oint — tiK'  ^.,,^,p  ^j  g^^ 
chair  of  St.  Peter.  While  the  other  apostles  were  of  p««^''-- 
like  honor  and  authority  with  Peter  himself,  nevertheless  to  Peter 
Christ  first  gave  power  to  institute  and  show  forth  this  unity 
to  the  world.'  The  chair  of  St.  Peter  is  the  foremost  Church 
whence  priestly  unity  is  derived,*  and  the  same  unifying  power 
must  be  recognised  as  in  every  one  who  has  occupied  the  same  chair. 
Outside  the  one  Church  the  sacranu'iits  are  unavailing,  although 
administered  by  the  regular  formula  and  in  proper  mode.  "  For  as, 
in  that  baptism  of  the  world,  in  which  its  ancient  iniquity  was 
purged  away,  he  who  was  not  in  the  ark  of  Noah  could  not  be 
saved  by  water,  so  can  he  neither  appear  to  l)e  saved  by  baptism 
who  has  not  been  baptized  in  the  Church  which  is  established  in 
the  unity  of  the  Lord  according  to  the  sacrameut  of  the  one  ark.'""" 
With  the  idea  of  apostolic  succession  is  connected  the  ride  of 
faith  as  a  mark  and  proof  of  the  Catholic  Church.  To  the  (h)ctrine 
of  an  authoritative  subjective  knowledge.  Gnosis,  enjoined  by  a 
chosen  few,  Cyprian  stoutly  oj)poses  the  objective  norm  power  of  tra- 
of  faith.  Tradition  is  now  elevated  to  a  place  of  abso-  <iiU'>'>- 
lute  authority.  The  bishops  are  the  guardians  of  Church  unity. 
Although  the  term  Catholic  Church,  ij  KadokiKj)  EKKXr^aia.  had  been 
Krst  used  by  Ignatius, '  and  is  found  in  Tertullian  and  Clcnu'iit  of 
Alexandria,  yet  it  was  used  in  a  sense  quite  dilTi-rent  from  that 
found  in  ('yj)rian.  Not  until  his  time  can  we  properly  sj)eak  of  a 
Catholic  Church;  since  ik)w  for  the  first  time  is  seen  the  distinction 
between  the  acts  of  a  minister  of  the  congregation  and  the  duties  of 

'  Kp.  .S9,  c.  5.  '  De  unilale  eccleiuv.  c.  5. 

^  De  unit,  eccles.,  c.  4 ;   Rp.  7;^,  c.  1 1.  Unde  uniuitis  oripincrn  instituit  et  osleiidit 

■*  Kp.  54,  c.  14.     Ciitliedra  Petri  est  ecclcsia  principulis  uudo  iiiiit;is  saccrdolalia 
cxorta  est. 

*Ep.  73,  c.  11.  *ad  Smym.,  c.  8, 


358    ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

an  officer  of  the  Church  Catholic.  The  society  or  congregation  is 
properly  the  logical  antecedent,  the  necessar^'^  condition  of  an  office 
therein.  But,  contrariwise,  when  the  office  and  the  officer  are  held 
to  be  the  logical  antecedent,  and  the  congregation  can  only  there 
be  found  where  the  office  and  the  officer  are  already  existent,  then 
first  can  there  strictly  be  said  to  be  an  office  and  an  officer  of  the 
Church  Universal.  So  that  in  the  third  century  the  bishop  is  no 
longer,  as  before,  regarded  as  the  representative  of  a  specific  con- 
gregation or  society,  but  of  the  universal  Church;  this  last  term 
The  bishop  no  ^^®^^^§'  inclusive  of  all  the  congregations,  as  the  genus  in- 
longer  local,  eludes  under  it  all  its  species.  According  to  this  view 
ut  genera .  ^j^^  congregation  and  its  entire  officiary  would  have 
ecclesiastical  validity  only  through  the  bishop.  Nevertheless,  since 
there  now  exists  a  complete  harmony  of  the  mind  and  will  of  Christ 
with  the  collected  body  of  bishops,  everj^  expression  of  the  will  of 
every  bishop  in  this  totality  of  the  episcopate  must  harmonize  with 
the  divine  will.  Only  thus  can  any  bishop  assume  to  exercise  direc- 
tion or  authority  in  the  Church  of  Christ.  For  the  assumption  of 
a  prerogative  so  arrogant,  a  special  charism  is  imparted  in  the  i-ite 
of  ordination.  To  the  Montanistic  view,  that  the  Holy  Spirit  re- 
veals added  truth  to  each  individual,  was  opposed  the  teaching 
that  the  Spirit  and  the  Church  are  inseparably  connected.  The 
Church  finds  the  fact  of  its  existence  and  unfolding  in  the  Spirit, 
and  the  Spirit  finds  the  organ  and  means  of  his  manifestation  in  the 
Church.  To  the  vague  and  arbitrary  claim  that  each  man  was  spe- 
cially enlightened,  and  was,  therefore,  prepared  to  teach  new  truth, 
was  opposed  the  consensus  of  teaching  of  the  one  hoi}''  Catholic 
Church  which  had  been  saved  from  error  by  the  Hol}^  Spirit.'  ■ 

By  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  ordination  the  mind  and  will 
By  ordination  of  the  bisliop  are  brought  into  harmony  with  the  mind 
is  this  effected,  and  will  of  Christ,  and  he  receives  thereby  authority 
not  only  to  teach  but  to  bind  and  loose ;  ^  thus  becoming  the  source 
of  all  valid  Church  discipline  and  government.  The  bishops  are 
the  successors  of  the  apostles,  and,  therefore,  by  virtue  of  a  vica- 
rious ordination,  have  the  power  to  remit  sins.'  Every  truly  ecclesi- 
astical act  is  of  the  nature  of  a  divine  law,  since  it  is  suggested  and 
dictated  by  the  Spirit  voiichsafed  to  the  bishop  in  the  rite  of  ordi- 
nation.   "  No  bishop,  no  Church,"  is  the  real  teaching  of  this  father.^ 

'  Baur:  Das  O hrMenihum,  etc.,  ss.  296,  297. 
^  V.  Ritschl:    Op.  cit,  s.  582;  Baur:    Op.  ciL,  ss.  296-300. 

^  Ep.  74  (75),  c.  16.     Witli  Cj'^prian  schism  and  iieresy  are  absolutely  identical. 
*  V.  Ep.  66,  c.  8.    Scire  debes,  episcopam  in  ecclesia  ct  ecclesi;mi  in  episcopo,  el  si 
qui  cum  episcopo  non  sit,  in  ecclesia  non  esse. 


CHURCH  CONSTITUTION— IREN/EUS  TO  CONSTANTINE.    350 

The  various  bishops  cxt-rcise  hut  one  oflice  in  coiniiioii;  uotwilh- 
standincf  the  division  into  dioceses,  they  represent  tiie  unity  and 
totality  of  the  Ciuirch.' 

§  ',].    Tlic  Snnrtlotul  Priiicijile. 

Tlie  sacer(h»t:d  c-liaracter  of  the  cpisc-opacy,  as  we  liuvc  hct'orc  in- 
timated, had  been  mildly  asserted  prior  to  the  third  een-  (jrowihof  suc- 
tury.  Yet  probably  not  even  In-nu'iis  can  be  claimed  •^rdoiaiis.n. 
as  teaching;  more  than  a  moral  pricstliood,  and  this  luit  limited  ti» 
any  sinule  order  in  the  Church.  Nor  can  the  Ircipicnt  rcfcri'iiccs  of 
Tertullian'  to  a  sacerdotal  office  be  understood  as  pcrtainiui,'  t(.  tlu' 
clero-y  alone,  much  less  to  tlu'  bishops.  Indeed,  tliis  able  i)rcsbytcr 
is  positive  in  his  assertions  that  a  Church  may  exist  without  the 
presence  of  the  clergy,  and  that  in  their  absence  laymen  may  bap- 
tize and  celebrate  the  eucharist  by  virtue  of  tiieir  beinij^  members  (»!' 
Christ's  universal  Church,  all  of  whose  members  have  become 
"kings  and  priests  unto  the  Lord."'  Quite  similar  views  are  held 
by  Origen.  At  most  his  sacerdotalism  goes  no  further  than  in  suit- 
posing  that  the  priestly  character  and  function  of  the  clergy  are  not 
an  original  and  necessary  endowment  of  this  order,  but  lather  it  is 
derived  from  the  congregation,  which,  for  the  time  being  and  foi- 
purposes  of  ecclesiastical  order,  has  delegated  to  the  ^^  ^^^^^  ^^^^ 
bishops  its  own  indefeasible  right.  The  oftice-bearers  priesUio.xi  ..f 
of  the  Church  represent  in  themselves  the  character  and  |:^;;j,^„*;,[j*;,|; 
religious  privileges  of  the  entire  body  of  believers;  "the  priosthmid  of 
priesthood  of  the  ministry  is  regarded  as  springing  from  J^J,";^^^^"^''''' 
the  priesthood  of  the  whole    bmly." ' 

But  by  Cyprian  a  new  and  most  imi)ortant  phase  of  the  sacerdotal 
question  is  developed.    From  his  time  the  bishop  is  truly   ^     ,,j„.g^.,p„. 
the  priest,  and  the  separation  between  clergy  and  laity  is 
real  and  significant.    All  the  duties  and  prerogatives  that  jtertaiiu-d  to 

'  1'.  (le  unilate  ecckaia,  c.  o.  Kpiscopatns  iiiius  eat  cuius  a  siugulis  in  soliduin  para 
tenetur. 

*  De  Exhort.  Ca.'<l.,  c.  7;  de  nuptismo,  c.  17  ;  de  Prcescr.  Ifpres.,  c.  4\.  el  nl. 

3  "  Tlie  sacerdotal  conceptiou  of  iho  ministry  is  not  found  in  Ignatius,  in  Clement 
of  Rome,  or  Clement  of  Alexandria,  in  .Tuslin,  or  in  Iremeus,  or  in  any  otlior  ecclesi- 
astical writer  prior  to  Tertuliian."     v.  Fislier:    The  Beginnvvis  of  Christutnity,  p.  55:$. 

*  In  this  there  was  a  very  close  parallelism  to  the  priestly  notion  (compare  Kxod. 
xi.x,  G;  Lev.  x.x,  26;  Dent,  xxxi,  H),  wilh  1  Pet.  ii,  5  mid  9;  Rev.  i.  G;  v.  10)  as  it 
w^.s  orifciually  conceived  in  the  Jewisli  Ciiurch.  v.  Biihr:  SijmMik  d.  masui-cie  i 
Cultw-;  Bd.  ii,  S3.  11-22.  "Was  das  Volk  im  woiten,  prossen  Kre'so.  das  isl  dcr 
Priesierstand  im  kleinern,  enj^orn,  besondercrn  Kreise:  in  iiim  concentrirt  sich  doni- 
nach  die  rcliiriose  Wiirde  des  gosa-nrnten  Volkes;  alios  \v:is  dieses  ziikoinnil  isl  ilim 
in  hohcicm  Grade  und  darum  audi  in  vollereui  Masse  eijjen."  s.  13. 


360    ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

the  Aaronic  priesthood  he  devolves  upon  tlie  Christian  ministry,  and 
all  the  threats  of  punishment  and  disaster  uttered  against  the  Jews 
for  their  disobedience  to  their  ])riests  Cyprian  likewise  makes  to  apply 
to  all  who  are  disobedient  to  the  ministers  of  the  Christian  Church.' 
The  effect  of  this  triumph  of  the  sacerdotal  principle  will  appear 
when  we  come  to  treat  of  the  sacraments,  their  nature  and  import. 
.    ,  .        Whether  this  result  was  due  to  the  influence  of  Jewish- 

Wa"  It  of  Jew- 
ish or  pagan  or-   Christian   or  of   Gentile   churches   is   still   a   matter   of 

'^'"'  debate.     Lightfoot  decides  for  the  latter:  "Indeed,  the 

hold  of  the  Levitical  priesthood  on  the  mind  of  the  pious  Jew  must 
have  been  materially  weakened  at  the  Christian  era  by  the  develop- 
ment of  the  synagogue  organization  on  the  one  hand  and  b}^  the 
ever-growing  influence  of  the  learned  and  literary  classes,  the  scribes 
and  rabbis,  on  the  other.  The  points  on  which  the  Judaizers  of  the 
apostolic  age  insist  are  the  rite  of  circumcision,  the  distinction  of 
meats,  the  observance  of  the  Sabbaths,  and  the  like.  The  necessity 
of  a  priesthood  was  not,  or  at  least  is  not,  known  to  have  been  a 
L'ghtfoot's  pS'^'t  <^i  their  programme.  .  .  .  But,  indeed,  the  over- 
opinion,  whelming  argument  against  ascribing  the  growth  of 
sacerdotal  views  to  Jewish  influence  lies  in  the  fact  that  there  is  a 
singular  absence  of  distinct  sacerdotalism  during  the  first  century 
and  a  half,  where  alone  on  any  showing  Judaism  was  powerful 
enough  to  impress  itself  on  the  belief  of  the  Church  at  large. 

"  It  is  therefore  to  Gentile  feeling  that  this  development  must  be 
ascribed.  For  the  heathen,  familiar  with  the  auguries,  lustrations, 
sacrifices,  and  depending  on  the  intervention  of  some  priest  for  all 
tlie  manifold  religious  rites  of  the  state,  the  club,  and  the  family, 
the  sacerdotal  functions  must  have  occupied  a  far  larger  space  in 
the  affairs  of  every-da}^  life  than  for  the  Jew  of  the  dispersion,  who, 
of  necessity,  dispensed  and  had  no  scruple  in  dispensing  Avith  priest- 
ly ministrations  from  one  year's  end  to  the  other.  With  this  pre- 
sumption drawn  from  probability  the  evidence  of  fact  accords."  ^ 

We  have  before  said  {i\  p.  343)  that  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem 
was  powerful  in  modifying  the  prevailing  Jewish  sacerdotal  notion; 
yet  Lightf oot's  reasons  are  very  imy)ortant.  It  is  probably  true  that 
neither  branch  of  the  early  Church  was  unfavourable  to  this  thought, 
after  the  warm  religious  feeling  of  the  apostolic  Church  had  some- 
what subsided.  One  sure  result  of  a  spiritual  declension  is  to  dimin- 
ish the  feeling  of  individual  worth  and  responsibility,  to  magnify 
forms,  and  delegate  to  others  duties  which  were  before  regarded  as 
personal. 

Moreover,  the  reasons  already  given  for  a  more  thorough  and 

1  Ep.  54,  64,  68.  "^  Op.  cit,  p.  200. 


CIUKCII  roXSTITlTIOX-IRKX.EUS  TO  ("ONSTANTINE.     3G1 

compact  fcc'K'siastical  orLjaiii/.atioii  afliT  tlic  middle  of  the  second 
ueiitury  would  apply  witli  eipial  force  to  the  <piestioii  of  the  oriLt'iii 
of  sacei'dolalism  in  the  ("liristiaii  Chmcli.  A  ceiiire  of  oi'ij^aiiizatioii 
would  soon  carry  witli  it  peculiar  preroi;atives,  ami  unity  of  <h)clriiie 
and  irovernmeiit  would  imply  an  authoiity  to  interpret  and  enforce 
this  unity.  'I'his  oilicial  class  would  naturally  seek  for  all  possilile 
sanctions  for  the  exercise  of  such  extraordinary  powers,  and  to  ic- 
c;ard  tliese  as  divinely  bestowed  was  entirely  consonant  with  tlu- 
historical  develop?neiit  of  Judaism  and  of  the  heatlu'n  religions. 

In  answering  the  ipiestion  of  tlie  source  of  this  principle,  it  is 
however,  of  first  importance  to  study  the  opinions  of  the  Christian 
fatliers  tliemselves.  It  mii^ht  be  expected  tliat  in  tlie  varied  and 
extensive  writini^s  of  men  by  whom  the  sacerdotal  notion  was  first 
sanctioned  and  deftiidid  the  references  to  a  Gentile  ori<;in  might 
be  fre(iuent.  Thoroughly  conversant  with  heathen  customs  and  re- 
ligious rites,  as  well  as  with  profane  literature  and  civil  law,  and 
converted  to  C/hristianity  in  mature  life,  Tertidlian  and  Cy |)rian 
were  the  men  best  aetpiainted  with  the  origin  of  the  priestly  notion, 
and  with  the  source  of  the  change  which  passed  upon  the  ecclesias- 
tical polity  from  the  close  of  the  second  to  the  middle  of  the  third 
century.  Vet  in  the  writings  of  neither  of  these  eminent  fathers  is 
there  an  intimation  that  the  sacerdo;al  principle  was  suggested  by 
(Tcntile  customs.  On  the  contrary,  they  uniformly  derive  their  no- 
tions of  the  character,  and  enforce  the  authority,  of  the  clergy  l)y 
I'xamples  from  the  Jewish  Church  and  from  the  prerogatives  of  the 
Aaronic  ])riesthood.'  p"'roTn  these  coTisiderations  it  may  be  fairly 
inferred  that  in  tlu'  Jewish  economy,  as  well  as  in  the  religious  cus- 
t(»ms  with  which  the  (Tcntili'  converts  were  entirely  familiar,  the 
sacerdotal  principle  in  the  Church  of  the  third  century  found  its 
origin  and  sanction. 

§  4.    The  Apostolic  Constitutions. 

Another  class  of  wiitings  illustrating  the  nature  and  develop- 
ment of  the  early  Church  government  are  the  "  A])ostolic  Constitu- 
tions."^ The  first  six  l)ooks,  probably  belonging  to  the  latter  half 
of  the  third  century,  ai'c  plainly  Jewish-Christian  in  their  spirit  and 
teaching.  A  strong  likeiuss  to  the  pseudo-Clementine  homilies  is 
everywhere  noticeable.  The  episcopate  is  very  strongly  em|»ha- 
sizeil.      The  bishop  is  the  vicar  of  the  unseen  Lord  Christ,  and  is  to 

'  V.  for  Cj'priiin,  ep.  CA.  c.  4 ;  ep.  (I",  c   3 ;  op.  72,  c.  8.  et  al. 

*  V.  otlitidii  of  P.  A.  LiijT.irdp,  Loip/.ijr.  1S(>2:  also  the  criiiciil  cliscii.ssioiis  and  e.sti- 
mates  of  Drey:  Neue  Unli-rsuchuui/fn  iilu-f  die  Coivstitut.  u.  Ktitunie-i  d.  .lj;o,sfc/«,  Tiibiii- 
gcu,  1832;  and  Bickell:    Ge-schichte  d.  Kirchenrecltts,  Giesseii,  1843. 


363    ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

exorcise  leadership  and  watch-care  until  the  Lord  shall  come  again.' 
The  Church  is  regarded  as  a  divine  state,  in  which  the 
hishop  exercises  the  highest  functions  of  judge,  prophet, 
and  priest.  His  judicial  power  in  civil  matters  is  supreme.^  By 
virtue  of  complete  knowledge  conferred  by  the  Holy  Si)irit  he  be- 
comes the  infallible  i)rophet  and  teacher;  to  him,  as  high-priest,  ex- 
clusively belongs  the  right  to  arrange  the  services  of  divine  wor- 
ship,and  to  be  the  spiritual  director  of  the  flock.'  With  him  rests  the 
original  authoritative  rule  of  faith  as  given  by  the  apostles.  These 
writings  give  minutest  directions  respecting  ordination.  This  must 
Ordination,  ^6  conferred  by  three  bishops  at  least;  only  in  case  of 
how  effected,  extreme  need  is  the  work  of  two  regarded  as  canonical. 
The  act  of  ordination  does  not,  however,  as  in  the  opinion  of  Cypri- 
an, confer  upon  the  candidate  special  spiritual  gifts.^  The  sacerdo- 
tal character  of  the  episcopacy  is  even  more  pronounced  than  in  the 
writings  of  Cyprian.  In  these  writings  the  constitution  of  the 
Ci'hurch  and  the  character  of  its  government  are  those  of  a  thor- 
oughly unified,  closely  compacted,  and  widely  recognised  organiza- 
tion, in  which  are  found  nearly  all  the  germs  of  the  powerful  hier- 
archy whose  influence  was  so  controlling  for  nearly  a  thousand  years. 
Thus  in  the  process  of  two  and  a  half  centuries  the  constitution  of 
the  Church  underwent  several  important  changes.  The  origin  and 
cause  of  these  are  at  times  veiled  in  deep  obscurity.  The  great 
paucity  of  evidence,  both  documentary  and  monumental,  the  doubt 
attaching  to  the  genuineness  and  integrity  of  some  of  the  writings 
which  have  survived,  and  the  great  difficulties  of  their  interpreta- 
tion give  occasion  for  the  honest  maintenance  of  different  theories. 
Affected  by  its  But  a  careful  examination  of  the  history  justifies  tlie 
environment,  conclusion  that  tlicse  changes  v/ere  effected  more  by 
the  peculiar  influences  incident  to  the  propagation  of  a  new  relig- 
ion than  to  either  a  directly  divine  institution  or  to  a  set  ])urpose 
on  the  part  of  the  Church  leaders.  The  ecclesiastical  organization 
which  we  find  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century  is  but  a  nat- 
ural outcome  of  the  peculiar  forces  which  pressed  up(Mi  the  Church 
fuom  within  and  from  without.     A  com])act  unitv  of 

Cliurcli  Kovern-      '  i  c   i    <>  "       i 

ment  a  devei-  both  doctrine  and  disciphne  for  self-defence  comported 
opment.  with  the  idea  of  an  office  and  officer  who  should  thor- 

oughly embody  that  unity  in  himself,  and  who  should  be  prepared 
for  the  high  responsibility  of  maintaining  this  unity  through  direct 
inspiration  of  knowledge  and  purity  by  the  Holy  Spirit. 

1  Con.st.,  ii,  20.         nd.,ii.  11,45  5:1         ^  id.,  ii,  27,  33  ;  iii,  10.         ^d..  viii,  4,  5. 


OFFICES  AND  OFFICFUS  OF  POST-AFOSTOI.lC  (  IIUIICII.     -.W.i 


CHAPTER  V. 

TIIK  OFFICES  AND  OFFICIORS  OF  THE  POST-APOSTOLIC  CHURCH. 

§  1 .    Origin  of  Episcopicy. 

From   this  examiiKitiou   it  will  aj)i)ear  loss  surprising  that  dif- 
ferent opinions   have  been  entertained   respecting  the 
origin    or     the    ejnseopacy.         llnvc    general     the-oru-s 
have  been  urged  with  givat  ability  by  their  respective  advocates: 

1.  Episcopacy  is  of   ai)()st()lic  origin.      The  apostles  chose  and 

ordained  men  to  be  their  true   and   lawful  successors  as 

I  1  <•     1       y  ,1     •     •         y  ,1  1         mi  ¥xrf.l  theory, 

teachers  and  governors  ot  the  (  hristian  Ciiurch.      1  hese 

men  were  clothed  with  like  authority  and  endowed  with  like  spirit- 
ual gifts  as  the  apostles  themselves  in  order  to  jtreserve  intact 
the  teachings  and  spirit  of  Clirist,  who  instituted  the  apostolate. 
The  advocates '  of  this  theory  urge  the  following  considerations: 
I.)  The  position  of  James,  who  stood  at  the  head  of  the  Church 
of  Jerusalem.  2.)  The  office  of  the  assistants  and  delegates  of 
the  apostles,  as  Timothy,  Titus,  Silas,  Epapliroditus,  Luke,  etc.,  who 
in  a  measure  represented  the  apostles  in  speeilie  cases.  :5.)  The 
angels  of  the  seven  Asiatic  churches,  who,  it  is  claimed,  were  of  the 
rank  of  bishop.  4.)  The  testimony  of  Ignatius  presupposes  the 
episcopate  as  already  in  existence.  5.)  The  statement  of  Clement 
of  Alexandria  that  John  instituted  bishops  after  his  return  from 
Patmos;  also  the  accounts  of  Ireiueus,  Tertullian,  Eusebius,  and 
Jerome  that  the  same  apostle  nominatetl  and  onlained  Polycarp  as 
bisliop  of  Smyrna.  »i.)  Tiu'  ti'aditions  of  the  churches  of  Ant  inch 
and  lioine,  which  trace  their  liiu'  of  l)islioj»s  back  to  apo>tolic  insti- 
tution and  kt'cp  the  record  of  an  uiibroki'ii  succession.  7.)  The 
almost  universal  and  uncontested  spread  of  the  episcopate  in  the 
second  century,  which  it  is  conceded  by  all  cannot  be  sat isfai-torily 
explained  without  the  presumption  of  at  least  tlie  iinlinct  sanction 
of  the  ai)Ostles.' 

2.  It  originated  in  the  so  called  household   socii-ties  or  congrega- 

'  This  i.s  tlio  view  of  the  Greek  Clniroli.  and  is  ombracod  l)v  most  of  tlic  Rnmnn 
Catholics  and  the  Iligli  Anfrhcans.  It  i.s  al.so  advocated  by  nunsL-n,  liotlie,  Tliier.seli, 
and  a  few  other  Protc.stmt  scliohirs. 

-'  Abridged  from  SchatV:  Op.  cil.,  vol.  ii,  pp.  13o-139.  Rotlic  i.s  the  most  able 
modern  defender  of  this  theory. 


364    ARCFLEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNItlENT. 

tions.  The  following  considerations  are  urged  by  this  school:  1.)  It 
is  well  known  that  in  the  more  important  cities  single 
families  gathered  in  the  house  of  a  well  known  disciple, 
and  thus  Avere  formed  the  so  called  family  societies  or  churches 
[eKicXrjaia  Kar'  oIkov).  2.)  The  foremost  person  among  the  disciples 
thus  banded  together  was  called  to  extend  his  patronage  or  pro- 
tection to  the  society  thus  formed.  This  family  patronage  is  men- 
tioned in  the  Scriptures,'  as  well  as  in  the  letters  of  Ignatius.*  It 
seems  to  have  been  quite  generally  recognised  at  Rome,  and  there 
are  clear  intimations  of  its  prevalence  at  Corinth.^  Afterward, 
when  these  family  churches,  over  each  of  which  such  patron  presided, 
were  united  into  one  congregation,  a  college  of  presbyters  or  patrons 
would  thus  be  formed,  to  whose  president  was  given  the  title  of 
bishop,  eTTLOKOTTog.     In  this  manner  the  episcopate  originated.'' 

3.    A  third  theory  has  been  well   formulated  as  follows:  "  The 
episcopate  was  formed  not  out  of  the  apostolic  order  by 

Third  tbeory  .        .  .  . 

localization,  but  out  of  the  presbyterial  by  elevation ;  and 
the  title,  which  originally  was  common  to  all,  came  at  length  to  be 
appropriated  to  the  chief  among  them."  ^  In  other  M'ords,  the  episco- 
pate, as  a  distinct  office,  was  of  post-apostolic  origin,  was  not  a  dis- 
tinctively divine  institution,  and  therefore  not  an  office  necessary 
to  the  existence  of  the  Christian  Church.  It  was  the  result  of 
peculiar  circumstances,  a  development  from  the  needs  which  the 
early  Church  felt  for  unification  of  government  and  doctrine, 
and  for  the  more  careful  oversight  and  administration  of  its 
charities.  The  facts  urged  b}^  the  advocates  of  this  theory  are: 
1.)  The  almost  universally  conceded  identity  of  bishops  and  pres- 
byters in  the  writings  of  the  New  Testament.  2.)  This  identity  of 
terms  continues  to  the  close  of  the  first  century,  and  even  into  the 
second;  at  least  there  is  no  clearly  conceived  difference,  and  they 
seem  to  be  used  interchangeably  or  very  loosel}^  3.)  From  the  first 
century  down  to  tlie  beginning  of  the  third  it  was  the  custom  of 
the  influential  Church  of  Alexandria  to  recognise  twelve  presbyters. 
From  this  number  tlie  body  elected  and  consecrated  a  president,  to 
whom  they  gave  the  title  of  bishop.  They  then  elected  one  to  take 
his  place  in  the  presbyterial  body.     It  is  also  ])robable  that  to  the 

'  Rom.  xvi,  ]4,  15  ;   1  Cor.  xvi,  19. 

*  Ad  Ejilies.,  c.  5,  6,  8,  13,  20  ;  ad  Smyrn.,  c.  1,  2,  1,  8,  et  al. 

n  Cor.  i,  16;  xvi,  15,  19. 

*For  the  iufluence  of  these  house  or  family  societies  upon  tlie  development  of 
ecclesiastical  architecture,  v.  bk.  i,  ch.  vi.  This  is  substantially  the  theory  of  Baur, 
Kist,  Weingarteu,  Heiurici,  Hase,  and  others,  v.  especially  Baur  :  tfber  den  Ursprung 
des  Episcopats,  ss.  85,  90,  107,  et  al. 

*Lightfoot:    Op.  cit,  p.  196. 


OFFICES  AND  OFFICERS  OF  POST- APOSTOLIC  CHURCH.    305 

end  of  tlie  second  century  the  hislioj)  of  Alexandria  was  the  only 
bishop  in  all  KiXypt.'  4.)  Jerome  distinctly  attirnis  that  tlie  Church 
was  oriijinally  s^ovcrniMl  hy  a  body  of  presbyters,  and  that  the 
l)ish()i)  was  elected  at  a  later  jx'riod  to  secui-e  unity  of  (htctrine  and 
iroverninent.  In  other  words,  it  was  a  juiidential  measure  and  not 
a  divine  institution. 

§  3.    The  Preshyters,  Deacons,  Deaconesses,  etc. 

The  effect  of  the  efforts  of  Ireiueus  and  TertuUian  to  secure  aunilicd 
and  authoritative  doctrine,  re(jul(i  Jidel,  and  of  ("yprian,  Calixtus,  and 
Ilegesippus  to  realize  the  idea  of  "a  holy  Catholic  Church,"  through 
the  supervision  of  bishops  who  should  exercise  their  prerogatives 
by  virtue  of  an  uid)roken  succession  from  the  ajiostles.  Duties  and  pre- 
necessarily  conferred  upon  the  cpiscoi»al  office  a  dignity  roRatives. 
and  an  importance  before  unknown.  The  difference  between  them 
and  the  body  of  presbyters  and  the  deacons  became  more  dis- 
tinct, and  the  duties  and  i)rerogatives  of  each  were  more  sharply 
defined  and  carefully  guarded.  The  division  of  the  Church  into 
clergy  and  laity  became  more  positive  than  before.  The  clergy  are 
now  priests  to  serve  at  the  altar,  to  minister  for  the  people.  But 
both  clergy  and  laity  are  alike  subject  to  the  authority  of  the 
l)ishop.     Cyprian  had  also  the  energy  to  enforce  these  jtrovisions. 

The  rights  which  all  members  of  the  Church  ha<l  enjoyed  in  the 
first  and  early  ]»art  of  the  second  century  were,  under  IrenaMis  and 
Cvprian,  largely  ignored,  and  in  the  times  after  Cy])rian  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  Church  more  and  more  disallowed  the  claims  j  j^^jj.,,),,,,  „f 
of  the  laity  to  a  participation  in  government.  These  riRiits  of  tii.- 
])rivileges  of  private  members  were  curtailed  to  almost  ^^^' 
the  same  degree  as  the  infiuence  of  the  bishops  increased."  The 
laity  could  be  present  at  the  assemblies  of  the  church,  and  could 
approve  any  decision  which  had  been  reached  by  the  presbyterial 
council.  But  this  was  oidy  a  matter  of  form,  and  their  failure  to 
approve  was  not  of  the  nature  of  a  veto,  since  the  prevailing  theory 
was  that  the  presbyterial  council  was  under  the  special  guidance  of 
the  Holy  Spirit,  and  hence  that  its  conclusions  were  not  to  be  set 
aside.  The  presbyters  now  perform  their  duties  by  virtue  of  being 
a  constituent  part  of  the  presbytery.  In  this  association  with  the 
bishop  they  are  sometimes  called  co-presbyters.  In  one  of  Cyi>rian's 
letters'  they  are  represented  as  united  with  the  l)ishoii  in  priestly 

'  The  rapid  growth  of  tlie  rliocesnn  principle  is,  liowcver,  seen  iii  the  fact  tiiat  by 
the  middle  of  the  third  century  Efiypt  liad  more  than  a  score  of  bi.<hops. 
'Otto  Ritschl:   Cyprian  von  CarUingo,  etc.,  Gottingen,  1885,  ss.  211,  J 12. 
'  Ep.  Gl,  3.    Episcopo  scuxidotale  honore  conjuncti. 


366    ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

honor.  This  has  been  cited  by  some  to  show  his  belief  in  the 
equality  of  bishops  and  presbyters.  But  this  view  does  not  com- 
port with  the  general  teaching  and  conduct  of  Cyprian,  nor  is  it 
in  accord  with  the  spirit  of  the  "  Apostolic  Constitutions."  Rather 
must  this  and  other  somewhat  similar  expressions  indicate  the 
priestly  character  of  the  presbyters  by  virtue  of  their  j^rerogative 
to  bring  the  offering  in  the  eucharist.  This  is  made  more  clear 
from  the  advice  given  in  case  of  lapsed  or  heretical  presbyters 
Functions  of  who  souglit  readmission  into  the  Church.  They  were 
presbyters.  iq  \)q  i^eceived  as  private  members.'  The  presbyters 
were  to  officiate  at  the  altar  in  the  absence  of  the  bishop,  and  they 
with  the  deacons  were  to  care  for  the  interests  of  the  Church.^ 

In  case  the  Church  was  so  widely  scattered  that  its  members 
could  not  assemble  in  one  jjlace,  the  presbyters  were  accustomed 
to  celebrate  the  eucharist  in  the  distant  districts.  The  priestly 
power  was  not  held  by  virtue  of  their  office  as  presbyters,  but 
because  they  were  the  agents  and  representatives  of  the  bishops. 
The  original  functions  of  the  presbyters  as  rulers  were  now  en- 
larged, and  what  had  at  first  been  regarded  with  a  degree  of 
jealousy  became  at  the  close  of  the  third  century  ordinary  and 
unquestioned."  In  Cyprian's  day  the  presbyters  had  an  advisory 
voice  in  the  council.  The  preliminary  examinations  and  the  first 
bringing  of  causes  before  the  council  were  left  to  their  decision. 
In  the  third  century  a  special  class  of  ])resbyters,  presbyterl  doc- 
tores,  is  met,  whose  duties  have  given  rise  to  considerable  debate. 
It  seems  most  probable,  however,  that  they  were  merely  teachers  of 
the  catechumens  and  of  those  who  returned  from  the  heretical 
sects,  as  at  an  earlier  period  they  instructed  those  who  passed  from 
heathendom  to  Christianity. 

The  office  and  duties  of  the  deacons  underwent  like  transforma- 
chanws  in  the  ^ions.  From  ministers  for  the  relief  of  the  poor,  and 
functions  of  the  companions  and  advisers  of  the  bishop  in  the  admin- 
deacons,  istration  of  public  charities,  by  the  growth  of  the  sacer- 
dotal notion  they  came  to  be  regarded  as  subordinate  to  bishops 
and  presbyters,  sustaining  in  the  Christian  economy  the  same  rela- 
tion as  did  the  Levites  to  the  priests  under  the  Mosaic. 

The  rapid  growth  of  the  Church  in  numbers  and  the  multiplica- 

-,  ,  tion  of  its  charities  made  direct  oversight  by  the  dea- 

No  longer  over-  ^  _  &  J 

seers  of  chart-  cons  impracticable.  They  could  no  longer  personally 
"^^'  inspect  the  individual  cases  of  want  and  report  them  to 

the  bishop.     Moreover,  the  founding  of  asylums,  orphanages,  guest- 

'p:p.  72,  2.  ^Ep.  5,  2. 

^Hatcli:    Op.  cit,  pp.  77,  78;  0.  Ritschl:    Op.  ciL,  s.  232. 


OFFICKS  A\n  (OFFICERS  OF  POST  APOSTOIJC  ("ITUKriT.     :l(17 

liousi'S,  viv.,  cacli  m:iii:ii,'i'(l  by  its  aitprDpiiatt- hoai'd,  malciiallv  iiiod- 
itic'd  tilt'  original  functions  of  the  deacons,  ami  rcduci-d  tlicni  for  tlic 
most  part  to  the  ptjsition  of  suhorilinatc  ministers  of  jiiil)li(r  woi- 
shij*.  Neverthcdoss,  they  were  conceived  as  sustaining  even  closer 
relations  to  the  bishoi)s  than  the  presbyters  themselves.  When, 
tiierefore,  they  were  constituted  a  college  under  a  president,  known 
as  the  archdeacon,  this  officer  became  intimately  associated  with  the 
bishop  in  the  administration  of  affairs,' 

In  the  time  of  Cyprian  the  deacons  manifestly  ])ore  the  consecrated 
elements  to  the  confessors  who  were  languishing  in  [)risons,  and  also 
aided  the  bishop  in  the  administration  of  baptism  and  of  theeucharist. 
In  fine,  they  seem  now  to  have  come  to  be  ministrants  to  the  other 
orders  in  the  Church.^  Thus  they  are  i)ermitted  to  read  the  Gos])el 
lesson  at  the  communion  service; '  they  care  for  the  furniture  of  the 
altar  in  those  churches  where  the  inferior  officers  were  forbidden  by 
the  canons  of  the  councils  to  come  into  the  sanctuarium;  they  re- 
ceive the  offerings  of  the  people  and  jjresent  them  to  the  minister  at 
the  altar.  They  are  allowed  to  baptize  by  the  permis- 
sion and  authority  of  the  bishop,  but  it  is  evident  that  '^^  *^ 
this  was  differently  regarded  in  different  churches,  some  granting 
and  others  di'iiying  this  function  to  the  deacons.* 

After  the  Church  had  accepted  the  sacerdotal  idea  of  the  ministry 
the  right  of  the  deacons  to  consecrate  the  eucharist  was 

■  ,       .     ,  .  Could  not  celc- 

Tor  the  most  part  denied.    Since  the  eucharist  was  of  the    brate   Uie  eii- 

nature  of  a  sacrifice,  none  but  a  priest  could  lawfully  offer  chanst. 

it;  and  the  priestly  character  of  the  deacons  was  not  generally  recog- 

nisi'd.'    I>y  the  authority  of  the  bisliop  they  were  permitted  to  preach, 

and  in  some  instances  to  read  homilies  or  sermons  which  had  been  ]tre- 

itared  by  distinguished  ministers.    They  were  the  esix'cial 

•        .        '        .  *'  '  Spociiil       ser- 

servants  ol    the   bishops,  often  accompanying  them  as   vanis   of    the 

secretaries  in  their  diocesan  visits,  and  on  extraoi'dinarv   '''*'''"i'^- 

occasions  became  their  representatives  in  the  general  councils,  where, 

as  deputies  or  proxies,  they  were  permitted  to  vote  on  all  (juestioiis 

there  determined.     The   disciplinary    function   of  these    othcers   is 

referred   to   elsewhere.     The   age   at   whiih   candidates 

r    •!  I       *       ii  ai  II  r.  When  eligible. 

were    eligible   to    the    office   was    usually    twenty -five. 

This  was  afterward  fixed  by  the  decisions  of  councils   and  by  tlie 

edicts  of  emp-rors.     Their  number  greatly  varied  in  different  prov- 

'  Hiitcli:    Op.  ril.,  pp.  53.  r)4.  «  v.  Ritsclil :    Op.  cit.,  s.  235. 

'  Coiisiit.  Apost.,  1.  2,  c.  57. 

^  Tortiillian,  Jerome,  and  Cypii.in  clearly  recognise  this  right;   iLe  Apostolic  Con- 
stitutions and  Kpiplianins  as  clciirjy  tlcny  it. 
'  Con.stit.  Api.st.,  1.  8,  c.  28. 


368    ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

inces  of  the  empire,  and   in   different  periods  of  the  history  of  the 

Church.     In  some  instances  there  is  a  very  strict  adherence  to  the 

original  number  seven.  In  tlie  influential  Churcli  of 
The      number         ^  .  .  ,      .  ,         . 

seven    contin-   Rome  this  number  long   continued;  in  other  important 

ued.  churches  their  number  seems  to  have   increased  as  the 

necessities  of  worship  and  administration   required;  in  St.  Sophia 

and  three  other  churches  of  Constantinople  Justinian  allowed  one 

hundred. 

The  archdeacon  was  president  of  the  bod}^  or  college  of  deacons. 

The    archdea-   The  method  of  his  appointment   is  not  always  clear. 

con.  Probabh^  it  was  not  uniform.     He  appears  to  have  been 

nominated  by  the  bishop  and  elected  by  his  fellow  deacons.     While 

the  language  of  some  canons  clearly  makes  it  the  duty  of 

How  elected.         ,      ,  •  ,  •       i  •  i"-!  .^  "       c 

the  bishop  to  appoint  his  own  archdeacon, the  manner  or 

such  appointment  is  not  indicated.  Since  this  officer  was  most  inti- 
mately connected  with  the  bishop,  and  was,  next  to  him,  the  most 
important  in  the  Church,  it  is  not  strange  that  the  councils  should 
jealously  guard  the  selection.  In  all  the  distinctive  functions  of  his 
office  the  bishop  relied  directly  and  immediately  upon  the  archdeacon. 
Hence,  in  case  of  the  death  of  a  bishop  the  archdeacon,  rather  than  one 
of  the  presbyters,  was  usually  appointed  his  successor.' 
There  has  been  much  controversy  respecting  the  char- 
acter, office,  and  functions  of  the  deaconesses  in  the  ancient  Cluirch. 
The  deacon-  That  an  order  of  women  whose  duties  somewhat  cori-e- 
esses.  sponded  to  those  of  the  deacons  existed  in  the  early 

Church  is  unquestioned.  But  as  to  the  grounds  of  eligibility^  the 
question  of  ordination,  the  scope  of  duties,  etc.,  widely  different 
opinions  have  obtained.  It  is  probable  that  women  of  somewhat 
advanced  years,  widows  who  had  borne  children,  were  usualh^ 
chosen;  yet  it  is  as  certain  that  young  unmarried  women  were 
sometimes  appointed.     Piety,  discretion,  and  experience 

Qualifications.  .  ,        .     ,.  ,  ,  ... 

were  m  any  case  the  indispensable  prerequisites  in  can- 
didates. During  the  first  two  centuries  the  Church  more  carefull}^ 
heeded  the  advice  of  Paul  that  the  deaconess  should  have  been  the 
wife  of  one  husband,^  also  that  the  Church  should  admit  to  this 
office  only  those  who  had  been  thoroughly  tested  by  previous  trusts, 
having  used  hospitality  to  strangers,  Avashed  the  saints'  feet,  relieved 
the  afflicted,   diligently  followed   every  good  work,   etc.    (1  Tim. 

'  V.  Binglmm:   Antiquities  of  the  Christian  Church,  bk.  ii,  chap.  xxi. 

'^  Tlie  leachino-  of  Paul  in  tliis  passasze  is  not  plain.  Wlictlier  it  is  to  be  taken  in 
its  literal  mcaniiiL',  or  wliether  he  meant  In  cxchirle  only  those  wlio,  after  divorce 
from  the  first  husbind.  married  a  second  time,  is  nor,  clear.  The  latter  interpreta- 
tion best  accords  with  the  spirit  of  the  New  Testament  teaching. 


OFFICES  AND  OFFICKHS  OF  POST-APOSTOLlC  ('IiniClI.     WQ 

V,  10);   Init   at   a  later  pi'i-xxl   tlit'iv  was  more   laxity,  and  y<Miiiu:t*r 
and   ini'X|n'ri('iict'(l    wonu'ii   werr  adniittccl.     Tlic   (piestion   of   their 
ordination  has  been  much  dchatcil.    Tlu'V  wcic  inducted    Ti„.|r    oniinu- 
into   their   otHce    i»y    the    imposition   of   hands;   of  this   i'""- 
there  is  ahnndant  proof.    This  would  not  necessarily  imply  the  rii^ht 
to  fulfill  the  saered   functions  of  the  ministry.      While  some  of  the 
.^[ontanists    allowed    women    to    be   bishops   and    presbyters,   their 
practice  was  strongly  opposed  as  unscriptural,  and  Tertullian  '  con- 
ilcmns  tlie  allowing;  of  women   to  baptize  as  contrary  to    i,j,|   ,„,t    i,,,,^ 
the  apostolic  teaching.      Vet    it   may  well   be   doubted    ''^''• 
whether  this  was  the  earlier  view  of  the  Cliurch,  before  tlie  sacerdo- 
tal character  of  the  ministry  had  come  to  be  ufcncrally  reconnised." 
The  need  of  such  helpers   arose   from   the   customs  and  usul^cs  of 
the  ancient  world,  which  forbade  the  intimate  association 

-.  ^,  •  1  !•  1  !•  mi  •  Their  duties. 

or  the  sexes  m  pul)lic  assemblies.      1  hey  were  to  instruct 
the   female    catechumens,    to   assist   in   the   baptism   of   women,   to 
anoint  with  holy  oil,^   to  minister  to  the  confessors  who  were  lan- 
guishin<4  in  prison,  to  care  for  the  women  who  were   in   sickness  or 
f      distress,  and  sometimes  were  doorkeepers  in  the  churches.* 

§  3.    OhorcpiKCopi,  JfctropoUtaiis,  or  Primates,  tintf  Patriarchii. 

The  centralization  of  power  and  the  uniHcation  of  the  govern- 
ment under  tlie  Roman  emperors  exerted  a  very  marki'd  induence 
upon  tlie  administration  of  the  Christian  Church.  The  facts  that 
Italy  thereby  lost  its  peculiar  privileges,  and  that  the  freemen 
throughout  the  vast  empire  had  equal  rights  as  l^oman  citizens, 
were  the  necessary  antecedents  to  the  comi)lete  unitication  of  church 
administration  when  Christianity  was  adopted  as  the  state  religion. 
To  secure  a  vigorous  government  in  Italy,  Augustus  had  divided  it 
into  eleven  regions;  and  Constantine  extended  this  ]»riiicii)le  to  the 
entire  empire,  by  forming  four  pretorian  prefectures;  namely,  of 
(4aul,  of  Italy,  of  Illyricum,  and  of  the  East.  Placli  of  these  was 
divided  into  dioceses,  and  these  again  into  provinces. 

In  the  fourth  century  the  Christian  Church  accepted  these  divi- 
sions of  the  empire  as  useful  in  its  own  government;  and  it  is  note- 
worthy that  sometimes  the  ecclesiastical  divisions  long  outlived 
the  political,  and  became  of  extreme  importance  in  tracing  the  civil 

'  De  linpti.smo,  c.  17. 

*  The  Moniaiiists  were  tlie  Puritans  of  ihcir  a^e.  Their  protests  against  hurtful 
innovations  of  doclriPie  and  government  were  vigorous  and  often  just ;  licuce  llieir 
recognition  of  tlie  rights  of  women  to  minister  in  sacred  things  must  have  been  be- 
lieved to  be  in  accordance  witli  apostolic  usage. 

'  Const.  Apost.,  1.  3,  c.  15.  *  Const.  Apost.,  1.  2,  c.  57. 

24 


370    ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

history.'  Tlio  patriarchates  of  the  Church  corresponded  quite 
closely  to  the  political  prefectures,  only  departing  ivom  them  terri- 
torially to  the  degi-ee  that  they  might  group  together  peoples  of 
like  race  and  language.  In  the  course  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  cen- 
turies the  patriarchal  sj^stem  became  quite  clearly  defined;  giving 
the  patriarchate  of  Rome,  of  Constantinople,  of  Antioch,  of  Alex- 
andria, and,  a  little  later,  of  Jerusalem — the  last  being  taken  from 
that  of  Antioch.  The  name  patriarch  was  at  first  confined  to  the 
ecclesiastic  having  jurisdiction  over  one  of  these  patriarchates;  but 
at  a  later  period  this  title  was  more  loosely  used,  sometimes,  as 
in  the  case  of  Rome,  being  extended  to  embrace  all  Italy,  Gaul, 
Britain,  and  most  of  the  Teutonic  peoples,  while  in  other  cases  it 
was  applied  to  such  as  had  under  their  supervision  a  simple  see. 

Under  the  patriarchs  were  metroj)olitans,  each  of  whom  had  jur- 
isdiction in  a  diocese,  whose  capital  city  was  also  the  ecclesiastical 
metropolis.  These  provinces  were  in  turn  divided  into  episcopal 
sees  or  districts,  over  which  bishops  had  jurisdiction.  The  extent 
and  importance  of  these  dioceses  and  districts  gi'eatly  fluctuated — 
in  southern  Europe  and  in  the  lands  adjacent  to  the  Mediterranean 
being  small  in  area,  while  in  northern  Europe,  and  in  the  outlying- 
lands  where  missionary  labours  had  resulted  in  founding  churches, 
a  district  often  included  an  entire  tribe  or  ])rincipality. 

Thus  the  ecclesiastical  divisions  of  the  empire  were  suggested  by, 
and  corresponded  quite  closely  to,  the  political.  "As  in  everj^  metro])- 
•olis  or  chief  cit}^  of  each  province  there  Avas  a  superior  magistrate 
above  the  magistrates  of  every  single  city,  so,  likewise,  in  the  same 
metropolis  there  was  a  bishop,  whose  power  extended  over  the 
\whole  province,  where  he  was  called  the  metropolitan,  or  primate, 
as  being  the  principal  bishop  of  the  province.  .  .  .  In  like  manner, 
as  the  state  had  a  vicarins  in  every  capital  city  of  each  civil  dio- 
cese, so  the  Church  in  process  of  time  came  to  have  exarchs,  or 
patriarchs,  in  many,  if  not  in  all,  the  capital  cities  of  the  empire."" 
This  dependence  of  the  ecclesiastical  divisions  upon  the  political 
is  further  shown  from  the  fact  that  as  the  latter  were  changed  the 
former  experienced  like  change;  and  when  the  question  of  primacy 
between  two  churches  in  the  same  province  or  district  arose,  it  was 
settled  by  ascertaining  which  the  state  regarded  as  the  metropolis, 
and  conforming  the  Church  thereto.  Thus,  cities  which  at  one 
period  were  no  more  than  single  sees  afterward  became  seats  of 
metropolitans  and   patriarchs,  while  a  former   metropolis  sank  to 

'v.  Freeman:  Tlie  UMorical  Geography  of  Europe,  second  edilioii,  London,  18S:;, 
chap.  vii. 

*  u  Bingham:  Antiquities  of  the  Church,  bk.  ix,  chap,  i,  p.  342. 


OFFICES  AM)  OFFICERS  OF  I'OST-AFOSTULIC  CHURCH.    ;J71 

Uk'  I'oiidition  of  ;i  iiu'ie   st'c'     TIk'   ivlatioiis   aii<l   diitk-s  of   thuse 
several  ecclesiastieal  olHcers  will  now  more  elearly  appear. 

The  existence  of  Christian  s;)eii'tie:s  in  the  vilhiges  ajul  rural  <lis- 
triets  more  or  less  remoti'  fro:n  the  eity,  whieh  was  the  owasion  of  lu- 
speeial  dioeese  of  the  bishop,  rendered  it  necessary  that  «i't"''"«- 
a  special  officer  should  be  appointeil  for  their  immediate  oversight. 
'Pliese  were  called  chorepiscopt,  r/jg  \;a)paf  eTTiOKOToi,''  or  bislioi)s  of 
til.'  country.  They  were  the  assistants  of  the  bishops  in  adminis- 
tration. Whether  they  were  simple  presbyters  or  had  presbyters  or 
received  episcoi)al  ordination  has  divided  the  (»j)inion  of  bisiiopsi" 
archajologists.  Probably  both  at  times  officiated  in  this  capacity; 
either  ))resbyters  directly  a})pointed,  or  bishops  who  had  been 
rejecteil  In'  their  dioceses,  or  had  been  received  a<.r;iii»  from  the 
numbi-r  of  those  who  liad  bfloMt(i'<l  to  a  scliismatic  party. ^  I'hey 
first  appear  toward  the  elo>e  of  the  third  century  in  Asia  Minor, 
and  are  first  recognised  by  the  Councils  of  Ancyra  and  Ni'<t- 
Ca'sarea  in  A.  I).  .'514,  and  by  the  Council  of  Nice  in  A.  D.  3-J5, 
They  continued  in  the  Eastern  Church  until  al>out  the  ninth  cen- 
tury, and  in  the  Latin  Church  until  the  tenth  or  eleventh  century. 

Thev  exercised,  at  times,  most   of  the   functions  of  the 

1  •  1  '  1  I  w^      ,•     ^  -111-  Functions. 

bisiiops  themselves.      \\  e   find   some  coum-ils  clothing 

them  with  authority  to  ordain  all  inferior  officers  in  their  churches, 

sometimes  even  without  the   permission  of  the  city  bisho|>;  but  in 

most  instances  consultation  with  the  bishoj)  of  the  city   church  was 

expected,    and    special    leave    obtained.       They    had    authority    to 

confirm;    to  give   letters  of  dismission    and   c<jinmendation  to  tin- 

clergy    who    were    about   to    lemove    to    other    parts;    to   conduct 

public  divine  service  in  the  chief  church  in  the  i)resence 

of  the   bishop,  or  l)y  his  permission  or  request.      1  hey 

are  found  in  the  councils,  casting  their  votes  on  all  questions  there 

'  Binghann  {rives  tlie  appro.ximate  notitia  of  the  Cuircli  at  the  clo.se  of  tlie  fourth 
century.  In  the  patriarchate  of  Antiocli,  correspondin}r  closely  with  the  civil  notitia, 
were  fifteen  provinces,  with  the  same  nnmljer  of  moiropolitans.  In  the  patriarchate 
of  .Vluxandria  (diocese  of  Egypt)  there  were  six  nu-tropolitans;  in  the  cxardiate  of 
Kphcsns,  ten  metropoiitivns;  in  the  exarchate  of  Ciesarea,  eleven :  in  the  exarchate 
of  Hcraclea  (afterward  Constantinople),  six;  in  the  exarchate  of  Thessalonica.  six; 
in  the  exarchate  of  Milan,  seven;  in  tlie  patriarchate  of  Rome,  ten;  in  the  exarchate 
of  Striaiiim,  six;  la  the  exarchate  of  Cartliafre,  six:  in  the  diocese  of  Spain,  seven; 
in  the  diocese  of  (Jaul,  scvontoeii;  in  tlie  diocese  of  Britain,  five  provinces,  with  cap- 
itals at  York,  London,  and  Cacrleon.  In  his  final  index  he  gives  a  list  of  1S5  prov- 
inces or  metropolitan  districts,  and  1,500  episcopal  sees.  Yet  it  is  probable  tliat 
Mich  lists  are  far  fnmi  perfect. 

*  This  soems  the  more  probable  derivation. 

■'•  Such  instances  are  mentioned  by  Socrates:  Ili.st.  Ecri,  1,  4,  c.  7;  ami  were  dia- 
tinctly  provided  for  by  conciliary  action,     v.  Canon  8  of  the  Council  of  Nice. 


372    ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

decided,'   and  exercising    every   right   pei'taining  to  the  episcopal 
members  of  the  synods  or  councils. 

l^he  primate,  or  metropolitan,"^  sustained  a  like  relation  to  the 
bishops  of  a  province  as  did  the  bishop  of  a  city  to  the 
chorepiscopi  of  his  country  churches.  The  time  of  the 
introduction  of  this  office  is  not  certain.  Like  most  other  ecclesias- 
tical provisions  it  was  probably  created  to  meet  a  felt  need  in  the 
government  and  oversight  of  the  churches.  While  some  find  its 
Time  of  origia  beginning  in  the  prerogatives  exercised  by  Titus  and 
uncertain.  Timothy  in  the  early  Church,  others  as  strenuously  deny 
its  apostolic  origin,  and  place  its  beginning  as  late  as  the  third  cen- 
tury. The  Council  of  Nicaea  clearly  recognises  the  office  as  of  long 
standing,  and  treated  it  as  a  venerable  institution.  Cyprian  men- 
tions ^  that  the  bishop  of  Carthage  presided  over  all  the  other 
Afi'ican  bishops,  and  issued  to  them  mandates.  Whether  this  was 
indeed  the  exercise  of  metropolitan  power,  or  simjDly  has  reference 
to  the  fact  of  presidency  in  the  councils,  is  not  very  clear.  Never- 
theless, by  the  fourth  century  the  metropolitan  office  is  fully  recog- 
nised, and  is  regulated  in  its  functions  and  i)rivileges  b}'  the  canons 
of  councils. 

They  were  elected  and  ordained  by  the  lushops  of  their  province. 
How  appoint-  Their  functions  were  different  at  different  stages  of 
^-  the  history  of  the  Church.    Their  most  important  duties 

and  prerogatives  were  to  preside  at  the  provincial  councils;  to  pro- 
vide for  and  ordain  the  bishop  to  a  vacant  see;  to  decide  questions 
between  the  various  bishops,  or  between  individual  bishops  and  their 
flocks;  to  assemble  synods  for  the  examination  of  doc- 

TllBir    (lutJGS.  .  ' 

trine  and  the  enforcement  of  discipline;  to  2>ublisli  to 
the  churches  of  their  provinces  the  conciliary  decrees,  or  the  edicts 
of  the  emperor,  by  which  doctrine  and  discipline  were  to  be  incul- 
cated; to  issue  letters  of  commendation  to  the  bishops  of  their 
districts,  since  these  were  not  permitted  to  journey  abroad  without 
such  letters;  to  hear  appeals  of  presbyters  or  deacons  who  had  been 
deposed  by  the  bishop  of  a  diocese.'' 

■^rhe  pati'iarchs  were  evidently  a  class  of  highest  dignity  and  au- 

'  The  subscriptions  of  the  Council  of  Nic«;a  clearly  prove  the  presence  of  chor- 
episcopi from  several  provinces,  also  the  subscriptions  of  the  councils  of  Neocaesarea 
and  Epliesus. 

^  The  distinction  between  the  metropolitan  and  archbishop  is  not  easy  to  describe. 
Tlint  ihey  were  synonymous  has  been  held  by  some  high  authorities,  and  denied  by 
others.  Sometimes  they  seem  to  bo  almost  identical,  at  other  periods  of  the  history 
a  plain  distinction  ia  made.     v.  Augusti:    Op.  cit.,  bd.  i,  ss.  201,  202. 

3  Ep.  42,  ad  Cornelian;  Ep.  40  and  45. 

*  V.  Bingham:  Antiquities  of  the  Church,  bk.  ii,  ch.  xiv. 


I 


OFFICES  AND  OFFICERS  OF  POST- APOSTOLIC  CHURCH.    :?7;s 

tijority.     DuriiiL^  the  fourth  ct'iilury  the  oflice  Ix'caine  (juite  wich'ly 
recognised,   and    was  cuiitirnu-d    by    the   u^eneral   (-(nm- 
cils  of  Constantinople  A.   D.  ;{SI,  Epliesus  A.  I).  4.il, 
and   Cliah-edon   A.  I),  ool.      Tlie    patriaicli  sustained  to  the  met- 
ropolitans   relations    similar  t(t  those   which    the   latter   ^rose    Rraiiu- 
held    to   the    bishops    of    sees;   hence    he    was    ordained    ""y- 
by    his  metropolitans,    and    in    turn    ordained    them.       He    ))reside(! 
at  dioeesan  councils,  heard  appeals  of  bishops  from  the  decisions  of 
the  metropolitans,  communicated  to  them  the  imperial 

, .    ,  ...  ,  ,      .  , .  Dulles. 

edicts  or  concuiary  decrees,  censured  the  metroj)olitans 
in  case  of  remissness,  etc.     Each  patriarch  was  rej^arded  as  suprenu^ 
in   his   own    patriarchate    until    Home   and   ('<»nstantinoplc    rose    to 
superior  dignity  and  laid  claim  to  superior  authority. 

§  4.    Tlie  Sub-orders  of  tlie  Clergy. 

The  shiftinii;  conditions  of  the  post-ajtostolic  ("hurch  necessitated 
changes  in  its  constitution  and  discijdine.  Whenever  the  needs 
were  urgent,  the  Church  exerted  herself  to  satisfy  them.  The  prin- 
ciples of  Christian  prudence  and  reasonable  adjustment,  providemiai 
rather  than  that  of  divine  institution,  here  governed.  indicaiioiis. 
As  the  functions  of  the  chief  f»f!icers  varied  according  to  provi- 
(k'litial  indications,  so  the  wants  of  the  societies  led  to  the  institu- 
tion of  inferior  othces  which  were  belii'vcil  to  contribute  to  the 
convenience  or  effectiveness  of  church  activities,  discipline,  or  life. 
'I'he  theory  that  the  ordineH  minorcs,  especially  the  lertons^  origin- 
ated l)y  a  differentiation  of  the  duties  of  the  diaconate  '  cannot  be 
regarded  as  resting  on  firm  historical  foundations.  This  prudential 
principle  is  seen  in  the  fact  that  sub-officers  are  not  met  with  until 
the  third  century,  when  the  organization  of  the  churches  had  be- 
come more  complete,  and  then  only  in  local  societies  whose  circum- 
stances are  peculiar.  It  is  doubtful  whether  they  appear  in  the 
Greek  Church  before  the  fourth  century.  The  most  important  of 
these  inferior  officers  are: 

1.  The  sub-deacons,*  wlu)se  duty  it  was  to  assist  tlie  (h-acons,  csj)e- 
cially   in   those   important  churches  where  the  original 

\  111  ^  •  1         riM  •  !•       Sub-deacoiis. 

number  seven    had   been  continued.       1  he  province  of 

tliese  sub-officers  was  jealously  guarded,  so  that  many  of  the  duties 

of  the  deacons  were  not  permitted  to  them.     While  ordained,^  they 

'  V.  Scherer:  Handbuch  des  Kirchenrechts,  Graiz,  1886.  bd.  i.  s.  :U7.  Contra,  v.  Ihxr- 
nack :  Ulier  den  Ursprung  des  Lcctoralts  und  dtr  anderen  nitdefen  Weihen,  Gies.sen,  1886. 

'It  is  believed  tluit  Atlianasiiia  is  tlic  lir.^l  Greek  writer  who  mentions  them. 

'  They  are  supposed  to  be  first  distinctly  referred  to  by  Cyprian,  Epist.  8,  20,  2.3, 
29,  etc. 


374    ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

were  not  clothed  with  authority  to  aid  in  administering  the  sacra- 
ments, nor  in  any  case  to  preach,  hut  their  functions  were  largely 
manual,  sometimes  menial. 

2.  The  acolyths,   aKoXovdoi,  were  at  first  confined  to  the  Latin 

Church;  no  Greek  writer  earlier  than  Justinian  makes 
mention  of  them.     The  meaning  of  the  term  would  sug- 
gest that  they  were  general  servants,  but  the  reception  of  a  candle- 
stick with  a  taper  in  it,  and  an  empty  pitcher  in  which 

Their  duties  .  .  .  .     . 

to  bring  wine,  on  the  occasion  of  their  installation,  point 
to  the  lighting  of  the  churches  and  the  care  of  the  wine  for  the 
eucharist  as  their  chief  duties. 

3.  The  casting  out  of  devils  by  prayer  and  by  special  gift  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  is  mentioned  in   the  apostolic  age.      Christ  says  the 

devils  shall  be  subiect  to  his  apostles;  vet  a  wider  circle 

Fxoroists  ^ 

of  exorcists  is  implied  in  the  references  which  are  met 
in  the  first  and  second  centuries.  As  a  distinct  class  of  officers  they 
first  appear  in  the  third  century.  From  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  ^ 
we  should  infer  that  their  origin  must  have  been  of  a  later  date;  yet 
the  more  just  opinion  is  that  in  the  third  century  they  M^ere  recog- 
nised as  having  a  distinct  function  in  the  Church.  This 
function  was  to  offer  special  prayer  over  the  demoniacs, 
who  were  kept  for  the  most  jjart  in  the  church,  to  minister  to  their 
physical  needs  and  to  effect  a  restoration. 

Other  inferior  officers  who  appeared  from  the  third  century  are 
the  readers,  lectores,  who  read  the  Scriptures  from  the  reading  desk, 
not  the  altar;  the  door-keepers,  ostUtrii,  who  had  charge  of  the 
entrances,  in  order  to  permit  no  unworthy  person  to  come  into  the 
place  of  worship;  the  ^mger^,  psalniista',^  who  cared  for  the  sing- 
ing of  the  Church  and  the  training  of  the  choirs  for  the  antiphonal 
service;  the  catechists,  Avho  were  to  instruct  the  catechumens  in 
the  first  principles  of  religion,  thus  fitting  them  for  baptism.  This 
instruction  could  not,  however,  be  conducted  in  the  public  congre- 
gation. 

'  J.  viii,  c.  26. 

"  It  is  doubtful  whether  these  appear  as  a  distinct  class  before  the  fourth  century. 


SYNODS  AND  COUNCILS  AND  TlIEIll  AUTIIOUITY.         375 


CHAPTER  VI. 

SYNODS  AND  COUNCILS.  AND  TIIKIll  AUTHORITY. 

TnK  council  at  Jerusalem  wa-^  the  tiist  assembly  of  the  "apos- 
tles, eKlers,  and  l)retliivn,"  to  decide  upon  doctrines  ijip  synod  of 
and  polity  which  were  to  be  acceptiMl  by  the  ('liristiau  J»^'usi»i»'i'i- 
societies.  It  is  an  instructive  fact  thai  in  tliis  first  council  are  the 
apostles  and  elders  irith  the  vhole  C/inrc/i,  and  that  the  decisions  are 
sanctioned  by  the  entire  body  .  This  is  in  pi-rfect  acconl  with  the 
general  spirit  of  the  apostolic  aL(e.  The  entire  bo<ly  of  believerH 
were  to  be  guided  by  the  Holy  Spirit  into  all  truth,  and  they  were 
the  depositary  of  ecclesiastical  power.  Nevertheless,  the  meetings 
for  consultation  upon  matters  of  general  interest  were  in  liannony 
Avith  what  was  well  undi-rstooil,  not  only  by  the  citi/.ens  of  the  Ro- 
man Empire,  but  by  all  tlu'  ancii-nt  woild.  The  Achaian,  Thessalian, 
^tolian,  Ani|>hictyonic,  and  other  councils  and  leagues  ^fj^r  j^^  ^nai- 
are  only  familiar  examples  of  the  custom  of  the  ancient  ogy  of  civil 
cities  and  peoples  to  meet  for  consultation  on  interests  ^"*^"''*'- 
common  to  all.  We  find  almost  precisely  the  same  terms — provinces, 
dioceses,  metro])olitans,  synods,  councils,  etc. — used  to  characterize 
these  assemblies  and  tlieir  members. 

The  assertion  of  the  unity  of  the  Holy  Catholic  Church  necessarily 
carried  with  it  unity  of  doctrini*  and  government.  Ref-  Neceasary  to 
erence  has  already  been  ma(b^  to  the  intimate  relations  j]"jj^y"*^f  i^w 
which  existed  between  tlu-  different  V)ishops,  and  tb.e  Chun-h. 
means  used  to  maintain  tlv.'se  relations  for  purposes  of  preseiving 
the  unity  of  the  Church. 

Hence,  after  the  miihlle  of  the  second  century  the  assembly  of 
delegates  from  the  societies  of  a  province,  for  the  determination  and 
maintenance  of  the  most  important  questions,  is  quite  common. 
They  appear  in  Asia  Minor  and  Gaul.  These  gather-  provinriai  syn- 
ings,  called  provincial  synods,  became  (piite  general  in  ^•''• 
the  beginning  of  the  third  century,  and  were  generally  held  at 
stated  times.  With  respect  to  these,  as  to  other  matters  of  Church 
govenunent,  there  was  a  gradual  decline  of  the  intbieiice  and  rights 
of  the  laity,  and  a  growing  ]»ower  of  the  clergy.  The  ooriine  of  lay 
laity,  who  were  at  first  imjxtrtant  factors  of  the  syn-  influ«?nce- 
odical  assemblies,  were  of  little  influence   after  the  middle  of  the 


376    ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

third  century;  and  by  the  beginning  of  the  fourth,  the  composition 
of  the  councils  was  restricted  to  the  three  orders  of  the  clergy. 
Among  these  the  influence  of  the  presbyters  declined  more  and 
more,  and  the  authority  of  the  bishops  soon  became  exclusive  and 
supreme. 

A  further  attempt  at  preserving  the  unity  of  the  Church  is  the 
Metropolitan  extension  of  the  council  to  include  the  ecclesiastical  au- 
syaods.  tliorities  of  a  diocese  or  a  patriarchate.     Usualh^  these 

were  convoked  by  the  metropolitan  or  patriarch,  and  had  reference 
to  interests  touching  a  wider  district  or  territory.'  In  these  councils 
Tberepresenta-  the  principle  of  representation  seems  to  have  been  recog- 
tive  principle,  nised  to  a  considerable  extent,  since  the  third  Council 
of  Carthage,  A.  D.  3&8,  by  its  canons  provided  for  the  presence  of 
three  bishops  from  every  African  province  excepting  Tripoli,  which 
could  send  but  one  on  account  of  its  small  number  of  bishops. 

Of  still  greater  significance  were  the  oecumenical  or  general 
(Ecumenical  councils,  which  purposed  to  include  in  their  numbers 
councils.  representatives  from  the  widest  possible  areas  of  Chris- 

tendom. An  extraordinary  exigenc}^  only  could  lead  to  the  assem- 
bly of  such  body;  a  widespread  agitation  as,  for  example,  that 
resulting  from  the  Arian  controversy,  or  some  general  interest,  was 
the  occasion  of  its  meeting. 

The  authority  to  convoke  the  councils  varied  Avith  the  times  and 
whoassembied  the  character  of  the  council  itself.  When  it  was  of  a 
the  councils?  district,  the  bishop  assembled  the  elders,  deacons,  and 
people;  when  of  a  diocese  or  province,  the  metropolitan  or  patri- 
arch; when  oecumenical,  it  was  usually  by  imperial  edict,  with  the 
g,dvice  and  approval  of  the  chief  bishops.^  The  bishops'  or  metro- 
politans' circular  letters  for  summoning  the  council  went  under  the 
name  synodicm  or  tractorice;  those  of  the  emperors,  sacrce.  The 
bishop  presided  in  the  district  council,  the  metropolitan 

Who  presided ?  V^       ,     .        ,  •       •    i        i  -i     ^i  i  -i 

or  patriarch  in  the  provincial,  while  the  general  councils 
were  under  the  nominal  control  of  the  emperor  or  his  representa- 
tive; but  the  presidents  proper,  Trpoedpoi,  were  usually  chosen  from 
the  most  influential  and  venerable  members.^     The  council  delib- 


..    '?;.  Bickell:    0^/;.  «Y.,  2"  Lief.,  cap.  14. 

*  Tlie  deletjates  to  an  ceciimenieal  council  sometimes  journeyed  at  the  public  ex- 
pense. V.  Eusehius:  Be  Vita  Const.,  iii,  6,  for  an  account  of  tliis  in  case  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Nicaea. 

^  Eusebius,  Sozomen,  and  Socrates  ajjree  in  .«aying,  that  in  the  Council  of  Nicsea 
Hosius  of  Cordova,  Alexander  of  Alexandria,  Eustatliius  of  Antiocli,  Macarius  of 
Jerusalem,  and  Vitus  and  Vincentius.  the  vicars  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  were  the 
chief  presidents. 


SYNODS  AND  COUNCILS  AND  THEIR  AUTHORITY.         377 

eratt'd  an<l  (Ic-c'uUmI  rcspt'ctinu^  iiiuttcis  of  ('liur(;li  ji^overnment,  dis- 
cipline, doctrine,  and  worsliij).  Al  the  same  time  it  subjects  con- 
constituted  a  court  before  which  the  clergy  or  tin-  laity  siUureU. 
could  bring  charges  against  tlie  bishops  or  others.  In  the  provin- 
cial councils  such  coinplaints  wen-  usually  lodged  witli  the  arch- 
deacon of  the  metropolitan  church,  who,  in  turn,  brought  thi'm  to 
the  knowledge  of  the  council. 

The  early  mctliod  of   balloting  was  by  heads,  the  method  of  mo- 
tions not  haviiiij  been  introduced  until  late  in  the  Middle 

4  rpi        1    1.  11  •      ^-a    \  \  1      •        Method  of.  voU 

Ages.      1  he  latter  was  regarded  as  justinable  only  in   lu^,. 
extraordinary  emergencies. 

In  case  of  (ecumenical  councils  the  decrees  were  of  the  nature  of 
laws,  which  the  emijcrors  enforced.     Thus  Constantine   ^. 

'  .   .  '  .  _  _  Eiiforcfiiientol 

regarded  the  decisions  of  the  Council  of  Nice  as  obliga-  conciiiarycieci- 
tory  on  the  subjects  of  the  emiiire,  and  hence  punished  ^'°°*' 
non-subscri))tion  by  exile.  Like  action  was  taken  by  Theodosius 
the  Great  respecting  the  decrees  of  the  Constantinopolitan  council, 
by  Theodosius  II.  respecting  the  decisions  of  the  Council  of  E])he- 
sus,  and  by  Marcian  regarding  those  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon, 
in  A.  I).  4.-)l. 

In  matters  of  discipline,  it  seems  that  the  decisions  of  the 
councils  were  not  unalterable.  In  respect  to  articles  was  their deci- 
of  faith,  the  princii)le  liolding  seemed  to  be  tliat  it  was  sion  binding? 
not  the  pri'rogative  of  a  council  tt)  enlarge  or  extend  tlie  boun- 
daries of  faith,  but  to  conlirm,  establish,  and  make  more  clear 
by  definition  what  had  been  the  doctrine  of  the  genei-al  Church. 
The  decisions  might  be  abrogated,  even  with  regard  to  doctrines. 
Not  until  near  the  close  of  the  period  of  which  we  treat  did  con- 
ciliary  decisions  assume  an  authority  almost  equal  to  Scripture. 
Augustine,  Gregory  the  Great,  and  other  champions  Growing  au- 
of  the  Church,  while  not  viehling  the  supreme  author-   »hority  of  con- 

^  '  rlllary       decl- 

ity  of  the  Seri})tures,  nevertheless  placed   much  stress   sions. 

u])on  the  decrees  of  councils  as  expressive  of  the  ojjinion  of 
good  men  whom  God  had  promised  to  "lead  into  all  truth."  So 
that  in  early  times  the  provincial  councils  imposed  their  decisions 
upon  those  within  their  jurisdiction  as  of  the  luLrhest  ]>rMdential 
worth,  and  the  general  councils  were  believed  to  have  formuIate<l 
«loctrine  under  such  favorable  eircumstances  that  the  decisions 
were  looked  upon  as  of  great  moral  and  religious  value.  Hence 
we  find  that  the  Church  generally  accepted  the  decisions  of  the 
first  six  oecumenical  councils,  and  was  at  times  inclined  to  re- 
gard them  as  of  almost  e(jual  autlioiify  w  itli  the  Scriptures  them- 
selves. 


378    ARCHAEOLOGY  01^'  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 


CHAPTER   VIL 

CHURCH     DISCIPLINE. 
§   1.    Reasons   and   Degrees  of  Punishment. 

The  Church  was  regai'ded  as  a  bod}'  of  believers  on  Jesus  Christ, 
bound  togetlier  by  a  fellowsliip  most  sacred,  for  tlie  promotion  of 
holiness  and  the  perfection  of  character  (1  Pet.  ii,  9,  10).  Its 
relations  and  duties  were  voluntarily  assumed;  its  obligations  were 
enforced  by  moral,  not  by  physical,  sanctions. 

The  object  of  Church  discipline,  exercised  as  it  was  only  upon 

.    members  of  its  own  communion,  was  to  preserve  purity 
Designof  .  .  '.^  i  J 

churcii  disci-  of  doctrine  and  life.'  The  apostolic  Church  imposed 
^  '°'*'  but  one  condition  of  membership — faith  in  Jesus  as  the 

risen  Lord,  and  baptism  into  the  name  of  Father,  Son,  and  Holy 
Ghost.  Nevertheless,  this  Church  had  the  clear  sanction  of  an 
apostle  for  maintaining  sound  discipline  (I  Cor.  v;  2  Cor.  ii;  Col. 
ii,  5;  Clement.  Rom.,  Ep.  i,  ad  Cor.,  c.  44);  and  the  apostolic 
fathers  are  explicit  in  the  inculcation  of  ecclesiastical  order.  From 
the  earliest  years  of  Christianity  two  parties  existed  in  the  Church, 
whose  views  of  disci])line  were  oppugnant  and  wellnigh  irrecon- 
cilable. One  looked  upon  a  fixed  and  definite  ecclesiastical  order 
as  the  necessary  condition  of  the  successful  extension  of  Christi- 
anity; the  other  regarded  these  outward  institutions  as  limitations 
of  the  free  spirit  of  the  Gospel,  and  emphasized  the  fact  that  the 
power  of  the  invisible  Church  is  her  spiritual  life,  and  not  her  for- 
mal organization.  These  two  parties  continued  in  the  Church. 
They  Avere  in  conflict  through  the  first  six  centuries." 

Catechuraenical  training,  which  was  judged  to  be  a  necessary 
Catechu meni-  condition  of  the  admission  of  Gentile  converts,  must 
cai  trainuiff  a    |^    regarded  as  a  provision  of  the  Church  after  she  had 

later    mstitu-  &  r 

tion.  lost  the  glow  of  love  felt  by  the  first  disciples,  and  had 

experienced  the  contaminating  influences  of  association  with  a  de- 
praved heathenism.  Such  preparatory  training  was  deemed  a  wisely 
prudential  measure  to  guard  the  Church  against  the  influx  of  the 
worldly  and  unsaved. 

'  V.  Bickell:    GescMchf.e.  des  Kirch ewechtes,  2"  Lief.,  ss.  62-7  L 
^  V.  Neander:  Antiynosticus,  ss.  340,  341.- 


CHURCFI   DISCIPLINE  873 

But  1)V  .IS  much  moiv  as  tlic  roiiditioiis  of  mcinlxTsliij*  wore  niorc 
striii,i,'c'nt,  by  so  much  more  did  tlit'  u^uanliuiis  of  the  Church  feel  the 
necessity  of  a  rigorous  (liscipliiic.  Tlio  subscrii)tion  to  and  observ- 
ance of  the  one  rule  of  faitli,  re<inla  fidni,  whicli  was  q,,,^  roKiiiii 
common  to  all  the  churches,  was  the  sole  test  of  ortho-  "J'''- 
doxy.  This  one  rule  was  expressed  in  the  articles  of  faith,  or  the 
cree<ls,  which  tlu'  early  Church  had  formulated.  He  who  held  tliese 
in  an  honest  min<l  and  |>ure  heart  was  a  worthy  member  of  the 
Church;  he  who  denied  them,  or  whose  life  was  not  xhnone  stand- 
regulated  by  them,  was  lieretical  or  unworthy.  The  "•'d. 
latter  were  to  be  exscinded  from  the  body  of  the  Church  in  onU'r 
to  preserve  its  ])urity  an<l  pi-ace. 

It  is  not  possiV)le  to  <letcnnine  the  exact  time  when  the  right  and 
prerogative  of  disciplim-  came  to  be  almost  exclusively  exercised  by 
the  bishops,  nor  can  the  precise  Ix'havior  of  the  Church  respi-cting  the 
l)unishment  of  offenders  during  the  first  one  huntlreil  and  fiflv  years 
be  clearly  determined.  It  is,  however,  certain  that  the  ciuinh  disoi- 
deprivation  of  privileges  in  the  Church  had  no  reference   ''""''  '"•;"'"r<^| 

,  .    ,  no  loss  of  civil 

to  the  rights  of  an  offender  as  a  subject  of  the  state,    rights. 
Only  at  a  later  jieriod,  in  cases  where  the  holding  and  use  of  the 
jyroperty  of  the  Church  was  in  question,  or  in  cases  of  pertinacious 
disturbers,  was  the  authority  of  the  civil  law  invoked.' 

Churcli  discipline  i)ro]>er  had  respect  to  several  <h'grees  of  offence 
and  punishment.  The  Church  was,  therefore,  com])elIed  to  discrim- 
inate between  the  characters  of  violators  of  its  laws,  sins  venial  and 
This  led  to  the  classification  of  sins  as  venial  and  mor-  mortal. 
tal."  The  penalty  of  the  former  consisted  in  either  admonition  and 
tem])orary  suspension,  or  the  lesser  excommunication  Admonition 
{a<pogiaa6q).     The  latter  consisted  in  withholdinir  from      "'"'     ''''*T 

^    "^    '      '       '  '^  exei)inniunl- 

those  under  the  ban  of  the  Church  its  special  privileges,       cation. 

as  partaking  of   the  eucharist,  etc.     Such    were    not,   however,  ex- 
cluded from  the  ordinary  ministrations  and  public  services. 

The  greater   excommunication    was   visited   upon    more  heinous 

offenders,  or  those,  generallv,  who  were  y-uiltv  of  mortal 

.  .'  ■  .      '  •  The       irreatfir 

sins.      It  consisted  in  a  com]>lete  exscinding  of  members    exiommunlca- 

from  the   body  of  the  Church,  and,  therefore,  from  all   """' 

'  Reference  is  not  here  Imd  to  later  civil  enactments  for  the  punishment  of  heresy 
unci  sedition.  Concilian'  action  was  taken  aprainst  sucli  presbyters,  or  hishops,  as 
were  disturbers  of  the  peace  by  settinj^  up  new  churches  in  opposition  to  the  reg- 
ular authorities.  Liitcr,  the  civil  power  was  invoi<ed  to  suppress  such  agitators. 
This  does  not,  however,  strictly  pertJiin  lo  Church  discipline.  , 

'  v.  TertuUian:  de  pudicilia,  c.  19.  Pi-cmta  mortalia  and  Peccata  venialia.  He- 
reckons  seven  mortal  sins  :  heresy  and  schism,  idolatry,  fraud,  denial  of  Christ,  blas- 
phemy, homicide,  and  fornication. 


380    ARCH^OLOaY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

its  privileges  and  associations.  When  the  anathema  was  uttered, 
the  offender  was  regarded  as  one  to  be  shunned  by  all  the  faithful, 
and  absolutely  deprived  of  all  that  was  distinctive  of  the  Christian 
Church,  including  the  rites  of  Christian  burial.  This  penalty  was 
executed  against  both  sexes,  the  rich  and  poor,  the  subject  and  the 
ruler,'  alike;  in  this  regard  the  Christian  discipline  was  characteris- 
Notice  given  to  tically  rigid.  Notice  of  such  greater  excommunication 
other chuiehes.  ^yas  generally  given  to  other  churches,  and  they  were 
expected  to  concur  in  the  decision,  on  the  theory  of  the  unity  of 
the  Church,  and,  therefore,  for  the  sake  of  the  general  good.^  All 
were  forbidden  to  receive  such  excommunicate  persons;  and,  by  fre- 
quent conciliary  enactment,  any  bishop  thus  receiving  and  harbor- 
ing the  exscinded  should  himself  be  regarded  as  cut  off  from  the 
Church.^ 

The  general  Church  did  not  however  regard  the  effect  of  even 

_.^  ^  ,  the  greater  excommunication  as  annulling;  the  benefits 
Did  not  annul  ^      ^  .  ® 

the  benefits  of  of  baptism;  SO  that  when  the  most  heinous  offenders 
baptism.  sought   readmissiou    into    the    Church    they   were    not 

required  to  be  rebaptized.  This  was  contraiy  to  the  method  of 
the  Donatists,  who  often  received  excommunicate  persons  into  their 
fellowship  by  declaring  them  purified  by  a  rebaptism,  which  this 
sect  freely  practised. 

No  one  was  excommunicated  without  a  hearing  and  a  formal  con- 
Riffht  of  ap-  viction;  any  hasty  or  unwarranted  action  of  a  bishop 
pP'i'-  was  liable  to  review  before  a  provincial  synod,  to  which 

the  aggrieved  party  had  the  right  of  appeal.  This  was  judged  of 
such  importance  that  canons  to  this  effect  were  enacted  by  various 
councils." 

§  2.  Penitential  Ditfcipline. 

While  the  persecutions  of  the  Church  were  not  continuous,  and 
never  absolutely  universal,  and  while  some  emperors,  as  Gallienus, 
showed  many  favors  to  the  Christians,  going  so  far  as  to  declare  to 
the  bishops  that  it  was  his  will  that  they  should  be  undisturbed  in 

'The  well  known  example  of  the  action  of  Ambrose  toward  Theodosius  tlie  Great, 
as  related  by  Theodoret,  is  very  instructive,  not  only  as  illustrating-  the  firmness  ot  a 
Christian  bishop,  but  also  the  feelings  of  a  great  emperor  respecting  the  fearfulness 
of  the  ban  of  the  Church. 

*  V.  Probst :  Kircldiche  JDisciplin  in  den  drei  ersten  christlichen  Jahrhunderten, 
Tubingen,  ISTS,  s.  402. 

^v.  Canons  2,  4,  and  5  of  the  Council  of  Anlioch ;  Canon  2,  of  the  second  Council 
of  Carthage;  also  Canon  13  of  the  Canon.  Apost. 

*  V.  Canon  5,  Council  of  Nice:  Canons  8  and  10  of  the  second  Council  of  Carthage; 
Canon  6  of  the  Council  of  Antioch,  et  al. 


CHURCH   DISCIPLINE.  381 

their  ministrations,  the  Ikui,  under  wliieli  Christianity  as  a  relitjii) 
illicita  r('stO(l.  was  not  lifti'd.  It  was  still  a  penal  offence  to  l»e  a 
Christian;  and  all  the  danLici's  and  hardships  which  such  K^al  dis- 
ability implied  constantly  impended  over  the  Chureh.  It  is  not, 
therefore,  stranyi'  that  diirins^  the  sharp  visitations  of  persecution 
temptations  to  denv  Christ  and   to  offer  to  idols  were 

,,    ,         r,,,*^  .  .  .    ,,  ,  The   lupsC'il. 

most  powerful.  1  his  strain  was  especially  severe  dur- 
iiiij^  the  Decian  ])ei'secntions,  when  multitudes  fell  away  from  the 
Church  throuLjh  the  mali«;nity  and  subtle  devices  of  this  emperor 
and  his  successors  to  (iailienus.  The  provisions  of  the  early  Church 
for  the  return  of  the  lapsed  t^ave  rise  to  a  complicated  system  of 
penitential  disci|)line. 

The  rigorous  discipline  of  the  Xovatians  had  refusecl  readmission 
to  those  who  wi-re  guilty  of  mortal  sins.  Oidy  in  the  iKtui-  and  article 
of  death  could  they  hope  that  the  l)an  of  the  Church  might  be 
ri'iuoved.  Also  Cy]>rian,  in  the  earlier  portion  of  his  adniinistration, 
had  been  inclined  to  use  great  severity  in  dealing  with  those  who 
had  lapsed  from  the  faith  {lapsl)  during  the  Decian  persecutions. 
IJut  in  Rome  and  elsewhere  more  lenient  provisions  were  made  for 
their  return  to  the  Church  through  a  system  of  penance  which  must 
be  heartily  accepted  and  practised  by  the  offender.  The  reason  of 
tliis  imposition  was  that  the  Church  might  be  assured  of  the  sincere 
penitence  and  reform  of  the  lapsed  who  was  seeking  admission. 

A  further  necessity  for  this  was  felt  by  the  Church  fi'om  the  fact 
that  many  attempts  to  interfere  with  the  regular  discipline  of  the 
Church  had  been  made.  Esjtecially  those  who  had  gaiiie<l  peculiar 
sanctity  by  suffering  for  the  truth's  sake  abused  their  inHuence  by 
granting  certificates  of  peace  or  reconciliation  without  confession 
or  the  assurance  of  penitence.  This  caused  great  discontent  on 
the  part  of  such  as  had  remained  steadfast,  and  discipline  was 
thus  seriously  threatened.  To  save  the  Church  from  <lisorder  and  to 
maintain  her  purity  four  onlersof  |»enitents  were  recognised  as  early, 
probably,  as  the  middle  of  the  third  century.  These  Four  orders  of 
wi-re  known  among  the  Latins  as  Jfe/ftes,  or  wee|)ers;  Pfnitcnts. 
(ludieiites,  or  hearers;  suhstrof/',  or  kneelers;  and  rajtsisfc/i/es,  or 
co-standers.'  The  first  fi'II  upon  their  faces,  imploring  the  j)rayer8 
of  the  Cliurch  in  their  behalf,  and  tliat  they  might  be  admitted 
to   the  first  apartment  of   the  church.      Then   properly  their  jien- 

'  I'.  St.  Basil :  Can.  22,  el  "l.  Tho  fii  st  yoar  tliey  are  to  weep  before  tlio  f^nte  of 
the  cluircli ;  the  second  year,  to  be  admitted  to  hearinjr;  llie  third  year,  to  bendiiijf 
the  knee,  or  repentance;  the  tliird  year,  to  stand  with  the  faithful  at  prayers,  but 
not  partake  of  the  oblation.  To  the  same  effect  are  the  teachings  of  Ambrose  and 
other  fathers. 


382    ARCHEOLOGY  OF  C0:^^STITLT10N  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

ance  began,  ^Vlien  they  were  thus  admitted  to  become  hear- 
ers, permission  was  granted  them  to  listen  to  the  Scriptures  and 
the  sermon,  but  they  were  excluded  from  the  more  private  and 
sacred  portions  of  the  service.'  The  length  of  time  they  were  to 
continue  in  this  order  was  made  the  subject  of  repeated  conciliary 
action.*  This  depended  upon  the  nature  of  the  offence,  and  the 
cliaracter  of  the  offender.  The  third  order,  substrati,  or  cjeim- 
Jlectentes,  were  so  named  from  the  fact  that  they  were  permitted 
to  fall  on  their  knees,  and  remain  as  participants  in  the  common 
prayers,  and  to  hear  the  prayers  offered  for  them  by  tlie  congre- 
gation and  the  bishop.  AVliile  the  hearers  were  restricted  to  the 
narthex  or  vestibule  of  the  church  building,  the  third  ordei*  were  ad- 
mitted to  the  interior,  near  the  ambo,  or  reading-desk.  The  fourth 
order  of  penitents,  the  consistentes,  or  co-standers,  Avere  allowed  "  to 
stand  with  the  faithful  at  the  altar,  and  join  in  the  common  prayers, 
and  see  the  oblation  offered;  but  yet  might  neither  make  their  own 
oblations,  nor  partake  of  the  eucharist  with  them." ' 

At  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century  the  Oriental  churches  ap- 
.  .    pointed  a  special  presbyter   to  regulate  the  condu(tt  of 

tentiai  presby-  penitential  discipline  {^presbyter  poenitentUirius).  But 
on  account  of  the  continuous  restiveness  felt  by  the 
private  members,  in  their  more  public  life,  and  through  the  iiiterfe:  - 
ence  of  the  state,  this  special  office  Avas  abrogated  near  the  close  of 
the  fourth  century.  Likewise,  on  the  cessation  of  persecutions,  the 
practice  of  orderly  penitential  discipline  fell  into  disuse, 
penitential sys-  and  Cliurch  life  became  more  free  and  unconstrained. 
**""■  Also  in  the  West,  under  like  general  conditions  and  at 

about  the  same  time,  the  system  was  so  modified  that  only  for  more 
open  and  public  crimes  was  public  penance  imposed,  while  for  otiier 
offences  a  private  confession  to  the  clergy  was  judged  sufficient.^ 
From  this  came  gross  abuses  in  practice  (auricular  confession,  indul- 
gences, etc.)  and  dangerous  innovations  in  Christian  doctrine  (work 
righteousness,  etc.). 

The  readmission  to  the  Church,  after  the  period  of  penance,  was 
Ceremony  of  often  accompanied  with  much  imposing  ceremonial, 
readmission.  ^\\q  absolution  pronounced  by  the  early  Church  was 
not,  however,  judicial.  The  prerogative  of  pardon  belonged  to 
God  alone. 

'Note  the  proclamation  of  the  deacon,  "  ^Ve  quis  audientium,  ne  quis  infidelmm" 
etc.     Apust.  ConstiL,  1.  8,  c.  5. 

^  V.  Council  of  Nice,  Can.  11,  12,  and  canons  of  various  other  councils. 
^  V.  Bingiiani:  Antiquities  of  the  Christian  Church,  bk.  xviii,  chap.  i. 
*  V.  Guericke:  Lehrhuch  d.  ch.  kirch.  Arch(xolo(jie,  Berlin,  1850,  s.  109. 


CIIL'RCII    DISCIPLINE.  883 

As  there  were  stai^cs  of  jK'nitfiiti:il  discipline,  so  were  tliere  vari- 
eties or  stai^es  of  absolution.  IlinLjliain  '  has  arranijfed  Five  sta^os  of 
these  as  follows:  "  1.)  The  al)s<.lulion  or  ijreat  indul-  '^'J'^'uH"". 
sjfenoo  of  baptism.  -2.)  Tlu'  absolution  of  the  encharist.  U.)  The 
ab!<olution  of  the  woid  and  doctiine.  4.)  The  absolution  of  imposi- 
tion of  hands  and  prayer.  ").)  The  abscjlution  of  reconcilement  t(» 
the  Church  and  her  communion  l)y  a  relaxation  of  her  censures. 
The  two  first  may  be  called  sacramental  absolution;  the  third,  de- 
claratory absolution;  the  fourth,  precatory  absolution;  the  fifth, 
judicial  absolution;  and  all  of  them  authoritative,  so  far  as  they  are 
done  by  the  ministerial  authority  and  commission  which  Christ  has 
ij^iven  to  his  Churcli,  to  reconcile  men  to  God  by  the  exercise  of  such 
acts  and  means  as  coinluce  to  that  end  in  a  subordinate  and  minis- 
terial way,  according  to  his  ajtpointment." 

The  early  Church  was  careful  in  its  treatment  of  the  excommuni- 
cate. It  never  claimed  the  absolute  preroi^ative  of  jjar-  care  of  the  ear- 
<lon,  nor  arrogated  the  power  to  exclude  the  offender  b' Church, 
from  final  salvation,  nor  to  limit  the  forgiving  mercy  of  (iod.  The 
acts  of  till'  Church  were  puivly  ministerial,  exercised  to  guard  its 
purity  of  doctrine  and  life.  The  original  system  of  Respectiup 
l)enance  had  no  respect  to  merit,  but  was  purely  penal,  i""'<i<)n. 
disciplinary,  and  reformatory."  Auricular  confession,  merit  of  good 
works,  and  indulgences  were  abuses  which  apjieared  during  a  sid)- 
sequent  period  of  the  history  of  the  Church. 

§  :5.  DiKeijiHiic  of  the  Clerrjy. 
If  the  early  Church  was  stringent  in  its  discipline  of  the  laity,  its 

treatment  of  clerical  offeiu'es  was  still  more  severe.^     A    , 

More  stringent 

distinction  was  made  between  the  disciplini'  of  the  cler-  than  lay  disci- 
\l\  and  that  of  the  laity.  A  clergyman  might  be  exconi-  ''""'^' 
municated  from  his  office,  with  its  honours  and  emolutnents,  and  yet 
be  permittiMl  to  enjoy  the  privileges  of  the  Church  conceded  to  the 
laity.  In  case  of  flagrant  crimes  the  excision  was,  how-  penalties  in- 
ever,  absolute.  The  penalties  suflFercfl  by  the  clergy  flit't^'''- 
generally  had  respect  to  their  means  of  support,  their  ofUce,  or  to 
their  j)ersons,  in  ease  of  corporal  ])nnishment;  so  that  the  depriva- 
tion of  their  in -omes  was  for  lesser  offences,  the   degradation   from 

office    to    the    condition    of    lavnien    for    more    heinous    _         ^   , 

Deposed  rlerjry 

crimes.    In  the  latter  case  the  deposed  clergy  were  rarely   rarely  reinstut- 

reinstated;   hence  the  indelible  character  of  ordination   ^  ' 

coiiM     not    have    1)t'en    the   goveniin<_'    tloctrine.*       The    infreipient 

'   Op.  cU  :  Ilk.  xix,  pp.  10S.5.  .i-^q.  «  Probst:    Op   rlt.^  s.  -101. 

'  Probst:    Op.  cit.,  s.  403.  *  Probst:    Op.  cit.,  38.  407,  408. 


884    ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

infliction  of  corporal  pnnisliment  was  generally  confined  to  the 
inferior  clergy;  but  in  criminal  causes  the  superior  clergy,  after 
degradation  from  their  oftice,  were  also  liable  to  the  same.' 

The  ancient  Church,  through  its  conciliary  canons,  exercised  a 
most  vigilant  oversight  over  its  clergy,  and  defined  with 
piine    whole-  great  clearness  the   offences  Avhich  should  be  shunned, 
^°'"^'  and  the  punishment  to  be  inflicted  upon  wilful  violators 

of  the  law.  Usually  these  provisions  were  eminently  wholesome 
and  just. 

'  J\istin.  Novel,  123,  cap.  20.     Corporal  puuishmeut  seems  to  have  been  a  later 
iutiietion. 


BOOK  THIRD 


TXIE 


Sacraments  and  Worship  of  the  Early  Christian  Church. 


25 


THE    SACRAMENTS 


AND 


WORSHIP  OF  THE  EARLY  CHURCH, 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  apostles  recognisiMJ  two  sacraments  as  instituted  by  Christ; 
they  celebrated  these  witii  joy,  and  imposed  them  as  obligatory 
n]>on  all  who  would  be  disciples  of  the  new  faith.  The  deeper  sig- 
nificance of  the  Christian  sacraments  is  manifest,  although  existing 
forms  were  employed  for  teaching  their  profounder  truths.  What 
under  the  former  dispensation  was  a  type,  found  in  Christ  and  the 
sacraments  which  he  instituted  its  true  antitype;  the  prophecy  of 
good  things  to  come  was  herein  fulfilled;  the  circumcision  which 
was  outward  in  the  flesh  was  to  yield  to  the  true  circumcision  of  the 
)ieart,  in  the  spirit  and  not  in  the  letter  (Rom.  ii,  28,  29).  Christ, 
the  true  Passover,  was  to  be  sacrificed  once  for  all  for  men,  and 
henceforth  the  feast  was  to  be  kept  not  with  the  old  leaven,  neither 
ivith  the  leaven  of  malice  and  wickedness,  but  with  the  unleavened 
bread  of  sincerity  and  truth  (1  Cor.  v,  7,  8). 

The  Eastern  Church  characterized  all  holy  or  inc(nn])rclu'nsil)le 
truths  or  offices  as  mysteries,  fivaT?]pta,  and  the  Latins,  in  their  trans- 
lations of  the  Scriptures,  generally  used  the  term  sacrament,  sarra- 
inentum,  as  the  appropriate  synonym.  Hence  the  Christian  fathers 
of  the  second  and  third  centuries  coiifound  the  sacraments  proper 
with  all  sacred  rites  coiniecte<l  with  the  institutions  of  the  Church. 
At  other  times  they  designate  each  step  or  stage  in  the  celebration 
of  baptism,  or  the  Lord's  Supper,  as  a  sacrament.  Hence  the  an- 
ointing with  oil  in  Itajjtisni,  ami  the  act  of  confirmation,  are  often 
called  sacraments.  Cyprian  insists  upon  both  sacraments,  washing 
of  water  and  the  imposition  of  hands,  as  necessary  to  the  comj)lete 
sanctification  of   the    believei'; '    and    Optatus    speaks    in    similar 

'  Ep.  ad  Steph. 


88S        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

manner  of  Avashing,  anointing,  and  confirmation  as  three  sacraments. 
Probably,  liowever,  by  this  term  they  inchide  no  more  than  was 
implied  in  the  Greek  fivoriipiov,  mystery.' 

The  Christian  writers  of  the  fourth  century  continue  to  attach  to 
the  term  a  very  vague  and  indefinite  meaning.  The  works  of  the 
great  theologians,  Ambrose,  Hilary,  and  Leo,  fail  to  define  Avith 
clearness,  to  agree  in  the  number  of  the  sacraments,  or  to  give  the 
rationale  of  their  operation;  in  Augustine  is  first  met  an  attempt 
to  thus  define,  and  to  explain.  His  definition  would  allow  of  the 
recognition  of  an  indefinite  number,  since  he  did  not  limit  the  term 
to  that  which  had  the  express  sanction  and  command  of  Christ. 

Thus  the  number  of  sacraments  remained  undetermined  during 
the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries,  but  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per were  by  all  j)arties  considered  the  chief  and  indispensable.  It 
was  the  almost  universal  opinion  in  both  East  and  West  that  these 
were  necessary  to  salvation,  inasmuch  as  they  were  the  a})pointed 
means  of  grace;  nevertheless,  the  Church  did  not  deny  salvation 
to  those  who  by  extraordinary  devotion,  or  by  a  martyr's  death 
witnessed  for  Christ.  In  such  cases  the  "baptism  of  blood"  took 
the  place  of  water  baptism.  The  order  of  the  succession  of  the 
sacraments  was  generally  recognised.  Baptism  preceded  the  Lord's 
Supper,  and  was  regarded  the  necessary  preparation  for  it. 

>  The  ante-Niceno  fathers  appl}'  the  term  mystery  to  all  which  is  in  any  way  re- 
lated to  the  Godhead,  or  to  the  revelation  of  the  same.  They  include  in  lliis  the 
doctrine  of  revelation,  and  even  the  subject  of  symbolism,  which  is  considered  mys- 
terious and  sacred.  This  appears  especially  in  a  nuiiibcr  of  passages  of  TertuUian 
and  Ireuseus.  The  following  from  Trenasus  mav  illustrate  their  views:  "But  it  is 
more  suitable  that  we,  directing  our  inquiries  ;ifter  this  fasliion,  should  exercise  our- 
selves in  the  investigation  of  the  mystery  and  administration  of  the  living  God.  and 
should  increase  in  the  love  of  iiim  who  has  done,  and  still  does,  so  great  things  for 
us.  .  .  .  We  should  leave  things  of  that  nature  to  God,  who  created  us,  being  most 
properly  assured  that  the  Scriptures  are  indeed  perfect,  since  they  were  spoken  by 
the  Word  of  God  and  his  Spirit;  but  we,  inasmuch  as  we  are  inferior  to,  and  later  in 
existence  than,  the  Word  of  God  and  his  Spirit,  are  on  that  very  account  destitute 
of  the  knowledge  of  his  mysteries.  ...  If,  therefore,  even  with  respect  to  creation, 
there  are  some  things  wliich  belong  only  to  God, .  .  .  what  ground  is  tliere  for  com- 
plaint, if  in  regard  to  those  things  which  we  investigate  in  the  Scriptures  (which  are 
throughout  spiritual),  we  are  able  by  the  grace  of  God  to  explain  some  of  them,  while 
we  must  leave  others  in  the  hands  of  God,"  etc.     Advers.  Hares.,  ii,  28,  1-3. 


THE   SACRAMENT   (.)F    BAPTI8.M.  389 


CHAPTER  L 

THE  SACRAMENT   OF  BAPTISM. 
§  1.   Tli£  Idea. 

TiiK  acknowledgment  of  Ji'sus  as  the  Messiah — tlie  sent  of  God — 
was  the  sole  article  of  belief  uniting  the  first  believers  in  a  distinct 
community.  Baptism  was  a  sign  and  seal  of  this  belief,  and  was, 
therefore,  into  the  name  of  Jesus,  thus  ratifying  the  union  of  the 
believer  with  Iiirii  as  the  Messiah.'  Probably  no  other 
formula  was  at  first  used,  since  this  name  was  believed  '"^ 

to  imply  a  complete  divinity,  and  these  words  to  comi)relu'ii(l  all 
things  ju'cessary  to  citizenship  in  the  kingdom  which  Christ  was  t(» 
establish.  But  the  full  formula  contained  in  the  C(jmmissiou  of  Christ 
was  soon  used,  and  afterward  was  regarded  as  essential  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  rite." 

The  hapiisin  which  Christ  instituted  was  different  in  spirit  and 
import  from  that  of  John  the  l)ai)tist;  this  is  clearly  chrisfs  bap- 
recognised  by  John  himself  (Matt,  iii,  II;  Mark  i,  8;  fsm  petuimr. 
Luke  iii,  16;  John  i,  3:i);  and  is  also  evident  from  the  fact  that 
John's  disciples  had  "not  even  heard  whether  there  be  a  IIolv 
(ihost''  (Acts  xix,  2).  The  formula  "into  the  name  of  the  Father, 
and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost "  could  have  been  understood 
only  by  those  who  were  assured  of  the  resurrection  of  Christ,  after 
tlu"  full  work  of  atonement  had  been  com]iletcd,  the  jiresence  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  had  been  felt,  and  the  fulfillment  of  Jesas'8  promise 
had  been  witnessed  upon  the  day  of  Pentecost.  So  that  while  the 
baptism  of  John  was  complete  in  water,  kv  vi^ari,  the  baptism  insti- 
tuted by  Christ  was  not  only  in  water,  but  in  the  Holy  Spirit  and  in 
fire,  nvevnari  dyiio  Kai  ttvqL  ^Moreover,  the  V)aptism  instituted  by 
Christ  was  to  be  a  permanent  institution,  and  was  of  the  nature  of 
an  iudispcTisable  sacrament.' 

'  V.  XcaiidiT:   Plmittwi  and  Tiainiwj,  etc.     Rj'l.ind's  trnns..  p.  27. 

'' V.  Hariiaok:  Pnijuiaiijesrhirhti',  Bd.  i.  H.  claims  tliat  iliis  haptismal  confession 
was  lirst  roco^'uisod  as  an  apostolic  article  of  faith  about  A.  D.  150,  and  that  it  orig- 
inated in  Rome,  and  noi  in  the  Kast. 

*  .\cts  ii,  38,  39:  iuiv  yap  kartv  r/  i-ayyt7.ia  Kol  ro'ig  reKvotf  vfiuv  Kai  naaiv  rolf  e'tg 
iiaKpav  K.-.Ti. 


390         SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

The  submission  to  the  rite  implied,  on  the  part  of  the  subject,  a 
.  turning  away  from  his  former  life,  an  acceptance  of  the 
plied  in  the  Messiah,  and  a  renewal  and  purification  of  the  spirit. 
^^'  The  dying  of  the  old  man  and  the  life  of  the  new,  the 

birth  to  righteousness  and  holiness  through  the  Holy  Spirit,  the 
burial  with  Christ,  and  the  resurrection  to  a  life  of  perpetual  devo- 
tion, are  prominent  thoughts  of  the  New  Testament  writers. 

The  Christian  fathers  of  the  second  and  following  centuries  in- 

^  .  .  cline  more  to  the  thought  of  a  magical  power  of  the 

Opinions  re-  ,  ,  '^  , 

specting  its  water  in  baptism.  Justin  Martyr '  calls  it  the  water  of 
nature.  life,  i;(Ja)p  ^o)7]g',  Tertullian '   conveys  the  thought  that 

in  the  water  of  baptism  the  new  birth  takes  place ;  Gregory  of  Nazi- 
anzen  ^  speaks  of  it  as  "  the  garment  of  immortality,  the  laver  of 
regeneration,"  etc.  By  some  of  the  fathers  the  necessity  of  bap- 
tism to  salvation  is  clearly  taught;  hence  the  characterization  of  the 
How  character-  I'ite  as  scilus.*  Others  ^  emphasize  the  enlightening  effects 
i^ed.  Qf  baptism;  hence  call  it  (fXiinaiiog,  illaminatio,  sacra- 

7nentwn  illuminationis,  lux  mentis,  etc.  These,  together  with  other 
terms  for  baptism  and  its  effects,  as  ;:^()ta/^a,  unctlo,  0(j)Qayig,  sigil- 
liim,  indulgentia,  ahsolutlo,  gratia,  luurs  peccatorwn,  etc.,  clearly 
indicate  the  high  worth  placed  upon  baptism  by  the  Christian 
fathers,  as  well  as  their  opinion  of  its  magical  effects. 

The  post-Nicene  fathers,  no  less  than  their  predecessors,  are  posi- 
tive in  their  opinions  relative  to  the  necessity  of  baptism  to  salva- 
tion, and  to  its  power  to  regenerate  the  subject.  Separate  treatises 
upon  its  nature,  efficacy,  and  necessity  were  prepared  by  Basil, 
Gregory  Nazianzen,  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  and  Augustine.  It  occu- 
pies a  prominent  place  in  the  theology  of  Augustine,  who  attempts 
to  harmonize  it  with  his  peculiar  views  of  original  sin  and  the 
enslavement  of  the  human  will.  With  other  prominent  fathers, 
he  plainly  teaches  the  necessity  of  baptism  to  salvation;  conse- 
quently,that  all  the  unbaptized  are  lost,  including  young  children.' 
He  also  regards  baptism  as  a  sacrament  of  regeneration,  through 
which  forgiveness  of  sin  is  attained,  and  as  the  channel  for  the 
communication  of  efficient  and  cooperating  grace.  Yet  with  most 
of  these  great  theologians  the  exercise  of  faith  is  regarded  as  the 
necessary  condition  of  the  efficient  operation  of  the  sacrament.  In 
opposition  to  Cyprian  and  some  of  the  Eastern  fathers,  Augustine 

1  Dialog,  c.  Tryp.  ^  de  Bapt.,  c.  1.  ^  Orat.  40,  de  Bap. 

*  Augustine,  Basil,  Greg.  Nazianzen,  and  others. 

s  Just.  Mar. :  Apol,  2 ;  Clem.  Alex. :  Foedag.,  i,  6 ;  Greg.  Naz. :  Orat.  40,  de  Bap. ; 
Chrys. :   Horn.  13,  in  Heh. 

*  V.  Ep.  18G,  c.  27  ;  and  de  Nupt.  et  Concup.,  i,  c.  28. 


I 


THE   SACRAMENT   OF   BAPTISM.  391 

recognised  the  validity  of  heretical  Ijaptism.'     This   remained  the 
prevalent  view  during  the  period  which  we  are  to  examine. 

§  3.  Sitljeds  of  Bapt'mn. 
The  command  of   Christ  in  the  great  commission  (Matt,  xxvii, 
19,  20;  Mark  xv,  lo,  10)   hud  reference   to  an   indispensable  ordi- 
nance—baptism.    This  is  generally  accepted.     The  discipling  of 
all  men  implied   a  missionary  activity  and  missionary  modes,  used 
originally  in  behalf  of  such  as  could  comprehend  the  conditions  of 
the   Gospel  message.     Thus  the  tirst  converts,   whose   First    subjects 
names  and  the  circumstances  of  whose  baptism  are  re-  ^"'^»- 
corded  in   the  Scriptures,  were  of  adult   age.     That  infants  and 
young  chil(b-cn  were  baptized  (hiring  the  apostolic  age  is  nowhere 
positively  attirmcd   in   the  New  Testament.     The  mention  of   the 
baptism  of  entire  households  furnishes  a   strong  pre-    ^^^^^^^^^^ 
sumptivc  argument,  but  is  not  decisive.     So  the  relation 
of  circumcision  to  Christian  baptism,  the  universality  of  the  bene- 
fits of  Christ's  kingdom,  the  recognition  of  young  children  as  objects 
of  his  special  favour,  the  comprehensiveness  of  the  apostolic  com- 
mission,  and   various    other   considerations,  are,  to   many,  jjroofs 
that  the  children  of  Christian  believers  were  regarded  by  the  apos- 
tolic Church  as  tit  subjects  for  bai)tism.     Hut  these,  in  the  absence 
of  clear,  unequivocal  Scripture  statement,  cannot  produce  universal 
conviction.     "  Christ  left  no  command  about  it;  it  was     ^^  ^^^^^^^^ 
one  of  those  many  things  his  Church  was  to  learn  in 
her  graibial  development  tlirough  the  Paraclete  whom  he  had  given." '-' 
The  apostolic  fathers  contain  no  positive  information      Apostolic  fa- 
relative   to  the  practice  of  the  Church  of  their  time      ",'^"^  ,!|,,^nt 
respecting  infant  baptism.       The  most  explicit  state-      imi.tism. 
ment  is  found  in  Justin  Martyr,  who  says:  "There  are  among  the 
Christians  of  this  day  many  of  both  sexes,  sixty  and   justm's  state- 
seventy  years  old,   who   have  been   made  discii)les  of   '"**'"• 
Christ  from  their  infancy."  '     Here  nothing  is  said  of  baptism;  it  is 
onlv  inferred.     Nor  does  Irenajus  positively  affirm  the  practice  of 
infant  baptism  in  his  day.     In  common  with  the  Christian  writers* 
of  the  second  century,  he  connects  the  necessity  of  baj.-   ,^^.„.^^jg.^y,e^ 
tism  with  the  taint  of  human  nature,     lie  argues  the 
universal  guilt  of  sin  and  the  need  of  a  universal  Saviour.     Christ  is 

'  (le  Biiptismo  contra  Dnnat.,  1.  vii. 

«  DoUinper:    The  First  Age  of  the  Church,  vol.  ii,  p.  163. 
3  ApoL,  i,  15. 

•«  V.  Clem.  Rom. :   Ep.  \,  ad  Cor.,  n.  17.     Hermas:  Pastor,   lib.   3,   simil.  9.     Just 
Mar. :  Dial,  cum  Tnjph.,  c.  43. 


393        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

the  Saviour  who  came  to  save  all '  who  are  regenerated  by  God. 
But  this  regeneration  ordinarily  comes  through  baptism,  lie  thus 
implies  that  baptism  was  administered  to  infants.*  So  also  with 
Tertullian.  While  no  positive  assertion  is  made  by  the  African 
presbyter  that  the  Church  practised  infant  baptism,  the  entire  force 
Tertuiiiaa's  of  his  argument  presupposes  such  practice.'  For  if  he 
positiou.  labours  to  show  that  the  rite  should  be  postponed  to 

adult  age,  it  is  evident  that  the  custom  of  the  baptism  of  young 
children  was  prevalent.  Moreover,  in  his  opposition  he  does  not 
cite  apostolic  custom  against  infant  baptism,  which  is  almost  incon- 
ceivable if  the  apostolic  Church  had  been  averse  to  it.  Thus,  while 
no  positive  statement  relative  to  infant  baptism  is  met  in  *  the  Scrip- 
tures, or  in  the  writings  of  any  fathers  earlier  than  Irenseus  and  Ter- 
tullian, by  the  end  of  the  second  century  mention  is  made  of  the 

,  .     baptism  of  children,  and  in  the  third,  of  infants.     But 

Not  general  in         ^      .  '  .  .       ' 

the  fourth  cen-  even  in  the  fourth  the  practice  of  infant  baptism  is  not 
^'^'  general,    since    eminent    fathers,    whose    parents    were 

Christians,  did  not  receive  baptism  till  adult  age.  It  was  then  gen- 
erally based  upon  the  teaching  of  Christ  (Matt,  xix,  14).  That  dur- 
ing the  third  century  the  children  of  Chi-istian  parents  were  fre- 
quently baptized  is  established  by  much  unquestioned  testimony. 
Origen's  testi-  Origen  is  especially  clear  in  his  statement  of  the  prevail- 
mony.  jjjg  practice,  and  insists  that  the   Church  inherited  it 

from  the  apostles  themselves.^  From  the  middle  of  the  third  cen- 
tury the  custom  of  the  Church  is  attested  by  the  unequivocal  testi- 

'  Adver.  Hares.,  1.  ii,  c.  22. 

^  V.  Adver.  Hares.,  lib.  ii,  cc.  22,  39.  v.  Powers:  Irenceus  and  Infant  Baptism,  in  the 
Am.  Pres.  and  TheoL  Review.  1857,  pp.  239-267.  This  writer  examines  tlie  teach- 
ings of  Iretiseus  with  much  thoroughness,  and  coucUides  that  wlierever  lie  uses  tlie 
expression  "  re.ireneration  by  God,"  lie  means  baptism.  This  was  also  the  opinion 
of  the  earlier  defenders  of  infant  baptism,  v.  Wall :  Hist,  of  Infant  Baptism,  Oxford, 
1872,  vol.  i,  pp.  44,  seq. 

^  de  Bapt,  c.  18.  v.  Hofling:  I)<.is  Scwrament  der  Taufe,  Erlangen,  18-lG,  Bd.  i, 
ss.  104,  seq. 

*  "The  introduction  of  the  practice  of  pnsdobaptism  into  the  Church  is  hidden  in 
Harnack's  obscurit}'.  If  it  owes  its  origin  to  the  indispensableness  of  tlie  same 
statement.  to  salvation,  this  is  an  argument  tliat  the  superstitious  view  of  bap- 
tism had  become  greatly  strengtliened.  At  llie  time  of  Irerueua  (ii,  22,  4)  and  Ter- 
tullian {de  Bapt.,  IS)  it  was  already  widely  practised,  being  defended  from  the  com- 
mand of  Christ  (Matt,  xix,  14).  We  have  no  witness  for  iliis  practice  from  an  earlier 
date.  Tertullian  opposed  it  on  the  ground  tliat  a  conscious  faith  was  the  necessary' 
condition  of  receiving  the  rite,  but  more  especially  because  of  its  tremendous  import. 
...  In  the  course  of  the  third  century  the  cuetom  was  prevalent  to  baptize  tlie 
children  of  Chri'tian  families."  liarn  ick :  LJo-buch  der  DogmengescJiichte,  Frei- 
burg, 188fi,  Bd.  i,  ss.  .158.  359. 

*  V.  in  Lac,  Horn.  14,  t.  2;  and  in  Rom.,  1.  5,  c.  G.  v,  9. 


THE   SACRAMENT   OF   BAPTISM.  393 

mony  of  compcU'iit  witnesses;  it  is  made  the  suhjeet  of  eoneiliury 
action,'   aud   is    defendecl    by   most    orthodox    writers   ^^^^^^^^  ,^^^^,,^_^^ 

atjainst  the  contrary  teachinjjs  of  some  heretical  sects,   toiniii. niio 

While  tlie  opinions  of  tlie  Cliristian  tcacliers  of  the  tliird 
and  fourth  eenturies  varied  with  regard  to  the  expedit-ney  of  hajiti.:- 
ing  iiiiants  in  ease  of  no  impending  danger,  they  were  in  accord  ou 
the  question  of  its  riglitfuhiess  and  hiwfulness  when  threatened 
with  death.  Gregory  Nazianzen  tliought  it  advisabk',  if  p,,st|.uii«Hi  to 
in  good  liealth,  to  defer  the  baptism  of  children  until  they  i'^^'  '"""^  y^^""- 
were  about  three  years  old;  he  was,  however,  positive  in  maintain- 
ing the  right  and  duty  of  the  baptism  of  infants  in  case  of  danger 
of  death.*  The  inscriptions  which  contain  distinct  dogmatic  teach- 
ing have  already  been  found  to  be  few.  Yet  a  number  have  been 
preserved  which  confirm  the  recorded  testimony,  already  referred 
to,  as  to  the  relation  of  children  to  baptism  and  church  membersliip. 
Children  of  tender  age  are  spoken  of  as  having  been  bajiti/A'd,  and 
as  faithful  members  of  Christ's  Church.'  The  practice  of  infant 
baptisn\  was  usually  limited  to  the  case  of  children  born  of  Christ- 
ian parents;  nevertheless,  the  early  Church  was  gen-  Liberal pm-tice 
erally  liberal  in  the  treatment  of  children  when  one  "'  ^^"^  ^  ""'"^"■ 
parent  was  a  Christian,  or  when  they  had  been  born  while  the 
parents  were  under  ban  of  excommunication,  or  when  the  religious 
status  of  the  parents  was  not  known.  In  all  these  cases  the  chil- 
dren were  held  to  be  fit  subjects  of  baptism.*  From  Baptism  of 
the  fourth  century  the  propriety  of  the  baptism  of  eo^n„'J,n'in  ih^ 
infants  was  unquestioned,  and  the  practice  was  not  fourth  century, 
unusual;  nevertheless,  adult  baptism  was  the  more  common  practice 
for  the  first  six  centuries." 

§  3.    Catechumenkal  Training  of  Adults  for  Baptism  and  Admission  to  the 

Church. 

During  the  warmth  of  zeal  in  the  apostolic  Church,  professed 
believers  in  Jesus  and  his  resurrection  were  almost  immediately 

*  V.  Cyprian,  Ep.  59  and  04,  where  the  bishop.  Fidns,  had  inquired  wliotlior  in- 
fants could  be  baptized  before  they  were  eight  days  ohl.  The  Couneil  of  CurtliHge, 
A.  D.  252,  decided  that  infants  could  be  baiit'zcd  even  earlier  than  the  eighih  day. 

*  V.  Oral.  40,  de  Baptismo. 

3  The  following  is  an  example:  niCTOC  EK  IIICTSiX  ZHCIMOC  ENOAAE 
KEI.ME  ZIICAC-  ETECIN  B-  Mil-  A-  II.ME-  KE.  "Faithful,  of  the  failliful,  I, 
Zosinius,  lie  hero,  having  lived  two  years  one  monlli  and  twenty  five  days." 

*  V.  Bingham:    Op.  ciL,  bk.  .\,  sees.  15-19,  and  authorities  there  given. 

*  "  Baptism  of  infants  is  allowed  no  less  by  present  custom  than  by  the  ancient 
canons"  (of  the  Coptic  Church),  v.  Butler:  Aitcient  Cvptic  Churclits  of  Egypt,  vol.  ii, 
p.  -262. 


394         SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

admitted  to  baptism.    This  is  evident  from  the  history  of  Philip  and 

.  the  Ethiopian  eunuch  (Acts  viii,  30-40),  Cornelius  (Acts 

diate on profes-   X,  47,  48),  Lydia  (Acts  xvi,  14,  15),  and  the  Philippian 

sion  of  faith.       j^^jgj.  ^^^^g  ^^^^  22^  33).  It  seems  to  have  been  the  method 

of  John  Baptist  in  his  ministry  (Matt,  iii,  5,  6;  John  iii,  23,  et  al.); 
nevertheless,  even  his  baptism  was  conditioned  on  repentance  and 
reformation  of  life  (Matt,  iii,  7-10;  Luke  iii,  7-10).  So  also  in  the 
later  history  of  the  Church,  during-  the  attempts  to  Christianize  the 
pagan  peoples,  whole  tribes  were  sometimes  baptized  almost  imme- 
diately, at  their  own  request  or  that  of  their  chiefs.'  But  from  the 
second  century  the  general  practice  of  the  Church  was  essentially 
modified,  especially  in  the  case  of  converts  from  heathenism.  In 
order  to  preserve  the  purity  of  the  Church  and  save  it  from  scandal, 
Special  train-  ^^  ^^^^  believed  necessary  to  use  greater  caution  in  receiv- 
ing necessary  ing  members,  and  by  a  course  of  careful  preliminary 
in  the  case  of  i  •/ 

Gentile  con-  training  to  become  assured  of  their  sincerity,  and  of 
verts.  their  acceptance  of  the  Christian   doctrine;  thus  men 

were  appointed  to  the  special  duty  of  preparing  candidates  for  bap- 
tism. The  nature  and  duration  of  the  instruction  varied  with  cir- 
cumstances, from  a  few  days  to  two  or  three  years.  It  is  believed 
that  this  had  chief  reference  to  persons  of  Gentile  origin. 

The  gradual  admission  of  the  candidate  to  the  Church  services, 
his  instruction  in  the  exoteric  doctrines  of  Christianity,  and  his  ad- 
vancement through  successive  stages  of  discipline,  were  regarded  as 
preparatory  to  his  initiation  into  the  mysteries  of  the  society.^  Bap- 
tism was  this  initiatory  rite;  and  to  reveal  its  process  and  effects  to 
those  who  were  still  in  catechumen ical  training  was  regarded  a  deep 
impiety. 

§  4.    The  Ministrants. 

It  is  certain  that  the  words  of  Christ's  last  commission  were  more 
The  right  to  especially  addressed  to  the  eleven  apostles.  But  that 
baptize  notcon-   ^|^    ^.j^^     £  i^^ptism  was  performed  bv  others  than  the 

fined  to   the  1       _  ^      ^ 

apostles.  twelve  and  Paul  is  plain  from  the  example  of  Philip, 

one  of  the  first  deacons  (Acts  viii,  12,  38).  Nevertheless,  during 
the  second  century,  when  the  episcopal  authority  had  come  to  be 
A  function  of  widely  recognised,  baptism  was  regarded  as  an  especial 
the  bishop.  function  of  the  bishop.  The  presbyters  and  deacons 
performed  the   rite,  but   with  express    permission  of  the  bishop. 

'  n.  Socrates:  Eccles.  Hist.,  bk.  vii,  c.  xxx,  where  tlie  baptism  of  tlie  Burnrnndi.-ms 
is  described  as  taking  place  on  the  eiulilli  day,  alter  a  fast  and  instruction  of  seven 
days.     This  w.is  early  in  the  fifth  century. 

"  It  is  easj"  to  trace  parallelisms  between  the  practice  of  the  Christian  Church  and 
that  of  the  contemporary  social,  political,  and  religious  clubs. 


TIIR    SACRAMENT   OF   BAPTISM.  895 

Tlu"  duty  portaiiu'd  to  tlio  episcopal  uftU-v,  and  could  be  dischari^cd 
by  the  bishop  and  by  tliose  only  to  wIkhii  his  ri«,dit  was  di'lci^'atud. 
This  was  the  theory  prevalent  in  the  orthodox  churches,  both  East 
and  West,  during;  tlie  first  six  centuries.  However,  in  m  pases  of  ex- 
eases  ..f  c-xtrenie  lUH-essity,  not  only  presbyters  and  dea-  [JX-rTcouid 
cons,  ])ut  also  lavnien  and  even  heretics,'  performed  the  admiuister  Uie 
rite,  anil  such  baptism  was  regarded  valid  by  most  ec-  '""*''• 
desiastical  authorities.  It  was  so  recognised  on  account  of  the 
]irevalent  view  that  baptism  was  necessary  to  admission  to  the 
Church  and  to  salvation.  The  service  of  an  irregular  administrator 
was  justified  only  on  the  ground  of  extreme  exigency,  as  in  the  case 
of  impending  death  or  the  compelled  absence  of  the  bishop." 

§  5.    The  Mode  of  Bn2)tism. 
In  the  various  instances  of  baptism  mentioned  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, the  mode  of  its  administration  is  in  no  case  de-   christmade 

scribed.     It  is  manifest,  however,  that  Christ,  in  so  far   use  of  knowu 

.         T  1  11         -^1      modes, 

as  possible,  matle   use  of  onhnanees  and  methods  witli 

which  the  men  of  his  time  were  already  familiar.     The  genuine 

spirit  of  the  old  religion  was  not  to  be  superseded  by  that  of  the 

new,  since  it  was  essentially  the  same  under  both,  but  it  was  to  be 

revived,  quickened,  and  perfected.      When,  therefore,   in    the  great 

commission  to  his  apostles  Christ  used   the  words  "disciple,"  or 

"  make  disciples," /taO;/T£(;aa-e,  these  conveyed   no  new  notion,  but 

one  with  which  they  were  entirely  familiar.     The  great  rabbis  of  the 

rival  sects  were  ever  /.ealous  to  make  disciples,  [ladrjral,         AnaloRles. 

and  the  thought  of  gaining  adherents  to  the  doctrines 

of  their  own  Master  and  Lord  was  consonant  with  the  feelings  of 

the  apostles,  and  in  harmony  with  prevalent  methods.     So  also  with 

baptism.     The  command  to  bai)tize,  j3ttrrr/'<;«i',  (iarxriaavTeq,  was  well 

understood.     Xo  explanation   was  added;  no  description  of  some 

strange  ceremony   followed;  the  notion   was  clear;  the  method  of 

obeying  the  command,  manifest.     What  was  at  hand  and  well  known 

w.ia  used;  the  mode  of  the  administration  was  tliat  which  was  then 

extant  among  the  Jewish    jx'ople,  of  which  Christ,  the  Master,  and 

1  The  v-ilidity  of  biiptlsin,  wlioii  porrormod  by  licrctios  or  scliismatics,  was  stoutly 
o;iposod  l)y  Cypriun  in  liis  coriHict  witli  Xi)vulian.  In  case  of  lieretics  aiul  schismatics 
:i<  miiiistrints  ho  denied  lliat  thoro  was  anr  real  baptism,  since  no  one  outside  tho 
IFoly  Calhnjic  Clmrch  had  the  character  reqnisif^  to  make  tho  baptism  effective  to 
tlio  wasliinji  away  of  sins,  even  thoujs'h  their  professed  f:iitli  and  all  the  forniulas 
used  were  in  exact  harmony  with  those  of  the  Church.  This  arose  from  his  extreme 
theory  of  the  unity  of  the  Church,     v.  Ep.  ad  M-ignum. 

"  For  authorities  v.  bk.  ii,  chap,  iv,  wliero  the  growth  of  the  episcopate  is  traced. 


390         SACll.S.:\IENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

the  apostles,  the  disciples,  were  a  part.  That  the  rite  was  to  have  a 
The  rite  bad  a  tleeper  significance  to  those  who  accepted  it  is  manifest, 
deeper  import.  This  was  Only  in  accordance  with  a  law  holding  in 
the  entire  cycle  of  art  and  philosophy,  as  well  as  religion.  It  was 
to  be  no  mere  washing  by  water,  but  a  purification  by  the  Holy 
Ghost  and  by  fire.  The  decision  of  the  Council  at  Jerusalem  (Acts 
XV,  29),  whereby  the  obligation  of  circumcision  was  no  longer  im- 
posed upon  the  Gentile  converts,  substituted  a  pleasant  for  a  painful 
initiatory  rite,  and  gave  to  baptism  a  foremost  place,  rather  than  a 
secondary,  as  under  the  Jewish  economy;  but  there  is  not  the  slight- 
est evidence  that,  during  the  apostolic  period,  the  mere  mode  of 
administration  underwent  any  change.  The  customary  mode  was 
Immersion  the  used  by  the  apostles  in  the  baptism  of  the  first  converts, 
amo^ag"  the  '^^^'^Y  ^^^"®  familiar  with  the  baptism  of  John's  disciples 
Jews.  and  of  the  Jewish  proselj^tes.    This  was  ordinarily  by  dip- 

phig  or  immersion.  This  is  indicated  not  only  by  the  general  signifi- 
cation of  the  words  used  in  describing  the  rite,  but  the  earliest  testi- 
mony of  the  documents  which  have  been  preserved  gives  preference  to 
tills  mode.'  While,  however,  the  mode  of  the  Jewish  proselyte  bap- 
Jewish  prose-  tism  is  generally  accepted,  the  date  of  its  institution  is 
lyta  baptism,  gtju  jj^  question.  A  large  class  of  scholars  look  upon  it 
as  of  immemorial  antiquit}',  while  others  find  little  evidence  that  Jew- 
ish proselyte  baptism  Avas  pi-actised  before  the  destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem by  Titus,  after  the  possibility  of  special  offerings  in  the  temple  had 
ceased.  The  chronology  is  difficult,  but  the  opinion '  that  proselyte 
baptism  among  the  Jews,  as  an  independent  rite  of  initiation,  could 
not  have  been  introduced  earlier  than  the  end  of  the  first  century  is 
entitled  to  much  respect.  But  that  it  was  before  practised  as  a 
token  of  purification,  if  not  as  an  initiatory  rite,  is  fully  estab- 
lished.* 

It  is  manifest  that  the  administration  by  the  apostles  involved 
Baptism  imme-  little  delay.  The  cases  of  baptism  recorded  in  the  Acts 
diateiy  or  soon  ^^£  ^j^^  Apostles,  botli  in  the  earlier  and  later  sections, 
sion  of  faith,  indicate  that  the  rite  Avas  administered  to  the  converts 
near  the  time  and  place  of  their  acceptance  of  Jesus  as  the  Messiah. 
No  evidence,  however,  is  furnished  from  the  record  that  Peter  him- 

'  V.  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles,  cliap.  vii. 

^  «.  Le\Ter:  article  "  Proselyten."  in  Herzoys  Cijclopwdia,  2te  Aus<?.  Pkimptre  : 
Smith's  Bible  Dictionary,  article  "  Proselytes,"  claims  that  the  rabbis  were  stiiniihitod 
to  making  btiptism  a  foremost  rite  of  initiation  by  the  jrreat  success  of  Cliristinuity 
anH)M<;- tlio  Gentiles,  whose  only  initiatory  rite  was  baptism;  but  Leyrer  is  of  the 
opinion  that  a  formal  borrowing  of  Christian  usages  is  extremely  improbable. 

3  Among  others  v.  Ederslieim:  Life  and  Times  of  the  Messiah.  Schiirer:  History 
of  the  Jewish  People,  vol.  ii,  pp.  319-324, 


THE   SACRA MKXT   OF   RAI'TISM.  897 

self  haptif.cd  tlu*  tluvc  thousaiid  iK-licvcrs  on  the  <l:iy  of  IViitecost. 

Tliis  may  have  \)vvn   donv  hy  diflVicnt   apostU's,  at  tUfTereiit  jdacos, 

by  diffeivnt  modi's,  (liiiiii-4  thi-  ciitirr  ihiy,'  or  on  subsequent  days.' 

The  ti'rms  of  Seripture  (U'seiiliiiiLr  the   rite,   most  of  the 

'  .  .  ,         ,  Imnierslon  the 

tiixufes    used   by  the  writers  of   tile  New  Testament   to    more  usual 

indu-ate  its  sit^niHeance  (Rom.  vi,  4;  Col.  ii,  12,  et  al.),   ""^*"'' 
tile  e.\]»laiiatioiis  in  the  Apostolie  Constitutions,*  the  comments  of 
the  foremost  Christian  fathers  for  the  first  six  centuries,  and  the  ex- 
press instructions  of  eeclesiastieal   councils  indicate  that  immersion 
was  the  more  usual  mode  of  baptism.' 

Nevertheless,  it  is  difficult  to  reconcile  the  peculiar  circumstances 
of  the  baptism  of  certain  persons  with  ready  and  available' means 
for  their  immediate  immersion,  as  in  the  case  of  Paul  (Acts  ix,  liS), 
the  P;iilip|>ian  jailer  (Acts  xvi,  33),  and  others.  These  facts  make 
it  liiirhlv  probable  that  a  dec:vee  of  liberty  was  allowed 

■•',..  .     -  .  •  A    iiu'iusure   of 

ill  the  mode  ot  a<liniiiistration,  so  that  in  case  of  exiLTcncy    iiiH-rty  perrnlt- 

asp-rsion  was  practiced.  This  anteceih'iit  i)robability  ''''^' 
lias  now  been  chan;j^ed  to  well-nitj^h  absolute  certainty  l)y  the  testi- 
ino:i  •  of  "  The  Teachinjj  of  the  Twelve  Apostles."  This  invalua- 
ble' document,  whicli  belonu^s  to  the  first  quarter  of  the  second 
century,''  siii>i)lies  a  loii^-missing  link  in  the  chain  of  evidence  be- 
twctn  the  close  of  the  apostolic  age  and  .Justin  Martyr,  "The Teach injf 
respecting  the  rites,  polity,  and  life  of  the  Church.  It  of  the  Twelve." 
also  furnislies  valuable  aid  in  understanding  some  obscure  jioints  in 
tlie  writings  of  Clement,  Polycai-)),  Barnabas,  and  Ignatius.  This 
writing  is  believed  to  have  originated  in  either  Syria  or  Egypt,  and 
to  have  been  ])rei>ared  as  a  sort  of  Church  manual,  as  well  as  a 
catechism,  for  Jewish  catechumens.*  In  connection  with  valuable 
teaching   respecting   Christian    life,   it    speaks  of   the   appropriate 

'  Zik'kler:   ApnslehjescMchh',  Niirdliiijren,  1886,  a.  104 

'  DoHiii^'er:  Op.  cil.,  vol.  ii,  p.  160.  "It  is  not  said  tliat  (Jio  .1000  converts  of 
IViilocost  were  nil  bapiized  the  .same  da}',  but  only  tl in t  on  that  day  were  added 
:!000  souls  (.\ct.S  ii,  41)." 

^  Cons.  Aposf.,  lib.  H,  c.  17. 

■•  y.  Terf.illian:  ih-  B<ipt.,  c.  2.  Chrysostom:  Horn.  40,  on  1  Cor.;  //"nw.  25,  on 
.I.ilin  iii,  5.  Cyril:  C'(i/«7*.,  17,  8.  Ambrosius :  rfe  ^a-Vrtm.,  1.  2,  c.  6.  Conn.  Toledo: 
4,  can.  6,  and  njaiiy  oilier  testimonies. 

^.-Nib.uicr:  La  Didnche,  Paris,  1885.  places  the  composition  afier  A.  D.  50. 
Biyeniiios,  Haniack,  and  others  place  it  between  A.  I).  120  and  A.  P.  165. 
Lecliler,  Fnnk,  Z  ilm.  and  others  are  inclined  to  repnrd  it  as  a  prmluction  of  the 
first  century.  The  Kn?lish  and  .\merican  critics  also  generally  i)li»cc  it  in  the  first 
eeuiury. 

«  Lechler  holds  that  this  is  true  only  of  the  second  part.  Fimk  :  Doctrina  Dito- 
(f'grem  Aposliiloi-wn^'Ywhm^iv.  1887,  "denies  the  Egyptian  and  maintains  liie  Syrian 
or  Palestinian  orijjin." — Schaff. 


398        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

preparation  for  baptism,  and  its  mode  of  administration,  as 
follows: 

"Now  concerning  baptism,  thus  baptize  ye:  having  first  uttered 
Its  baptismal  ^^^  these  things,  baptize  into  the  name  of  the  Father, 
teaching.  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  in  living  water 

(tv  vdari  ^ojvti).'^  But  if  thou  hast  not  running  water,  baptize  into 
other  water  (elg  aXXo  i;(Jwp),  and  if  thou  canst  not  in  cold,  in  warm. 
And  if  thou  hast  neither,  pour  out  water  upon  the  head  thrice,  into 
the  name  of  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Spirit.  And  before  the  baptism 
let  the  baptizer  fast  and  the  baptized,  and  whatever  others  are  able; 
but  the  baptized  thou  shalt  command  to  fast  for  one  or  two  days 
before."  "^ 

This  document,  only  a  generation  removed  from  the  death  of  the 
apostles,  if  not  written  during  the  lifetime  of  some,  plainly  teaches 
a  degree  of  liberty  in  the  mode  of  the  administration  of  baptism. 
The  character  of  the  writing,  as  a  book  for  catechumens  of  Jewish 
origin,  would  certainly  exclude  the  supposition  that  this 
alternative  mode  of  baptism  was  of  the  nature  of  an  in- 
novation; besides,  it  is  easy  to  believe  that  at  the  time  of  its  writing 
there  were  still  living  in  Syria  or  Egypt  persons  who  were  entirely 
Monumental  familiar  with  the  apostolic  practice.  The  testimony  of  the 
testimony.  monuments  is  in  entire  harmony  with  the  "  Teaching." 
The  chronology  of  the  earliest  frescos  has  been  elsewhere  examined.' 
Among  the  very  earliest  frescos  is  that  found  on  the  wall  in  the 
Fresco  from  crypt  of  Santa  Lucina,  in  the  catacomb  of  San  Calisto, 
Santa  Lucina.  Rome  (Fig.  126).'  The  lower  central  fresco  has  almost 
without  exception  been  regarded  as  a  representation  of  the  close  of 
the  baptism  of  Christ  as  described  in  Matt,  iii,  16.  A  nude  male 
Baptism  of  figure  is  stepping  from  the  water,  which  reaches  a  little 
Christ.  above  the  knees.     A  man  clad  in  a  tunic  is  standing  on 

the  shore  and  extending  his  hand  in  helpfulness  toward  the  one 

'  Bryemiios  remarks  that  v^up  Cwv  is  not  exclusively  running  water,  but  that 
which  is  brouglit  fresh  from  rivers  and  spring's,  wliere  in  earliest  times  the  Christians 
were  wont  to  baptize. 

"  ITepf  (5f  roil  iSaTtTia/iaTog  ovru  fiawTiaaTe'  ravra  iravra  TpoenrdvTE^,  jSaTTTiaaTE  etf  to 
bvo/ia  Toi)  Tlnrpbg  Kal  tov  Tlov  Kal  tov  ayiov  HvevfiaTog  ev  iiSari  ^uvti.  'Eav  6e  fifj  ixV? 
v6up  ^o)V,  elg  aA?.o  vSup  ^diTTiaov  el  &  ov  Svvaaai  ev  Tpvxp<j,  ev  depfioJ.  'Eav  6e  aiKporepa 
t^V  '^XV^t  ^i^X^ov  elg  Tfjv  Kei^aTiTjv  rplg  v6up  elg  bvofia  TLarpdg  koi  Ylov  koi  ayiov  Ilvev/ia- 
Tog.  Ylpd  6e  tov  ^anTiaiiaTog  npovriaTevaaTu  6  jSmrTi^uv  Kal  6  ^anTi^dfievog  Kal  el 
Tiveg  a/l/loi  SvvavTar  KeTievaetg  6e  vrjcrevaai  rov  Pa-n-TiCofievov  irpo  niag  7]  6vo. — Teaching 
of  the  Tivelve  Apostles,  chap.  vii. 

3  V.  pp.  29,  30,  97,  98. 

*It  is  impossible  to  represent  in  photosraph  the  color  effects  in  the  fresco. 
They  are  pronounced  in  the  original,  showing  by  the  green  the  water  boundary  line- 


THE   SACRAMENT   OF    BAITISM. 


390 


who  has  received  baptism.  Above  is  the  dove,  bearinj;  in  its  beak 
what  seems  to  be  an  olive  branch,  symbolizinor  the  Holy  Ghost, 
who  attests  the  act.     There  is  no  su<,'^'estion  of  an  immersion,  but 


Fis- 1-'15.— Fresco  from  Santa  Lucina,  Uinne.    Baptism  of  Cbrist. 

rather  of  aspersion  by  the  ministrant,  who  stands  upon  the  shore.' 
Other  interpretations  of  this  scene,  as  that  it  is  the  other  mterpre- 
rescue  of  Peter  from  the  waves,"  or  the  savin.ir  of  the  tations  not  ten- 
hunted,  persecuted  saints  from  the  waters  of  affliction,' 
seem  to  harmonize  only  a  portion  of  the  elements  of  the  fresco. 
The  interpretation  as  the  baptism  has  jrcnerally  been  accepted  by 
the  best  arclueologists. 

Fig.  127  is  the  representation  of  a  fresco  from  another  cubicu- 
lum  of  the  crypt  of  Santa  Lucina."  It  is  the  same  age  as  Fig.  120, 
and  the  subject  is  evidently  the  same.  The  attitude  of  the  fig- 
ures in  the  two  frescos  is  very  similar.  The  symbolic  (h^ve  has 
here  the  same  significance  as  in  the  other.  The  figure  leaving  the 
water  is  partially  draped,  while  in  Fig.  126  it  is  nude.  The  minis- 
trant is  represented  with  the  added  ])aHium,  instead  of  j^e  interpre- 
the  simple  tunic,  as  in  Fig.  120.     The  subject  of  the  ^t'on- 

'r.  de  Rossi:  Rom.  Setter,  t.  i,  lib.  3.  c.  3.  Schulze:  Die  Kalakomben,  ss.  3i:J, 
SI 4.  Roller:  Les  Catacombes  de  Home,  Tom.  i,  p.  97.  Kraus:  ReaUEncyklop(edie, 
Freiburg,  1886,  art.  "  Taufe." 

» Martigny :  Did.,  art.  "  Pierre." 

^Garrucci:  Storia,  etc.,  i,  Teorica,  203. 

<The  construction,  history,  chronology,  and  frescos  of  this  crypt  liave  been 
studied  with  great  thoroughness  by  the  brothers  de  Rossi,  and  admirably  described 
io  their  monumental  work,  Bom.  Sutter. 


400        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

fresco  can  hardly  be  questioned.'  The  scene  can  only  by  fin  un- 
warrantable stretch  of  the  imagination  be  regarded  as  the  last  stage 
of  an  immersion.     The  simpler  and  more  obvious  act  is  that  of  an 


Fig.  127.— A  baptism  of  Christ.    From  the  crypt  of  Santa  Lucina,  Rome. 

aspersion,  since  there  is  no  suggestion  whatever  that  the  ministrant 
has  before  been  standing  in  the  water. 

Fig.  128  is  the  representation  of  a  fresco  from  the  cemetery  of 

San  Pretestato,  Rome.     This  is  believed  by  the  highest  authorities  to 

belong  to  the  second  century.     The  three  figures  have 

Supposed  bap-  ®  .  i  mi  ■>  •      •         i 

tism  from  San  been  interpreted  differently.  Those  who  see  in  it  a  bap- 
Pretestato.  ^j^^  ^£  Christ  regard  the  sprays  around  the  head  of  the 
right  hand  figure  as  representing  the  water  used  in  sprinkling;  John 
and  the  other  figure  as  representative  of  the  people,  standing  on  the 
bank  of  the  river.  The  presence  of  the  dove  seems  also  to  suggest 
,    ^       a  baptismal  scene.*     Garrucci  also   regards  the   green 

Suggests    bap-  /  ,,,-,^,0,.  1^ 

tism  bysprink-  band  around  the  head  of  the  baviour  as  analogous  to 
"°^"  that  in  Fig.  126.     De  Rossi  and  others  look  upon  the 

picture  as  representing  the  crowning  of  Christ  with  thorns.*    Against 
this  view  Garrucci  strongly  urges  the  fact  of  the  general  absence 


Op.  cit,  Tom.  i,  pp.  95,  seq.,  pi.  xvii. 

t.  i,  pi.  Ixxx.     Garrucci:  Op.  cit.,  i,  p.  368;  ii,  46  ;  Op.  cit,  t.  i,  pp.  101, 


'  V.  Roller 

^v.  Perret 
seq.,  pi,  xviii. 

^v.  Bull.  A7-ch.  crisL,  1872.  Also  Strzygowski :  Ikonographk  der  Tanfe  Christi,  MUn 
Chen,  1885,  Taf.  i,  un.  4,  5, 


THE   SACRAMENT   OF    BAPTISM. 


401 


of  roprosontations  of   Christ's  sufferings  and  passion  in  early  Cliris- 
tian  art,  as  well  as  the  presence   in  the  fresco  of  the  water  and  the 


Jb'ig.  1A<.— SupimseJ  baptism.     Fivsco  from  San  I'rt'li'slaio.  Uotiio. 


dove.     The  subject  of  this  early  fresco  is  regarded  as  qiu'sfionable; 
its  evidential  value  is  not,  therefore,  of  the  lirst  order. 

Competent  authorities  have  referred  the  fresco  (Fig.  120)  to  the 
latter  part  of  the  second,  or  early  part  of  the  third  cen-  |>j,,„j^^  fp,^„, 
tury.     It  is  part  of  the  di'corations  in  one  of  the  "  chan\-   San  caiisto. 


Fig.  129.— A  baptl.-m.    From  San  Callsio.  Rome. 


bei"s  of  the  s.icranionts,"   in   the  cataconih  of  S;ni   Calisto.     A  boy, 
standing  in  water  reaching  a  little  more  than  half  way  to  the  knees, 
26 


403 


SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 


is  receiving  baptism  from  a  man  who  is  standing  upon  the  shore. 
The  water  is  broken  into  spray,  indicating  a  pouring  or  sprinkling.* 
Fig.  130  is  from  a  fresco  found  in  another  of  the  chambers  of  the 
Another  from  same  catacomb,  and  is  plainly  contemporary  with  Fig. 
the  same.  129.     The  position  of  the  figures  is  quite  similar.     In 

Fig.  130  the  boy  stands  in  water  hardly  more  than  ankle  deep,  while 
the  ministraut,  clad  in  the  toga  and  bearing  in  his  hand  a  roll,  the 


Fig.  130.— A  baptism.    From  San  Calisto,  Rome. 


usual  sign  of  authoritative  teaching,  stands  upon  the  shore,  and 
places  his  hand  upon  the  head  of  the  candidate  in  the  act  of  bap- 
tism. 

Respecting  the  age  of  Figs.  120,  127,  128,  129,  and  130  there  is 
scarcelv  anv  diversitv  of  opinion  among  competent  au- 

'T'VipoQ  r)r(^  Con*  •/         •/  *■  *■  ,  ■     • 

stantineinori-  thoritics.  All  are  Certainly  of  pre-Constantine  origm, 
^'°-  Figs.  126,  127,  129,  and  130  reaching  back,  in  all  proba- 

bility, to  the  second  century.  As  to  the  interpretation  of  Nos.  126, 
127,  129,  and  130,  very  general  agreement  is  found  among  the  best 
archaeologists.     Thej^  are  baptismal  scenes. 

In  the  post-Constantine  period   more   frequent  representations  of 

'  It  is  to  be  rejrretted  thai  the  plate  does  not  reproduce  these  sprays,  which  are 
very  manifest  in  the  fresco,  v.  de  Rossi:  Rom.  Sotfer.,  T.  ii,  p.  333.  Roller:  Les 
Catacomhes  de  Rome,  T.  i,  p.  131. 


THE   SACRAMENT   OF    BAPTISM. 


403 


tlK>  baptismal  rite  are  presi-rved,  an.l  they  are  wrought  out  iti  luucli 
gr.-ater  detail.  The  erection  of  distinct  baptisteries  p^^.^^„^^^^. 
gave  occasion  for  their  oruaiueiitation  with  f rescMjs  and  une  ^^^^^1^^^^ 
mosaics,  some  of  whieli  were  elaborate  and  beautiful. 
Also  the  rite  is  found  depicted  on  the  sarcophagus  of  Junius  Bassus 
[v.  Plate  II)  in  symbolic  form  {>\  Plate  IP),  where  the  ^^  8ar.u,pha- 
bai)tismal  waters  are  represented  as  Howing  from  the  n^ot  Juuius 
uplifted  foot  of  one  lamb  upon  the  liead  of  another, 
while  rays  stream  down  from  the  beak  of  the  symbolic  dove.' 

A  fragment  of  a  glass  cup,  found  on  the  Es(piiline,  Rome,  in  1876, 
also  contains  the  representation  of  a  baptism."     It  prob-   p.„,j,^,„  ^y  ,«- 
ably  belongs  to  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century.    Fig.    iM!i>siuuonKiuss 
131  is  two  thirds  the  size  of  the  original.     The  scene  is  *'"•'■ 
an  interesting  one.     A  young  girl,  Alba   (possibly  Albana),  is  the 


Fig.  131.— Fragmeiii  m'  a  gl.iis  cup,  Roiiic.    A  baptism 


central  figure.  She  is  clad  in  the  white  robe  usually  worn  on  the 
day  of  bai)tism.  The  i)riest,  Mirax,  whose  head  is  en-  g^j,|^„^t,o„, 
circled  by  the  simple  nimbus,  extends  the  hand  in  the 
manner  of  address,  while  the  hand  of  a  person  not  represented  on 
tlu-  fragment,  probably  the  sponsor,  is  laid  upon  the  head  of  the 
candidate.  The  chief  significance  of  the  scene  for  our  purpose'  is  in 
the  water  flowing  from  an  inverted  urn,  and  the  descent  of  the  dove, 
bearing  in  its  beak  the  olive  branch.  The  representation  of  baptism 
bv  aspersion  is  evident. 

'  V.  Plate  II',  in  tlie  spaiulrcl  between  '•  Daniel  in  the  den  of  lions"  and  "Christ's 
triiimphnl  entrj-." 

'  f.  de  Rossi:  B'dl.  Arch.  CrM.,  187C,  Fiwc.  i,  T.  i.  Garriicci:  Staria,  etc., 
T.  cceclxiv. 


404         SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

Several  mosaics  and  frescos  of  a  somewhat  later  date  represent 
the  baptism  of  Christ  in  an  almost  purely  realistic  manner,  and  gen- 
erally the  manifest  mode  is  aspersion.  One  of  the  best  preserved 
Mosaic  repre-  3,nd  most  interesting  is  found  in  San  Giovanni  in 
sentation.  fonte,   Ravenna  (Fig.    132).'      The  mosaics  were  orig- 

inally executed  A.  D.  449-452,  While  they  have  probably  suf- 
fered restoration  in  certain  parts,  there  is  no  evidence  that  the 
original   design  has  been   departed   from.       The   baptismal   scene 


Fig.  132.— Baptism  of  Christ.    Mosaic  from  San  Giovanni  in  fonte,  Ravenna. 

is  found  in  the  croAvn  of   the  dome.      Christ  stands  in  the  Jor- 
dan, whose  Avaters  reach  to  about  the  middle  of  the 

Baptism  of  '  i       i       t  n  i     it 

Christ  by  pour-  body,  while  John,  standing  on  the  land,  and  holding  in 
*°^-  his  left  hand  a  jewelled  cross,  is  pouring  water  upon 

the  head  of  Christ  from  a  shell  held  in  the  Baptist's  right  hand. 
The  symbolic  dove,  descending  directly  upon  the  head  of  Jesus, 
completes  the  baptismal  representation.  The  Jordan,  lORD,  sym- 
bolized by  a  river-god  bearing  a  reed,  introduces  into  the  scene  a 
heathen  element. 

'  V.  Quast:  Die  alt-christlichen  Bauswerke  von  Rarennn,  Berlin,  1842,  ss.  4,  5,  and 
Taf.  i.  Riclitor:  Mosaiken  von  Ravenna,  Wiea,  1878.  Garrucci:  Op.  «/.,  Tom.  iv, 
tav.  ccxxvi  and  ccxxvii,  pp.  34-36. 


THE    SACUAMENT    OF    BAl'TIS.M. 


405 


A  very  similar  mosaic  repri'siMitatioii,  from   alxmt  tlu'   miihllc  of 
t!ie  sixth  c't'iiturv,  is  preserved   in   Santa  Maria  in   ('<»s-    Anoiuer  mosa- 
mc<rm,  Ravenna  (Fii;.  i;{.'<)-     'I'lie  appearance  of  Christ   ''• 
is   more   youthful,  the  river-u^od   symbolizintj^    the   Jordan   is   more 


Fip.  133.— Baptism  of  Christ.    Mosaic  from  Santa  Maria  la  Cosmedln,  Ravenna. 

Striking,  and  the  rougli  garment  of  carael's  hair  worn  by  the  Bap- 
tist is  clearly  shown. 


Fig.  134.— A  baptism.     From  a  fresco  in  Santa  Putioiiziaiia,  Uom.-. 

Fig.   13-i  is  from  a  picture  found   in   Santa  Pudenziana,  Rome. 
Here  the  complete  act  of  baptism  is  depicted.     The  font,  too  small 


40o 


SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 


for  immersion,  contains  two  nude  figures,  upon  the  head  of  one  of 

,  ,         ,        whom  the   ministrant  lays  the  hand.      Behind  him  is 

A  fresco  from  .  '' 

Santa  Pudenzi-  the  sponsor,  while  on  the  other  side  of  the  font  are  atten- 

*°'*'  dants  bearing   appropriate  garments  for  covering  the 

candidates  at  the  close  of  the  ceremony.  The  suggestion  here  is 
certainly  that  of  sprinkling  or  pouring. 

The  fresco.  Fig,  135,  is  from  the  cemetery  of  San  Ponziano,  Rome; 
From  San  Pon-  ^^  is  from  the  eighth  or  ninth  century.'  Here  the  bap- 
ziano.  tismal  scene  is  repeated  as  to  mode,  and  very  similar  in 

spirit  to  the  mosaics  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries,  already  de- 
scribed. Christ  here  stands  in  water  reaching  about  to  the  waist. 
The  Baptist,  clad  in  his  rough  garment  of  camel's  hair,  places  the 


Fig.  135.- -A  baptism  of  Christ.    From  a  fresco  in  San  Ponziano,  Rome. 


right  hand  on  the  head  of  Jesus  in  the  performance  of  the  rite, 
Baptism  by  as-  while  the  ratifying  of  the  act  by  the  Holy  Spirit  is 
persion.  here,  as  usual,  symbolized  by  the  descending  dove.     On 

the  opposite  bank,  in  the  background,  an  angel,  descending  from 
the  clouds,  bears  a  basin  and  the  clothing  for  the  Saviour,  while  in 
the  foreground  the  hart  seeks  the  refreshing  waters. 

Other  representations  of  baptism,  extending  from  the  fourth  to 
Uniformity  of  ^^e  tenth  century,  found  upon  a  great  variety  of  objects 
art  testimony,  and  in  various  relations,  substantially  agree  with  those 
already  given.''     It  is  most  noteworthy  that  from  the  second  to  the 

'  We  have  given  two  representations  of  baptisms,  which  He  outside  tlie  period  to 
which  onr  examinations  have  been  more  specially  contined,  in  order  to  siiow  the 
persistence  of  the  art  representations  of  this  rite  as  aspersion  or  sprinkling. 

-  For  a  complete  representation  and  description  of  tliese  v.  Strzygowski :  Ikonogra- 
phk  (lev  Taufii  Ch/isli,  Miinciien,  1885. 


THE  SACKAMENT    OF    IJAl'TISM. 


407 


ninth  centurv  tluTc  is  found  hciirct-ly  one  pictorial  representation  ol 
baptism  by'iiuniersion;  but  the  sujr.i?estion  is  ahnost  uniformly 
either  of  sprinklini,'  or  pouring'.  Wlieii  we  eonsi.ler  the  fact  that 
monumental  evidence  is  invahiable  because  of  its  unconscious  char- 
acter {v.  p.  21),  and  also  when  it  is  remembered  that  the  testi- 
mony of  the  archaic  document,  "  The  Teachin-  of  the  Twelve," 
is  a  complete  commentary  on  the  art  ni.^numents,  aiul,  contrariwise, 
that  the  monuments  are  a  continuous  illustration  of  the  doctrines 
of  the  "TeachiniT,"  we  are  comi>elled  to  believe  that  while  immer- 
sion was  the  usual  mode  of  adiniiiisteriii.r  baptism  from  the  first  to 
the  twelfth  century,  there  was  very  early  a  lar<,'e  nuas-  y,„.,ty  of 
ure  of  Christian  lil^ertv  allowed  in  the  Church,  by  which  '""^' • 
the  mode  of  baptisn/ could  be  readily  adjusted  to  the  peculiar  cir- 
cumstances. To  this  conclusion  we  are  led  by  the  combined  testi- 
mony of  the  "Teachin-,"  of  the  decisions  ,)f  the  Church  fathers 
and'the  councils,  and  of  the  uniform  art  representations.' 

That  baptism  by  sprinklin.t;  or  aspersion  was  practised  in  case  of 
the  sick  and  the'intirm  is  ironerally  conceded.     This  seems  to  be  a 
further  indication  of  a  degree  of  freedom  in  the  mode.    ^.,.^,^  j,^p^,^,^ 
This  diincdl  baptism  was  not  regarded  with  favor  by  a 
lar<re  i)ortion   of  the  Church;  in   some  instances  its   validity  was 
serTouslv  questioned.     Yet  the  high-church  Cyprian,  by  wliom  the 
preservation  of  the  unity  of  the  Church  and  of  apostolic  traditions 
was  regarded  of  utmost  importance,  clearly  decided  in  a  test  case  for 
the  valTditv  of  clinic  baptism:   "I  think  the  divine  benefits  can  in  no 
respect  be  mutilated  and  weakened;  nor  can  any  thing  less  occur  in 
that  case,  where,  with  full  and  entire  faith  both  of  the  giver  and  re- 
ceiver, is  accepted  what  is  drawn  from  the  divine  gifts.     For  in  the 
sacrainents  of  salvation  the  contagion   of  sins  is  not  in  such  wise 
washed  away,  as  tlie  filth  of  the  skin  and  of  the  body  is   cyprian'sopin- 
washed  awav  in  the  carnal  and  ordinary,"  etc.  .  .  .  "In 
the  sacrameiits  of  salvation,  when  necessity  compels,  and   God  be- 
stows  his   mercy,  the  divine   methods  confer  the  whole  benefit  on 
believers;  nor  ought  it  to  trouble  any  one  that  sick  i)eople  seem  to 
be  sprinkled  or  affused,  when  they  obtain  the  T^onVs  grace,"  etc. 
"Whence  it  appears   that  the  sprinkling  also  of  water  prevails 
e(iually  with  the  washing  of  salvation,"  etc' 

"The  arfriiment  from  monnmental  evhloiico  wa.s  prescntcl  by  Uio  aull.or  of  1\m 
hand-book  iu  a  series  of  lecu.ros  on  "  Mom.menlal  Theolof.y,"  pivcw  lK«fore  tl.o 
School  of  Thcolopy  of  Boston  University  in  the  winter  of  1870-71.  For  a  very 
able  and  interesting  statement  of  the  bearii.fj  of  the  arK-iment  upon  the  question  of 
Christian  union  and  missionary  effort,  t-.  Prof.  Hubert  C.  Smyth,  in  Andover  Revu»v 
April  and  May,  1884.  «  Kp.  75  (79)  ad  Magnum,  c.  12.     v.  also  cc.  13-17. 


408        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

From  the  question  of  Magnus,  as  Avell  as  from  the  answer  of 
Cyprian,  it  is  plain  that  clinic  baptism  was  not  generally  regarded 
with  favor  by  the  Church  of  the  first  three  centuries.  Neverthe- 
less, the  opposition  to  it  did  not  appear  to  come  so  much  from  a  dis- 
belief in  the  efficacy  of  the  mode  itself  as  from  the  doubt  enter- 
.,.  .    ^    .,       tained  with  respect  to  the  soundness  of  the  faith  of  the 

(Clinic  baptism  ... 

not  encuur-  recipient,  since  the  delay  of  baptism  till  the  time  of 
^^^' *  infirmity  or  of  threatened  death  seemed  to  imply  a  con- 

tempt for  the  ordinance  and  a  neglect  of  the  duties  which  its 
acceptance  imposed.  For  Cyprian  clearly  afiirms  that  the 
mode  is  of  little  importance,  provided  the  faith  of  the  recipient 
The  mode  not  ^^^  ^^  ^^^  ministrant  is  genuine.'  This,  and  not  the 
objectionable,  simple  mode,  is  the  reason  Avhy  the  person  receiving 
clinical  baptism  was  generally  ineligible  to  the  clerical  oftice.  The 
suspicion  of  dishonesty  and  the  disqualification  could  be  removed 
only  by  an  unwonted  proof  of  zeal  and  devotion.^ 

This   liberty    respecting   the    mode   of    administration    becomes 
more  manifest  as  missionary  enterprise  planted  churches  in  regions 
remote  from  the  countries  immediately  adjacent  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean, Avhere  the   rigors  of  the  climate  made  trine  immersion  at 
. .  .    ^     times  perilous  or  impracticable.     Hence  baptism  by  as- 

Permitted     by  .     -^  ^  ^        ,  .  .... 

the    Celtic   persion  is  made  alternative  with  trine  immersion  in  the 

Church.  earliest  extant  Irish  baptismal  oflice.'     While  the  Greek 

Church  adhered  to  trine  immersion  with  great  tenacity',  and  to-day 

practises  this  mode  in  all  its  chief   churches,  the  Coptic 

Also  by  Coptic    '  ..,.-,. 

and  other  and  Armenian  Churches  have  recognised  the  validity  of 
churches.  trine  aspersion  from  the  earliest  period  of  their  history.'' 

The  Syriac  churches  of  the  seventh  century  also  admitted  the  pro- 
priety of  infant  baptism  and  the  validity  of  aspersion.^ 

§  6.    Times  and  Places  of  Baptism. 
In  the  apostolic  Church  the  time  and  place  of  baptism  were  mat- 
Apostoiic  cus-   ters  of  indifference.     In   accordance   with  the  general 
^'^-  methods  of  missionary  propagandism,  the  circumstances 

and  the  proprieties  of  the  various  occasions  determined.  As  else- 
where stated,  the  time  seems  to  have  been  almost  immediately  on 
the  profession  of  faith  in  Jesus  as   the  Messias.     This  liberty  con- 

'  E[i.  ad  Magnum,  cc.  11,  12,  13. 

'^  Til  is  is  seen  in  the  decisions  of  the  Council  of  Neo-Cfesarea,  Can.  12. 
^Warren:    The  Liturgy  and  Ritual  of  the  Cdtic  Church,  O.xford,  1881,  p.  65. 
'•  V.  Butler :    Op.  cit.,  vol.  ii,  p.  264,  265. 

^v.  Kaj'ser:  Die  Canones  Jacob  von  Edes.m.  Leipzig,  1887,  Question  and  An- 
swer 31.     V.  Presbyterian  Review,  January,  1888,  pp.  150,  151. 


THE    SACIiAMKNT    OF    IJAPTISM.  409 

tinuc'd  into  the  second  century,'  and  was,  indeed,  never  wholly 
lost." 

'I'he  opinion  entertaiiUMl  by  many  early  Chfistian  fathers  relative  to 
the  III  iicical  powt-r  of  the  water  in  bajitisni,  as  well  as  utiusons  of  de- 
the  doctriiu'  that  baptism  purged  away  the  sins  of  the  '"y- 
past,  but  did  not  avail  for  future  offences,  caused  many  to  delay 
tlieir  baptism  as  h)ng  as  p(jssible.  In  case  of  great  offenders  this 
was  sometimes  done  upon  the  advice  of  the  Church.  Hut  this  delay 
was  often  the  occasion  of  administering  severe  rebukes  to  those  who 
were  inrtiienced  by  selfish  considerations  to  continue  in  sin,  or  neg- 
lected the  ordinance  through  carelessness  or  indifference. 

There  was  no  fixed  and  unalterable  time  for  performing  the  rite. 
In  cases  of  peril  neither  place,  time,  mode,  nor  ministrant  was  abso- 
lutely ])rescribed;  the  general  belief  tliat  baptism  was  essential  to 
silvation  allowed  nothing  to  prevent  its  administration.  Neverthe- 
less, the  Church  was  accustomed  to  appoint  stated  times  when  bap- 
tism would  be  administered  to  tliose  who  had  been  prepared  by 
careful  preliminary  instruction.  The  times  considered  Favouriie times 
most  ap|)roi)riate  and  sacred  were  Easter,  Pentecost,  and  for  baptism. 
Epipliany.  From  the  second  century  these  were  observed  as  fit  seasons 
by  the  Eastern  and  Western  as  well  as  the  Coptic  churches.'  At  a 
later  period,  when  the  martyrs  became  objects  of  peculiar  veneration, 
and  the  anniversaries  of  tlieir  martyrdom  were  observe<l  with  special 
care,  these  were  favourite  times  for  tlie  administration  of  baptism. 

Nevertheless,  these  seasons  were  not  absolutely  obligatory,  since 
TertuUian   says,  "Every  day  is  the   Lord's  day;  every   ^    reasonable 
hour  and  every  time  is  appropriate  for  baptism,  if  men   'iberty. 
are  fit  and  prepared  for  it.     All  places,  too,  are  equally  available."  * 

In  accordance  with  this  principle  of  freedom  baptism  was  some- 
times administered  in  i)rivate  houses,  and  doubtless,  in 

.  '  .  '  Sometimes  ad- 

times  of  persecution,  the  chapels  in  the  catacombs  of  ministered  in 
Rome  were  likewise  used  for  this  purpose.  The  monu-  P'''^*'"  •'""^es. 
mental  evidence  of  this  practice  is  entirely  conclusive.     The  private 

'  I'.  The  Teaching  of  Ike  Twelve,  cliap.  vii. 

'  Bupli.'^in  in  a  private  Iioiise  was  lirst  inliibited  by  couciliary  action  in  tlio  sixth 
century,     v.  llefele:    Conciliengeschii-hU'.  Bd.  ii,  s.  698. 

^  Numerous  passapres  in  tlie  writin<rs  of  Tcrtiillian,  Gregory  Naziauzen,  Jerome. 
C!irv3osiom.  etc.,  as  well  as  the  "Consiitutions"  and  couciliary  canons,  atiest  this 
piactice.  Tertuilian:  de  Cnron.  Milit.,  c.  3,  says  that  the  whole  fifty  days  between 
F  ister  and  Pentecost  were  kept  as  a  continuous  festival,  durinp  whicli  baptisms 
were  more  frequent,  v.  Butler:  The  Ancient  Coptic  Churches  of  F.gypt.  Oxford,  1884. 
'•  From  the  remotest  antiquity  to  tlie  present  day  the  season  most  commended  for 
baptism  is  the  feast  of  Epiphany."     Vol.  ii,  pp.  262,  263. 

*  de  Bapt,  c.  4. 


410 


SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 


oratory,  discovered  in  the  vicinity  of   the  baths    of   Diocletian/^ 

whose   walls   were   decorated  with   the   symbols  of   baptism,  was 

probably  used  to  baptize  the  members  of  the  household.      Likewise 

there  are  several  instances  of  chapels  and  fonts  in  the  catacombs. 

After  the  recognition  of  Christianity  by  the  state,  baptism,  like 

other  Church  sacraments,  was  celebrated  with  greater 

Baptisteries.  .,  ^  ^imt  /i         •         ■     \ 

pomp  and  ceremony,     separate  buildings  (baptisteries) 

were  erected,  in  which  conveniences  were  provided  for  the  observance 
of  a  more  carefully  prescribed  ritual.  They 
constitute  an  interesting  class  of  architectural 
forms  which  have  survived  from  the  fourth, 
fifth,  and  sixth  centuries,  and  furnish  valuable 
suggestions  relative  to  the  state  of  art  during 
this  period  (v.  pp.  222-224).  Their  arrange- 
ment, the  position  and  relation  of  the  font,  the 
frescos  and  mosaics,  give  hints  respecting  the 
rite  of  baptism,  and  the  importance  attaching 
to  the  accompanying  ceremonies.  These  bap- 
tisteries, oLKoi rov  Pan-iarrjQWVjVtere  sometimes 
of  considerable  dimensions,  to  accommodate  the 
thousands  seeking  baptism  on  the  great  feast 
days  in  the  cathedral  churches  of  the 
large  towns,  and  were  occasionally 
used  as  the  places  of  assembly  of  the 
councils.  They  belong  to  the  regular 
central  style  of  architecture,  having 
their  outline  circular  or  pol^'^gonal. 
Fig.  136  is  from  the  representation 
of  a  baptistery  sculptured  on  a  sarcophagus  at  Rome."  It  is  circu- 
Exampiesot  l^r  in  Outline,  covered 
baptisteries.  ^y[^\^  ^  fl^t  dome,  Sur- 
mounted by  the  favourite  Con- 
stants nian  monogram,  ^. 

Fig.  1.37  is  the  groundplan  and 
connected  arcade  of  a  baptistery 
at  Deir-Seta  in  Central  Syria, 
described  by  de  Vogiie.'  It  is 
hexagonal,  the  central  dome 
resting  upon  six  columns  which 
surround  the  font  itself.  This 
was  the  usual  form  of  the  baptisteries  in  the  Orient. 

'  V.  BuUdtirio  di  Arch,  crist.,  1876.  '  Gurrucci:   Storia,  etc.,  t.  cccxxiii. 

^  de  Vogiie:   Syrie  Ctntrak,  pi.  oxvii. 


Fig.  136.— A  baptistery.    From  a  sarcoplia 
gus,  Rome. 


Fig.  137.— Groundplan  of  a  baptistery  at  Deir 
Seta,  Central  Syria. 


THE  SACRAMENT  OF  BAPTISM. 


411 


Fi"-.    138    is   a   vertical    section  of  tlic    noted    Itaptistery    of    St. 
Jolnr  in    Lateral!,    Home.       Only    tlie    central    portion,    which    is 
covered  by  the  dome,  is  here  ijiven,  in  order  to  show    san    (Jiovauol 
the  position  of   the  font  and  to  illustrate  the  rich  and   m  micraDo. 
suggestive  mosaic  decoration    which   is    frequently   found    in    this 


Fljr.  138.-Verllcal  section  of  the  central  portion  of  the  baptistery  of  San  Giovanni  In  Uteran, 


Rome. 


class  of  buildings.  The  central  mosaic  of  tlie  first  zone  represents 
a  baptismal  scene,  in  which  the  same  mode  of  administration  is 
suggested  as  in  the  monuments  which  have  already  been  described 
(r.  i>p.  404-406). 

Fig.  139  is  a  vertical  section  of  tlie  baptistery  of  Albegna,'  Ital3\ 

'  V.  Dehio  u.  Bczold:  Op.  cit.,  laf.  3,  Figs.  5,  6. 


412 


SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 


It  is  probably  of  the  seventh  or  eighth  century.  It  gives  the 
Baptistery  of  aiTangenient  of  the  steps  leading  to  the  font,  and  of 
Aibegna.  ^jjy  chapels  Avlilch  are  contained  in  the  space  covered 

by  the  lean-to  roof.     This  and  Fig.  138  are  octagonal  in  ground- 


Fig.  139.— Vertical  section  of  the  baptistery  in  Aibegna,  Italy. 

plan.  Both  will  illustrate  the  manner  in  which  adjacent  parts  were 
added  to  the  original  baptistery,  until  an  imposing  structure,  con- 
venient for  purposes  of  assembly  and  worship,  was  the  result. 


§  7.  Immedifcte  Preliminaries  to  Baptism. 

Prior  to  the  administration  of  the  rite  the  candidates  were  re- 
Profession  of  quii'ed  to  renounce  the  devil  and  all  his  works,  to  profess 
faith  required,  faith  in  a  prescribed  creed,  and  to  promise  to  live  in 
obedience  to  Christ  and  his  precepts.  The  form  and  content  of  the 
creed  varied  from  the  simple  profession  of  faith  in  Jesus  as  the  risen 
Messiah,  to  the  more  lengthy  and  imposing  creeds  formulated  from 
time  to  time  by  the  Church.'  The  promise  of  obedience  to  the 
Church  was  often  made  three  times.  In  the  turning  toward  the 
west,  as  the  place  of  darkness,  when  solemn  renunciation 

Renunciation  '  ^  ...  ■, 

of  the  devil  and  of  Satan  was  made,  in  the  turning  to  the  east,  as  the 
his  works.  source  of  light,  when  promise  of  obedience  was  enjoined, 
and  in  the  triple  renunciation,  promise,  and  confession  of  faith,  there 

'  V.  Cond.  ApostoL,  1.  vii,  c.  41. 


THE  SACRAMENT  OF    IJAI'TISM.  418 

is  notleod  a  system  of  siLriiiticiiit  syiiibolisin,  which  was  early  intro- 
(iiieed  into  eeelesiastieal  art  {v.  liook  i,  ehaj).  iii). 

As  early  as  the  latter  part  of  the  second  century  sponsorshij.  was 
reeotrnised  as  an  important,  if  not  a  necessary,  aeeompani-  j^,,,,,,^,,^. 

nient  of  baptism.  Its  origin  is  not  known.  It  prohahly 
arose  out  of  the  eircumstanees  of  peculiar  i>eril  to  which  tlie  Church 
was  exposed,  whereby  the  children  would  be  left  in  orphanaire,  m- 
a.lults  be  liable  to  lapse  into  paganism.  In  vhUw  case  tlie  sponsors 
were  regarded  as  sureties:  in  case  of  children  for  their  care  and  re- 
li./ious  training,  in  case  of  adults  for  their  sound  conversion  and 
genuine  Christian  character  at  the  time  of  their  presentation  for 
baptism.'  The  caution  used  by  the  early  Church  in  the  Philosophy  of 
crlioice  of  sponsors  clearly  reveals  the  nature  of  this  re-  «p<'"*"-'<"1p- 
lation;  it  was  that  of  a  guarantor  of  the  moral  life  of  thosi'  about  to 
be  baptized.  Hence,  when  parents  were  permitted  to  be  sponsors 
for  their  children  it  was  not  because  of  this  natural  rt'lationshij), 
but  rather  that  they  might  afTord  guarantees  for  their  moral  and 
spiritual  character.  In  nearly  all  the  earlier  expositions  of  the  phi- 
losophy of  sponsorship  there  is  a  positive  denial  that  regeneration  of 
the  (^hild  is  effected  by  the  faith  of  either  the  sponsor  Th.-faiihof  the 
(.r  the  ministrant."     Nevertheless,  it  was  hehl  by  An-   sponsor  not 

„      ,  •  »      .1        aviiiliiig. 

gustine  that  the  faith  of  the  sponsors  iiny  mure  to  the 
advantage  of  the  child,  ])y  stimulating  to  greater  lidelity  in  educa- 
tion  and   watchcare;'   "the  promises  of   the  sponsors  were  under- 
stood to  be  made  not  in  their  own   name,  but  in  the  name  of   the 
baptized,  and  that  the  latter  became  subseciuently  responsil>le." 

§  8.   Accompaiujing  Cercmonim. 
Early   ba])tisni    was    ])robably  by   trine    immersion,   pouring,   or 
sjn-inkling  of  the  nude   tiguic.      The    Tcurlihnf  of  the  ^^.j^^  baptism 
I'tri'lrc  contains  the  oldest   distinct    ])recept  as  to  trine    of    tiio    nude 
baptism  :   '•  Dut  it   thou  hast  neither,  ])our  water  upon 
the  head  thrice,  into  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  the  S;»;i,  and  Holy 
Spirit."*     By  the  close  of  the  second  centuiy  this  was  the  common 
practice.     "  We  dip  not  once,  but  three  times,  at  the       Tmuiiian's 
naming  of  every  person  of  the  Trinity."^     With  this        tesUmony. 
statenient  of  Te'rtuUian   the   teachings  of   Basil   and   Jerome  are  iii 
exact  accord.     So  also  Ambrose  is  minute  in  his  descrip-   Ambroses  ac- 
tion of  the  rite.     "Thou  wast  asked.  Dost  thou  believe   '^^'""^• 
in  God  the  Father  Almighty  ?      And  thou  repliedst,  I  believe,  and 

•  Const.  Apost.  1.  viii.  c  ?,2.  ^  An-usline:   Fp.  «d  FPrni/.,  98. 

»  V.  de  nnptismo\c.Donatixt.  iv,  HI  ;  de  Lih.  Aihiti:,  iii,  2:i. 

4  y  chfip.  vii.  *  Teriullian:    cont.  Prax.,  c.  26. 


414        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

wast  dipped,  that  is,  buried.  A  second  demand  was  made,  Dost  thou 
believe  in  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord,  and  in  his  cross  ?  Thou  answeredst 
again,  I  believe,  and  wast  dipped.  Thereupon  thou  wast  buried 
with  Christ.  For  he  that  is  buried  with  Christ  rises  again  with 
Christ.  A  third  time  thou  wast  asked.  Dost  thou  believe  in  the 
Holy  Ghost  ?  And  thy  answer  was,  I  believe.  Then  thou  wast 
dipped  a  third  time,  that  thy  triple  confession  might  absolve  thee 
from  the  various  offences  of  thy  former  life." ' 

Different  reasons  for  this  practice  are  found  in  the  writings  of 
the  Christian  fathers.     Gregory  of  Nyssa  and  others. 

Various  expla-  -,    -r       ■       /,^  ^ 

nations  of  the  both  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  Church,  say  that  it  repre- 
practice.  gents  Christ's  three  days'  burial,  and  his  resurrection  on 

the  third  day.  Others  explain  it  as  sj^mbolic  of  our  faith  in  the 
Trinity,  into  whose  name  we  are  baptized.  Augustine*  unites 
these  reasons,  in  that  by  trine  immersion  the  Trinity  is  symbolized, 
as  well  as  the  Lord's  burial,  and  resurrection  on  the  third  day. 

Most  of  the  Christian  fathers  from  Tertullian  taught  that  this 
method  of  baptism  was  instituted  by  the  apostles.  The  "  Apostolic 
Canons  "  regard  it  as  of  imperative  obligation,  and  order  the  deposi- 
tion of  any  bishop  or  presbyter  who  shall  administer  the  rite  in  any 
other  way.^  The  Arians  in  Spam  continued  this  practice.  To 
protest  against  this  heretical  sect  the  orthodox  party 

InfluGDCcof  the    1  t^  *         f 

Arians  on  tiie  was  led  to  abandon  trine  immersion;  and  the  fourth 
practice.  Council  of  Toledo  (A.   D.  633)  decreed'  that  a  single 

immersion  should  be  regarded  as  valid  baptism.  It  was  led  to  this 
decision  by  the  advice  of  Gregory  the  Great,  who  held  that  both 
ways  were  "just  and  unblamable  in  themselves;  nevertheless,  to 
avoid  a  seeming  approval  of  the  Arian  heresy,  it  may  be  advisable 
to  drop  trine,  and  practise  single  immersion."  ^ 

As  further  accompaniments  of  baptism  must  be  noted  unction, 
Avhich  was  performed  by  oil  consecrated  b}^  the  bishop,  the  imposi- 
tion of  hands,  and  the  sign  of  the  cross.  The  anointing  of  the  body 
of  the  baptized  person  after  leaving  the  water,  called 
the  unction  of  chrism,  was  of  early  institution.  It  is 
mentioned  by  Tertullian  as  usual  in  his  day.  At  a  later  period  the 
practice  of  anointing  the  body  before  baptism  was  introduced,"  and 
forms  of  consecration  of  the  oil  were  prescribed.  Various  interpre- 
tations of  the  significance  of  these  two  unctions  are  met  in  the 
writings  of  the  fathers.     In  the  Constitutions  is  found  the  injunc- 

>  Be  Sacram.,  lib.  2,  c.  7,  as  quoted  by  Bingliam  :  Antiqidties,  etc.,  bk.  xi,  chap.xi. 
2  De  Consecrat.,  Dist.  4,  c.  78. 

=  V.  Canons  49,  50.  *  Can.  5.  ^  Lib.  i,  Ep.  41. 

«  V.  Ambrose:  De  Sacramentis,  1.  i,  c.  2.     Constit.  Apost,  1.  7,  c.  42. 


Till-:  SACRAMENT  OF  BAITIS^F.  415 

lion:  "Thou  slwilt  first  of  all  anoint  him  with  the  holy  oil,  and  tlu-u 
haitti/A'  liini  with  wator,  and  afterward  sign  him  with  tlu'  ointment; 
that  the  anointini;  with  the  oil  may  be  the  itarticipation  of  the 
IIolv  Spirit,  and  the  water  may  be  the  symbol  of  death,  and  the 
siLcnim;  with  ointment  may  be  the  seal  of  the  compaet  made  with 
(iod,"  '  ete. 

The  imposition  of  hands  was  to  symbuli/.e  the  reception  of  the 
Holy  Ghost.  It  was  used  in  confirmation,  which  gener-  imposition  of 
allv  was  an  accompaniment  of  baptism,  and  completed  h'^'^'is- 
tlie  admission  of  the  candidate  to  the  Church  and  to  a  participation 
in  the  holy  eucharist.  The  sign  of  the  cross  was  used  by  sign  of  tbe 
tlie  early  Christians  in  tiie  most  common  affairs  of  life.  *^^'^^- 
It  w.as  tlie  symbol  of  conquering  power,  by  which  Satan  an<l  all  the 
angels  of  darkness  were  driven  out  and  finalh^  subcbu'd;  its  rich 
and  varied  symbolism  in  connection  with  the  rite  of  baptism  is 
the  theme  of  many  noble  passages  in  early  Christian  literature." 

'  Const.  Apost.,  lib.  7,  c.  22,  quoted  by  Bins^liain:    Op.  cit.,  bk.  xi,  cliiip.  ix,  sec.  '.i. 
'  V.  pp.  83-89. 


416         SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH- 


CHAPTER   11. 

THE     LORD'S     SUPPER. 
§  1.    Idea   and  Mode  of  Celebration. 

The  original  eucharistic  meal  was  s^^mbolic.  The  broken  bread 
The  meal  sym-  ^^^^  tlie  consecrated  cup  were  also  prophetic  of  the  work 
bo''*^-  which  Christ  was  to  accomplish  for  his  disciples  and  for 

the  world.  The  real  sacrifice,  of  which  this  sacrament  was  to  be  a 
remembrance,  was  yet  to  be  accomplished;  hence  the  supper  was 
so  far  prophetic.  The  bread  was  to  symbolize  the  broken  body, 
and  the  cup  the  blood,  which  was  the  pledge  of  the  covenant 
between  God  and  man.  Every  disciple  who,  in  after  time,  should 
worthily  celebrate  this  supper,  in  obedience  to  the 
words  used  by  Christ  in  its  institution,  was  to  break  this 
bread  and  drink  this  wine  in  order  to  recall  the  memory  of  the 
Founder,  the  Great  Sacrifice  for  the  world,  until  he  should  come 
again. 

It  is  probable  that  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  by  the 
Celebrated  ^''^^t  disciples  occurred  daih^  in  private  houses,'  in  con- 
*^^''y-  nection  with  the  agape,  or  lovefeast.     It  was  of  a  some- 

Avhat  festive  ciiaraeter,  as  may  be  inferred  from  the  excesses  which 
Paul  i"e|)roves  in  the  Corinthian  church,''  and  was  associated  with 
an  ordinary'  meal,  at  whose  close  the  bread  and  wine  were  distrib- 
uted to  those  present,  as  a  memorial  of  Christ's  similar  distribution 
to  the  disciples.  The  association  of  a  meal  Avith  religious  rites 
The  thought  ^^^d  been  most  familiar  with  the  Jews  during  all  their 
familiar  to  all.  history,  and  was  widely  recognised  by  the  heathen 
world,  both  in  conducting  their  common  festivites  around  an  altar 
with  sacrifices,  and  in  the  funeral  feasts  held  annually  in  the  celke 
in  memory  of  the  deceased  members  of  the  family  or  club.'  Nearly 
Testimony  of  ^^^  the  early  frescos  confirm  this  view  of  the  social 
early  frescos,  character  of  the  Supper.  A  table,  around  Avhich  are 
couches  on  which  sit  or  recline  the  participants,  is  the  ordinary 
method  of  representing  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  (see 

'  Acts  ii.  41).    The  refcrenoe  of  KaB'  rjixepav  is  uncertain ;  it  niaj^  include  "  tlie  brealc- 
ing  of  bread  "  as  well  as  the  daily  visits  to  the  temple. 
"  1  Cor.  xi,  20. 
^  V.  Renau:  Les  A2>6stres,  pp.  351-354. 


TlIK    I.OKDS    SL'IMM:I{.  417 

Filfv;.  |:i,  I  I),  l-'ioin  llic  ;icc<)Hiit»  in  the  Acts  of  llu'  Ajtosllcs  (Acts 
ii,  \J,  til),  .IS  well  as  rroiii  Paul's  letter  to  tlie  Coiiiilliiin  clmrc'.i 
(1  Cor.  .\i,  L'O,  L'l),  it  is  safely  iiiferrecl  tliat  the  (lis-  a  riMimiunal 
ciok's  coiiti'ibiited  each  a  sliarc  of  tlic  food  ut'ccssi^vy  """'• 
for  tile  meal;  tlu-  coiiiiiiuiiity  of  Nnc  ami  feliowslii])  l»eiii;jf  lie:'e;n 
slio.vn,  as  at  lirst  in  the  i^ifts  to  a  common  fiiml  for  the  relief 
of  the  i>oor  saints  at  Jerusalem.  Tit  this  iniifyinir  power  ol 
the  eucharist  Paul  evidently  refers  (1  Cor.  x,  10,  17).  l-'rom 
the  account  ixiveu  of  the  practices  of  the  Corinthian  clinrcli 
(1  Cor.  xi,  17-.J4),  it  is  plain  that  private  members  appropriated 
t«»  themselvi's  the  bread  and  wine  whicli  were  desi<;ned  for  the  com- 
mon benefit,  and  did  not  wait  for  the  distribution  of  the  eh-ments 
at  the  hands  of  a  cliurcli  officer.  l-'rom  the  whole  history,  as 
given  by  Paul,  we  look  in  vain  for  any  evidence  that  a  priestly 
consecration  and  distribution  of  the  bread  and  wine  were  rei,'arded 
as  necessary  to  the  validity  of  the  sacrament.  Neither  in  Christ's 
original  institution  of  the  supper,  nor  in  this  fullest  account  by 
Paul,  when,  if  at  all,  such  authority  would  have  been  asserted,  nor 
elsewhere  in  the  New  Testament,  is  found  anv  evidence   ,.     ,   ,  .  . 

'  •  Its  adinlDlstra- 

that  the  Lord's  Supper  was  to  be  consecrated  only  by  a   tion  not  con- 

1  •    X    J       1  ic  i^  ii      ii       !• 'i        Oneil  to  a  class. 

chosen  or  appointed  class.  "  Consequently  the  limita- 
tion of  its  administration  to  the  officers  of  the  church  cannot  claim 
uiidoubtt'd  a]»(»stolic  authority."'  This  was  in  accordance  with  other 
features  of  tlie  Church  while  in  its  plastic  period.  That  the  distinc- 
tive fiuicli()ns  of  the  officers  of  the  apostolic  period  had  not  yet  been 
fully  dilTerentiated  is  thus  manifest  in  connection  with  the  ad- 
ministration of  both  the  great  sacraments  instituted  by  Christ. 
^Moreover,  tliis  lack  of  an  official  character  was  in  in  imrmony 
pi-rfcct  harmony  with  tlie  idea  of  a  universal  priest-  oVtilrimivoJlljU 
luiod,  which  was  prevalent  in  the  early  years  of  the  priest uooii. 
history  of  tlie  Church.  Eacli  householder  was  the  highpriest  of  his 
own  family,  comj)etent  to  do  all  things  necessary  to  their  s]iiritnal 
upbuilding,  including  tlie  celebration  of  the  sacred  meal  in  mem- 
ory of  his  Lord,  l^ut,  in  accordance  with  the  unifying  principle 
already  referred  to,  it  is  probable  that  this  sacrament  was  usually 
ol)served  in  a  congregation  of  belii'vers.  It  seems  that  during  the 
early  apostolic  period  the  method  of  kee])ing  the  Supper  how  ceii-brat- 
recalled  the  last  meeting  of  C'hrist  with  his  disciples.  «<*• 
It  was  accompanied  by  prayer  (Matt,  xxvi,  27;  Mark  xiv,  22,  2T; 
Luke  xxii,  17)  and  singing  of  hymns  (Matt,  xxvi,  30),  and  was  con- 
nected with  a  social  meal,  the  agajie,  to  indicate  that  its  juirpose 
was  the  expression  of   brotherly  love.     The  offering  of  thanks  and 

'  V.  Beet:   Commentary  on  1  Cw.,  iih  loco. 
27 


418        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  P:ARLY  CHURCH. 

praise  {evxaQi.UTia,  evAoyta,  1  Cor.  xi,  24;  1  Cor.  x,  IG)  wr.s  probably 
followed  Avitli  the  holy  kiss  ((plXrjiia  dyiov,  Rom.  xvi,  IG;  1  Cor. 
xvi,  20). 

Under  Trajan  the  strict  edicts  against  secret  societies  compelled 
The  agape  dis-  tlie  separation  of  the  agape  from  the  Lord's  Supper, 
contiuued.  'j^^i^g  former,  being  adjudged  by  the  empei-or  to  per- 
tain to  the  secret  clubs,  eraLQeiat,  which  had  awakened  the  sus- 
picion of  the  government  by  being  held  in  the  evening,  was 
discontinued,  and  the  Lord's  Supper  was  connected  with  the  public 
worship.  The  necessity  for  observing  this  sacrament  in  connec- 
tion with  the  open   and  more  public  services,  and  the  institution 

■  of  the  catechumenate  and  other  forms  of  training  and  discipline, 
The  two  parts  graduall}^  led  to  the  division  of  worship  into  the  "nissa 
of  worship.  catechui  lienor  urn  and  the  missa  fidelinui.  From  the 
circumstance   that   unbaptized    persons,   and   such    as    were   under 

■  church  discipline,  as  well  as  all  others  not  in  full  communion 
with  the  Church,  were  excluded  from  the  assembly  before  the 
■celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  the  idea  of  a  mystery  (jivaTi]- 
ipiov)  soon  attached  to  this  rite,  and  gave  rise  to  the  so  called  d/'s- 
■ciplina  arcani.  This  was,  however,  of  later  institution;  probably 
not  earlier  than  the  time  of  Tertullian.     In  the  earliest   notices  of 

..  the  Lord's  Supper  a  simple  and  almost  literal  imitation 

Us  early  obser-  of  the  meal  as  instituted  by  Christ  is  prevalent.  In  the 
^^°^^'  "  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  "   the   instructions  for  cele- 

brating the  eucharist  are  as  simple  and  archaic  as  those  respecting 
baptism.  There  is  a  marked  absence  of  involved  ritual  and  mys- 
ter}^;  it  is  tndy  a  eucharistic  meal.  "Now  concerning  the  cucha- 
The  "Teach-  ^i^t,  thus  give  thanks;  first  concerning  the  cup:  We 
'""•"  thank  thee,  our  Father,  for  the  holy  vine  of  David  thy 

servant,  Avhich  thou  hast  made  known  to  us  through  Jesus  th}-  ser- 
^'ant;  to  thee  be  the  glory  forever.  And  concerning  the  broken 
bread:  We  thank  thee,  our  Father,  for  the  life  and  the  knowledge 
■which  fhou  hast  made  knoAvn  to  us  through  Jesus  th}^  servant ;  to 
thee  be  the  glory  forever.  Just  as  this  broken  bread  was  scattered 
•over  the  hills  and  having  been  gathered  together  became  one,  so  let 
thy  Church  be  gathered  together  from  the  ends  of  the  earth  ir.to 
thy  kingdom;  for  thine  is  the  glory  and  the  power  through  Jesus 
Christ  forever.  But  let  no  one  eat  or  drink  of  your  eucharist,  ex- 
cept those  baptized  into  the  Lord's  name;  for  in  regard  to  this  the 
Lord  hath  said:  Give  not  that  which  is  holy  to  the  dogs."  ' 

After  the  feast  {iieto.  6e  rb  eiJ.-!TX,r]ndrjvai),  thanksgiving   shall   be 
■offered  for  "  the  knowledge  and  faith  and  immortality  "  made  known 
■  Aidax^j  ~(^v  6C>6ziia  A.-oaT67.uv,  chap.  ix. 


THE   LORD'S   SUPPER.  419 

throui^h  Jesus,  and  "for  spiritual  Uhh\  an«l  drink  and  eternal  life 
throu<,di  thy  si-rvant.''  Also  supplication  for  the  Cluirch,  that  it 
may  be  save«l  from  evil  and  made  jjerfeet  in  love.' 

In  Justin  Martyr's  account  of  the  Lord's  Sujiper  is  noticed  :in 
almost  like  simplicity  as  in  the  "  Teach  inn;."  There  is  hardly  a 
trace  of  a  secret  discipline,  since  this  father,  in  his  first  Apoloi^y,  is 
frank  in  his  account  of  both  the  Christian  sacraments.'  Neverthe- 
less, a  change  from  the  apostolic  custom  is  noticed  in  the  fact  that 
special  celebrants  or  officers  are  now  recognised.  "There  is  brought 
to  the  president  of  the  brethren  bread  and  a  cup  of  wine  mixed 
with  water."'  The  deacons  distribute  the  consecrated  justm Martyr's 
elements,  and  to  those  who  are  absent  they  carry  away  a«-'>unt- 
a  portion;  none  but  the  believers  or  the  baptized  are  ad  mitt  e<  I  to  the 
meal— "to  feast  on  the  flesh  and  blood  of  that  Jesus  who  was  made 

flesh."  * 

In  Tertullian's  account  there  is  scarcely  more  formality.  His 
object  in  giving  the  statement  is  to  refute  the  vile  calumnies 
made  against  the  Christians,  that  in  their  private  dwellings  thi'y 
were  o^uilty  of  practices  more  shameless  than  attached  to  the  heathen 
mysteries.  The  central  thought  of  the  feast  is  love.  "  The  (ireeks 
call  it  dydrTT],  that  is,  love."  "  As  it  is  an  act  of  relig-  Tenuiiian's 
ious  service  it  permits  no  vileness  or  immorality."  "As  ammm. 
the  feast  commenced  with  prayer,  so  with  prayer  it  is  closed.  \\  i- 
go  from  it  ...  to  have  as  much  care  of  our  modesty  and  diastity 
as  if  we  had  been  at  a  school  of  virtue  rather  than  a  ban(piet."  ' 

The  order  of  the  service  of  the  Lord's  Supper  in  ante-Nicene  times 
was  nearly  as  follows:  First,  after  the  prayers,  the  kiss  order  of  ceie- 
of  peace  was  given  between  man  and  man,  and  woman  hnition. 
and  woman — this  having  apostolic  sanction.^  Second,  the  two  parts 
of  the  service  proper,  namely,  the  oblation,  which  was  the  pri's- 
entation  of  the  offerings  for  the  feast,  and  for  the  poor  and  the 
clergy  ;  and  the  communion,  or  the  partaking  of  the  consecrated  tle- 
ments.  Both  parts  of  the  service  were  accompanied  with  prayer 
and  praise.  It  is  not  easy  to  determine  whether  the  service  was  m 
regular  ritualistic  form,  or  was  extemporaneous.  Probably  with  a 
perfect  freedom  the  uttered  prayers  became  flxed  through  repeti- 
tion, and  a  regular  liturgy  was  here,  as  elsewhere,  the  result  of  in- 
fluences exerted  through   many  decades  of   history.     At    tirst  the 

'  riml. :  cliap.  x.  '  Apoi  i,  co.  61,  65.  '  Apol.  i,  c.  65 

*  Apol.  i,  c.  66.  '  ApoL,  c.  39. 

«  Rom.  xvi,  16;  2  Cor.  xiii,  12;  1  Thess.  v,  26.  The  kiss  of  peace  was  coiiliinied 
into  the  post-Nicene  period,  and  was  sanctioned  by  conciiiary  action,  v.  Com.  Laodic, 
can.  19. 


420         SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

bread  was  the  common  bread  of  tlie  various  countries,  thougli  in 
later  centuries  the  Latin  church  insisted  on  unleavened  bread.  The 
wine  was  mingled  with  water,  and  the  communicants,  standing-,  re- 
ceived both  elements  in  the  hands  from  the  officiating  deacons. 
Portions  of  the  sanctified  bread  were  sometimes  borne  to  their 
homes  by  the  members,  where  the  family  communion  was  repeated 
in  one  kind.  This  practice  was  especially  frequent  in  the  North 
Infant  com-  African  church  in  Cyprian's  day,  where  the  practice  of 
munion.  infant  communion  with  wine  alone  was  in  vogue.     The 

custom  of  the  apostolic  Church,  for  all  communicants  to  make  ob- 
lations of  bread  and  wine  and  other  things  to  supply  the  elements 
^,  ,.       of  the  holy  eucharist,  and  gifts  to  the  poor,  was  contin- 

The     oblation  -^  '  ^   .  ... 

by  the  whole   ued  through  all  the  early  history  of  Christianity,  and, 

*^^"'"°''-  in   a  modified  form,   until  the  twelfth   century.     The 

writings  of  the  fathers,  from  Justin  Martyr  to  Augustine,  recognise 

this  oblation  as  made  by  the  entire  company  of  believers.     They 

upbraid   those    who    from   neglect  or   penuriousness  fail  to  bring 

their  appropriate  contributions  to  the  general  fund,  and  carefully 

distinguish  as  to  the  character  of  the  gifts  which  will  be  accepted. 

What  offerings   Offei'ings  made  by  extortioners,  usurers,  corrupt   per- 

exeiuded.  sons,  or  obtained  by  fraudulent  means,  were  rejected; 

and  Ambrose   used   the  threat  that  the  offerings  of   Valentinian 

would  not  be  accepted  by  the  Church,  to  induce  his  refusal  of  the 

prayer  of  S^niimachus  to  restore  the  heathen  altars.' 

In  accordance  with  a  law  of  development  in  church  governmeni 

,   and  discipline,  the  ceremonies  connected  with  the  conse. 
Liturgical  .  !,    ,        1  ,  T  i-  • 

forms  gradual-   cration  ot  the  elements   became  more  and  more  torraai 

ly  developed.  ^^^  involved,  as  they  were  further  removed  from  the 
plastic  condition  of  the  apostolic  age.  From  the  simple  prayer  of 
thanksgiving  and  consecration,  used  by  Christ  and  by  the  Church 
of  the  first  and  second  centuries,  extended  and  carefully  pre- 
scribed liturgical  forms  appear,  the  work  of  great  churchmen,  or 
the  result  of  conciliary  discussion  and  decision.  Such  forms  of  the 
consecration  of  the  eucharist  are  met  in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions 
of  the  fourth  centur}'-,-  and  in  all  the  great  liturgies  of  both  the  East- 
ern and  Western  churches.  It  is  believed  that  no  regularlj^  prescribed 
liturgies  were  used  in  the  ante-Nicene  period.  The  earlier  recognition 
of  a  dlsci2jlina  arcajii  partially  accounts  for  this;  for  when  Chris- 
tianity became  the  religion  of  the  state,  and  the  celebration  of  the 
eucharist  was  made  a  public  act,  a  great  number  of  written  liturgies 
were  prepared,  both  in  the  orthodox  and  heretical  churches.  While 
greatly  differing  in  minor  particulars,  those  great  liturgies  are  based 
'  V.  Ep.  30,  ad  Valent.  ^  Const.  Apost.,  lib.  viii,  c  13. 


THE    LORD'S    sriM'KR.  421 

ui>()n  tlio  earlier  ami  simpler  order  of  eoiisecration  and  coiiiinuiiioii. 
Nevertheless  they  were  often  of  j^reat  leii<;th,  and  were  characuT  of 
aeeonipanieil  with  many  inipressive  eeremonies,  espe-  tlie  lliuitrlcs. 
cially  frecjuent  musical  ici-ilati(»ns  by  the  eh(»irs  and  n-sjionses  i>y 
the  })eople.  As  a  lulc,  the  Oiiental  chin'clu-s  accepted  the  most, 
extensive  and  involved  liturgies  in  the  eeleltration  of  the  eucharisl, 
while  the  Western  centered  on  a  single  feature  of  the  divine  mani- 
festation— C'hrist's  redeeming  work.' 

As  with  respect  to  the  constitution  of  the  C'liurch  and  the  func- 
tions of  church  officers,  so  also  with  resi>eet  to  the  eu-    ^.       ,  „ 

'  '  .  No  early  Uii'ory 

cliarist,    the  apostolic    Church    had    no  clearly   defined   of  UuMnode  of 

doctrine   as   to   the   mode  (d    its   operation.       1  he   nrst 

Christians    received    the   bread    and    wine    with    thanksgiving    and 

gladness  of  heart,   without   iiKpiiring  into  the   manner  of  Christ's 

presence  in  the  elements.     There   is  no  evidence  what-   _. 

t  _  _  _  ^  No  recotrnluon 

ever  that  it  was  regarded  as  a  sin-offering  or  sacrifice.'^  of  a  siu-oner- 
The  only  sacrifice  recognised  is  that  of  the  person  of  "'^' 
the  believer  with  all  his  powers  (liom.  xii,  I;  Phil,  ii,  lo-17,  t(  (ti). 
The  most  tliat  can  be  stated  is  that  those  who  liad  worthily  par- 
ticipated in  the  Supper  were  thus  brouglit  into  conscious  union  with 
their  Lord,  as  in  other  religions  the  worship])er  was  conceived  to  be 
brought  near  the  divinity  through  the  medium  of  an  offering  by 
the  priest. 

The  "Teacliiiigof  tlie  Apostles'"  speaks  of  a  sacrifice:  "  IJiit  on 
the  Lord's  day  do  ye  assemble  ami  break  bread,  and  give  thanks, 
after  confessing  your  transgressions,  in  order  that  your  sacrifice, 
T]  Ovaia  vfiuiv,  may  be  pure.  But  every  one  that  hath  controversy 
with  his  friend,  let  him  not  come  together  with  you,  until  the^'  be 
reconciled,  that  your  sacrifice,  i]  dval.a  vfiuiv,  may  not  be  profaned."' 

Yet  it  is  manifest  that  the  term  sacrifice  is  here  used  in    . 

In  what  sense 

a  very  diiferent  sense  from  that  of  a  levitical  or  priestly   "sacriti(-e"'\vaa 
oblation,  since  the  offering  here  made  is  by  the  entire   ""^ '^'■^'^"<'  • 
c(»inmtinity  of  disciples,  thus  preserving  the  thouglit  of  the  univers.d 
jiricsthood  of  belii'vers.      In  arguing  against  the  Docetists,  Ignatius 
calls   the  eucharist   "the   flesh   of  our  Saviour  Jesus  Christ,  w  hirii 

'  Tliis  is  ill  liiirmoiry  with  the  tlioory  of  worsliip  in  liieso  chiirolies.  The  Orrek 
iiiciuiies  ilie  entire  cirt'ie  of  the  divine  maiiifcslation.  from  tiie  creation  to  iho  (iniil 
ii'i'unpli  of  ilio  (fiorified  Olmrch.  Tlie  Lnliii,  on  tlie  contr.iiy,  proposes  a  n;irro\ver 
spliere  in  its  theory  of  worsliip,  to  which  its  litnrjry  strictly  corresponds.  It  is  tlie 
iii.inifeslation  of  the  history  of  redemption,  as  this  culminates  in  the  passion  and  alon- 
iii;r  <Ic:ith  of  Jesns  Christ.     Its  litiiryy  must  be  correspond iiifrly  ahbrcviated. 

*  inifliiijj:  Die  Ijulirv  der  a.U*tsU:n  Kirchevom  Op/ti' im  Lubenund  Cultus  der  Chi'Uten, 
Krlaiijrpn.  IS.'il,  rs.  45.  seq. 

*  At6u;\f*J  '"'»'•'  *5a)(5£/ca  'AToaro/.wi',  chap.  xiv. 


4.22        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

suffered  for  our  sins,  and  which  the  Father,  of  his  goodness,  raised 
up  again; "  '  and  again  he  speaks  of  the  Church  "breaking  one  and 
the  same  bread,  which  is  the  medicine  of  inimortality,  and  the  anti- 
dote to  prevent  us  from  dying,  but  that  we  should  live  forever  in 
Jesus  Christ."  ^  Such  language  appears  to  express  a  belief  in  the 
real  presence  of  Christ  in  the  eucharist,  yet  is  not  absolutely 
determining.  A  very  similar  view  would  be  inferred  from  the  lan- 
o-uao-e  of  Justin  Martyi" '  and  Irenoeus.^     The  latter,  how- 

The  bread  and    *      *     ,  ,  .        ,."        ,  ,       ,  ^  ^       .  . 

wiuearearche-  ever,  elsewhere  nnplies  that  tlie  bread  and  wine  are  tlie 
*^P®^-  archetypes  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ.     This  is 

also  the  view  which  is  met  in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  ^  and  in 
many  of  the  Greek  fathers  of  the  first  four  centuries. 

The  African  church  seemed  to  fluctuate  between  the  sj^mbolical 
The  view  of  the  interpretation  of  the  words  of  the  institution  of  the 
African  Church.  Supper  and  the  idea  of  the  real  presence  in  the  ele- 
ments. The  strong  development  of  the  priestly  character  of  the 
clerg}^  by  Cyprian  led  him  to  view  the  eucharist  as  a  sacrifice. 

The  Alexandrian  church  were  general^  inclined  to  regard  the 
TheAiexandri-  bread  and  wine  as  symbols  of  the  body  and  blood  of 
an  view.  Christ,   and  the  feast   as   spiritual   in   its   nature   and 

office. 

The  idea  of  a  sacrifice  is  expressed  in  the  language  of  nearly  all 

the  ante-Nicene  fathers,  but  it  is  more  a  commemora- 
Thecommemo-      .  „     ,  -n        £  •  ;]      i       *i  «;     • 

ration  of  a  sac-   tion  of  the  One  sacrifice  for  sm  made  by  the  ottering 

riflce.  q£   Christ,    "once   for   all,"  upon   the   cross,   with  the 

added  thought  of  thanksgiving  for  the  plan  of  redemption.  As 
late  as  the  twelfth  century  this  thought  was  perpetuated  by  the 
custom  of  the  presentation  of  the  eucharistic  elements  by  the  entire 
congregation,  the  universal  priesthood  of  believers  being  thus 
exhibited. 

The  notion  of  a  thank  offering  is  prominent  in  most  of  the  writers 
of  the  first  and  second  centuries;  but  in  the  third  century  the  later 
doctrine  of  a  sin  offering  is  found,  especiall}^  in  the  writings  of 
Cyprian's  sac-  Cyprian,  whose  theory  of  the  priesthood  of  the  ministry 
riflciai  view,  logically  demanded  an  offering  for  the  sins  of  the  peo- 
])le.  His  language  is  remarkable,  and  expresses  the  extreme  view 
of  the  age  relative  to  a  genuine  offering  of  sacrifice  made  by  the 
priest.  "  For  if  Jesus  Christ,  our  Lord  and  God,  is  himself  the 
cliief  priest  of  God  the  Father,  and  has  first  offered  himself  a  sacri- 
fice to  the  Father,  and  has  commanded  this  to  be  done  in  commem- 
oration of  himself,  certainly  that  priest  truly  discharges  the  office  of 

'  Ad  Smyrn.,  c.  7.  ^  Ad  Ephes.,  c.  20.  *  Aiiol,  c.  66. 

*  Adven-s.  Hcer.,  iv,  c.  18,  seq.  *  Const.  Apost.,  v,  c.  14;  vi,  c.  30;  vii,  c.  35. 


THE    r^ORD'S   SIPI'ER.  428 

Christ  who  iinitales  lh:it  which  Christ  did;  and  ho  tlicii  ofTiTs  a  true 
and  full  sacriHce  in  tht-  Chinrii  to  (iod  the  Fatlu-r,  when  hv  pro- 
coeds  to  offer  it  according  to   what    lie   sees  Christ  hiniseU"  to  have 

offered." ' 

The  three  views  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  tlie  niystieal,  tlu-  syni- 
holic,  and  tlie  extreme  niaterialistic,  traces  of  each  of  which  are 
found  in  the  first  three  centuries,  were  perpetuated  in  the  post- 
Nicene  churcli.  Among  some  of  the  prominent  Greek  writers  there 
is  a  tendency  to  rhetorical  declamation  in  deseribing  opinions  vari- 
the  Lenefits  of  the  eucharist,  and  to  the  recognition  of  """• 
some  mysterious  change  which  the  elements  undergo  in  the  act  of 
consecration,  by  virtue  of  wliich  the  believer  truly  partakes  of  the 
body  and  blood  of  Christ.  It  is  difficult  to  Hnd  those  exact  defini- 
tions which  enable  ns  to  classify  these  writers  as  advocates  of  a 
mere  spiritual  participation  in  Christ's  nature,  or  of  the  ciassincaiioius 
doctrine  of  the  real  presence  in  the  bread  and  wine,  or  'Jmi'u'i- 
of  a  veritable  change  of  substance  in  the  elements.  The  same 
writer  fluctuates  in  his  expressions,  at  one  time  seemingly  repre- 
senting the  elements  as  changed  into  the  veritable  body  and  bl 1 

of  Christ,'  and  at  another  as  symbols  of  his  body  and  blood.  Other 
fathers,  as  Gregory  of  Nyssa  and  Chrysostom  in  the  East,  and  Hilary 
and  Ambrose  among  the  Latins,  are  (piite  i)ronounced  in  regard  to 
a  complete  cliange  of  the  elements  in  the  act  of  consecration,  and, 
theiefoie,  incline  to  the  later  view  of  the  Latin  Church.  Neverthe- 
less, in  these  same  writers  are  found  expressions  which,  if  studied 
in  tlieir  isolation,  would  lead  us  to  rank  them  among  the  advocates 
of  the  mere  symbolic  relation  of  the  elements  to  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ,  and  of  a  purely  spiritual  communion  with  him. 
With  all  of  them  it  is  a  deep  mystery.  h\  the  symbolic  Thn  symbolic 
school  may  be  reckoned  Basil,  Eusebius,  Gregory  Nazi-  «^""«'- 
anzen,  and  Augustine;  althougli  these,  too,  at  times  use  expressions 
which  favour  another  theory. 

What  is  true  of  the  teachings  of  the  great  church  fathers  is  like- 
wise true  of  the  hmguage  of  the  ancient  liturgies.  ^,^^  ,it„rpies 
Some  renresent  a  veritable  change  in  the  elements  as   n..i  unif..nn  lu 

.        ,  «  •'  1  -1        .1  tiniclilnt?. 

occurring  in  the  act  of  consecration,  wiiile  otiiers  recog- 
nise only  the  spiritual  presence  of  Christ  in  the  supper.     The  (ireek 
liturgies  are  generally  more  clear  in  the  representation  of  the  real 

>  K\\  G2  (6.".),  ad  Cmril.,  c.  14. 

»  V.  especially  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  ns  cited  by  Neaiider :  Cl>,i'<llirlf  Dogmengeschichte, 
Berlin.  1857,  Bd.  i,  .<(s.  425,  426.  "  Kej^ard  not,  therefore.  Die  breiid  and  the  wine  as 
elements  simply,  for,  .according  to  ilie  declaration  of  the  Lord,  ihey  are  tiie  body  aud 
blood  of  Clirist." 


424         SxiCRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

presence  of  Christ  Avitli  the  elements.  Generally  throughout  the 
eucharistic  portions  of  the  liturgies  there  is  the  recognition  of  an 
awful,  yet  glorious,  mystery.' 

From  the  ancient  canons  it  is  evident  that  full  members  of  the 
Obligations  to  Church,  or  those  who  had  passed  through  their  catechu- 
coinmune.  menical  discipline  and  had  been  baptized,  and  who  were 
free  from  ecclesiastical  censure,  were  under  obligation  to  partake 
of  the  eucharist.  Some  of  the  canons  are  very  explicit,  going  so 
far  as  to  declare  that  such  as  refuse  to  partake  of  the  eucharist 
ought  to  be  excluded  from  the  Church;  *  and  with  this  oj^inion  har- 
monized the  teachings  of  the  Apostolic  Constitutions,  and  of  some 
of  the  most  eminent  Christian  fathers.^  Nor  did  a  plea  of  unwor- 
thiness  excuse  from  this  solemn  duty.  The  reservation  of  some  of 
the  elements  for  the  use  of  such  as  were  not  prepared  or  Avilling  to 

commune,  called  euloaia,  evXoyta,  was  unknown  to  the 
Eulopia.  .7     '  /     ' 

Church  of  the  first  four  centuries,  and  probabl}'^  was  not 
recognised  before  the  eighth  or  ninth  century.     Nor  was  the  medi- 
aeval and  modern   practice  of   private  mass,  where  the 
No  private  mass.         .  ,  1,1  ^  1 

priest  alone  receives  the  elements,  known  to  the  early 

Church. 

Since  the  Church  from  the  beginning  of  the  third  century 
accounted  infants  as  proper  subjects  of  baptism,  and  regarded 
this  as  the  proper  initiatory  rite  into  the  Church  —  ratifying  the 
membership  by  the  holy  unction  and  confirmation — she  consistently 
Infant  com-  admitted  infants  to  the  Lord's  Supper.  Of  this  there  is 
inunion.  abundant  proof  as  early  as  the  third  century.     Cyprian 

is  very  clear  in  his  recognition  of  the  propriety  of  infant  commun- 
ion,'' and  he  mentions  it  in  such  terms  as  to  give  the  impression  of 

'  Tliis  subject  is  discussed  at  great  length,  with  abundant  references  lo  original  au- 
thorities, by  Kahnis:  Die  Lehre  vom  heiligen  AbendmaliL,  Leipzig,  1851.  Riickert: 
Das  AbendmaJd,  sein  Wesen,  und  seine  Geschichte  in  der  alien  Kirclie,  Leipzig,  1856. 
Freeman:  Principles  of  Divine  Sei'vice,  London,  1855-1862.  Harrison:  An  Answer 
to  Dr.  Pusetfs  Challenge  respecting  the  Doctrine  of  the  Reed  Presence,  London,  1871. 
Kbrard:  Das  Dogma  vom  heiligen  Abendmahl  und  seme  Geschichte,  Frankfort,  1845. 
'■Xo  otlier  iiypothesis  is  backed  up  by  such  a  subtle  philosophy;  no  other  can  so 
slieller  itself  from  botii  reason  and  ridicule  in  the  sanctuary  which  has  been  provided 
for  it.  .  .  .  His  (the  believer  in  transubstantiation)  Chi-ist  in  the  sacrament  is  re- 
moved from  the  region  of  sense  to  tlie  region  of  the  unthinkable  and  non-existent. 
Tlie  Roman  Cailiolic's  sacramental  Christ  is  tiie  God  of  Spinoza."  v.  Cimnnigliam: 
The  fhoioth-nfthe  Church,  pp.  242,  243. 

^  Cnnc.  Antiorh.,  can.  2,  quoted  by  Bingliam,  vol.  ii,  p.  791.  Augusti:  Handbucli 
d.  Christ.  ArchcHologie,  Bd.  ii,  ss.  637,  638. 

^  For  declarations  of  such  as  were  entitled  to  commime  and  their  duty  v.  Const. 
Apostol.,  lil).  viii ;  for  the  obligation,  among  others,  v.  Chrysostom :  Horn,  iii,  ad  Ephes. 

*  de  Lapsis,  c.  25. 


THE    LORD'S    SIPPEU.  425 

its  commonnt'ss.  In  the  Apostolic:  Coiistitutioiis,'  wlierc  tlie  order 
in  wliieh  persons  :ue  to  receive  the  eoinniunion  is  treated,  cliihlren 
are  nu'iitioned;  and  Auij^ustine  in  many  passaiji's  of  his  writings  rec- 
ognises its  practice  and  jtropriety.  It  was  also  custom-  Eie„„.„Ls  sent 
ary  for  the  early  Church  to  send  the  elements  to  absent  toslckandpris- 
inemhers,  to  bishops  and  ofticers  of  other  churches,  to 
the   sick   and    infirm,   and   to   caj)tives   languishing  in   prison. 

The  Lord's  Supper  was  early  celebrated  in  private  houses;  but  in 
lati'r  an<l  more  settled  ])eriods  it  was  usually  celebrated  wiiereceie- 
in  the  church.  The  |)eople  received  into  their  hands  of  I'l'uted. 
both  kinds,  sometimes  kneeling,  sometimes  standing,  but  rarely,  if 
ever,  sitting."  The  Constitutions  prescribe  an  order  in  which  per- 
sons shall  commune:  "  First,  let  the  bishop  receive,  then  onjer  of  com- 
the  presbyters,  deacons,  sul)(leacoiis,  readers,  singers,  '"""'"n. 
anil  ascetics;  among  tlu-  women  the  deaconesses,  virgins,  and 
widows,  after  tiiat  the  chiidrc'ii,  then  all  the  peopU'  in  oidei-."''  In 
Justin  Martyr's  description  N)f  the  rite,  the  })resident  consecrates, 
and  the  deacons  distribute  both  elements  to  the  comnninicants;  but 
iii  the  mori'  formal  order  of  government  it  is  seen  that  the  (h-acon 
is  forbidilen  to  officiate  if  a  presbyter  be  present. 

The  practice  of  communing  in  one  kind,  except  in  case  of  urgent 
necessity,  was  unknown  to  the  ancient  Church;  of  this  the  proof  is 
too  abun<lant  to  need  specification.  It  was  sometimes  the  case  that 
till'  bri'ad  was  mingled  with  the  wine,  and  thus  both  ele-  Bread  minjried 
ments  were  given  at  the  same  time.  Hence  tlie  use  of  ^''•i  ^^'"^• 
eucharistic  spoons  in  the  Greek  cliurch,  and  also  in  tlie  Coptic 
cliurch  of  to-day. 

The  frequency  of  celebrating  the  supper  varied  in  different  ages 
of  the  Church.  The  apostolic  Chureli  at  first  liad  daily  FreqiKMicy  of 
assemblies  for  observing  the  sacred  meal,  but  afterward,  celebration, 
apparently,  met  "on  tlie  first  day  of  the  week"  for  its  celebration.* 
The  testimony  of  Tertullian,  Cyprian,  Eusebius,  Chrysostom,  Am- 
brose, and  others  is  to  the  same  custom  in  their  day.  But  besides 
the  Lord's  day  the  eucharist  was  celebrated  on  all  great  oiphrated  on 
feasts  and  festivals,  and  in  some  churches  there  was  teasiduys. 
a  return  to  its  daily  observance.     But  after  the  sixth  century  the 

'  1.  viii,  c.  13. 

'  Tliis  was  a  much  later  practice,  origiiintinK  in  peculiar  circunist«inccs. 

^  1.  viii.  c.  i:5.  as  quoted  Wy  Bingham,  bk.  xv,  chap.  iv. 

*  Apnl.  i,  c.  65. 

'  V.  riiiiy:  Episfolfp,  lib.  t.  pp.  07.  in  bi<»  oelehrnteil  letter  to  Trajan  on  the  lives 
and  customs  of  tlio  Christians  of  the  Province  of  Biihyuia.  Al.so  Justin  Martyr; 
Apol.  1,  G7. 


426         SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

celebration  became  less  frequent,  until  in  some  churches  communion 
was  insisted  on  but  once  a  year. 

There  is  no  evidence  in  the  writings  or  monuments  of  the  first  six 
No  elevation  of  centuries  of  the  elevation  of  the  host  or  of  its  adoration. 
thebost.  'pj^g  entire  accompaniments  of  the  eucharist  were  calcu- 

lated to  impress  the  mind  of  the  communicant  with  the  solemnity  of 
the  act,  as  well  as  with  the  high  privilege  of  the  sacrament.  The  dis- 
The  eucharist   ^^^^^'^^^  ^^  ^^^  great  preachers,  as  the  Gregories,  Basil, 

masnified  by  Chrysostom,  Ambrose,  Augustine,  Hilary,  etc.,  abound 
the  fathers.  .  ^     ,  ^  r        ,        .  ,  .  n 

m  most  eloquent  passages,  inculcating  the  necessity  of  a 

preparation  of  spirit  in  order  to  communicate  worthily,  and  showing 

the  immense  benefits   which   Christ  intended  to  confer  upon  the 

Church  by  the  institution  of  the  Supper. 


§  2.    The  Altar  and  its  Furniture. 

As  the  central  act  of  public  worship,  was  the  eucharistic  supper, 
so  the  central  point  in  the  house  of  assembly  was  the  table  of  the 
Lord,  or  the  altar.  Paul  calls  it  zQaTTE^a  kvqlov.  It  received  differ- 
ent designations  at  different  periods  and  iu  different  countries.  As 
the  idea  of  a  sacrificial  offering  became  more  and  more  prominent, 
Names  and  tbe  terms  circi,  altare,  dvaiaoT'ijptov,  etc.,  were  apjjlied  to 
^'"''"*-  the  place  of  consecrating  the  elements  in  the  eucliarist. 

Tlie  forms  of  the  altar  varied  from  the  simple  table  (rpdne^a,  ineiiso) 
to  the  more  elaborate  altars  in  wood,  stone,  and  precious  metals. 
Even  in  Tertullian's  day  the  ara  is  frequently  mentioned,  and  seems 
to  have  been  of  wood.  Generally  the  term  is  qualified  by  some 
word  indicating  to  whom  the  altar  is  chiefly  dedicated,  or  whose 
relics  lie  beneath  it.  There  are  sufficient  reasons  for  believing  that 
for  the  first  two  and  a  half  centuries  the  table,  or  altar, 

Often  portable.  .  ,  ,  ,      ,  .         .  ,.  ... 

was  often  portable,  and  that  in  times  of  great  public 
agitation,  or  persecution  of  the  Church,  it  was  carried  from  place  to 
place  as  safety  or  prudence  might  dictate. 

After  commodious  basilicas  were  erected  and  were  under  the 
Position  of  the  protection  of  government,  the  regular  place  of  the 
altar.  altar   was   at   the   middle    of    the    chord    of    the   apse 

(u.  Fig.  82).  It  is  believed  that  in  the  fourth  century  the  altar 
began  to  assume  the  form  of  a  tomb,  from  the  practice  of 
Covering  relics  placing  beneath  it  the  relics  of  martyrs  or  saints, 
of  martyrs,  etc.  -pjjg  change  of  the  altar  from  wood  to  stone  can  be 
better  accounted  for  in  this  way  than  by  deriving  the  suggestion 
from  the  arcosolia  of  the  catacombs,  which  some  affirm  were  used 
for   altars   during  times  of  persecution,  and  from   excessive  ven- 


TlIK    LORD'S   SUPPEIl. 


427 


eratioii  of  the  martyred  .Icii.l.  Several  of  these  tuiiiblike  altars, 
from  the  lifth  century,  still  survive  iu  Rome,  Ravemia,  and  else- 
where; the  one  discovered  in  the  liasiliea  San  Alessandro,  seven 
miles  from  Rome,  on  the  Vi<t  XoinnnUiua,  and  that  of  SS.  Na/./aro 
e  Celso  in  Ravenna  are  -(...d  I'xamples.  From  theM-  well-pre- 
served altars  of  the  fifth  century,  as  well  as  from  mosaic  representa- 
tions found  in  several  churches  \)f  the  East  and  West,  a  good  idea 
of  their  form,  material,  ^. 
and  accessories  may  be  |»| 
o-ained.  Fig.  140  repre- 
sents a  table  or  altar 
from  about  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, restored  partially 
from  divers  fragments. 
It  is  sketched  as  a  large 
table  of  marble,  support- 
ed by  pillars  upon  which 
is  scidptured  a  branch  of 
the  vine  with  its  fruit. 
One  frieze  contains  sculj)- 

tured   doves,  which   turn 

Fie   140.— An  altar  (mciisa)  of  the  llfth  ccnuiry. 
towards   the    monogram 

of  Christ;  the  other  (not  shown)  has  a  like  mimber  of  huubs 
turning  towards  the  mystic  Lamb  in  the  centre.  It  is  n(>arly 
six  feet  long  aftd  about  tln-ee  and  a  half  wide.  It  gives  a 
good  idea  of  the  altar  in  the  form  of  the  mensa.'  ^riu'  altar 
"was  often  placed  uj.on  a  platform  raised  two  or  three  p,,.„,,„, „„„ve 
steps  high,  beneath  which  was  a  space,  called  coitfessio,  the  general  u-v- 
where  was  the  grave  of  the  saint,  afterward  the  depos-  ^• 
itory  of  the  sarcophagus  containing  the  sacred  remains.  From  lit- 
erary notices,  as  well  as  from  mosaics  yet  preserved,  it  is  plain  that 
from  the  fourth  or  fifth  century  the  altar  was  covered  by  a  canoi)y, 
cihoriiun,  supported  by  columns,  between  which  stretched  ^^^^^  ,,,,^,^,,,,,_ 
rods  bearing  the  veils,  or  curtains,  which  hid  the  sacred 
elements  from  the  vuli,or  ga/.e.  The  ciboria  were  often  of  great 
costliness,  wrought  out  in  elaborate  i)atterns,  and  formed  a  most 
strikinix  part  of  the  furnit<ire  of  the  sanctuary  {(iT]ua,  sanctuarliiw). 
The  cu^stom  of  multiplying  altars  ahnig  the  sides  of  the  <-hurch  is  of 

later  orii^in. 

The  chalice   (calix)    was  at    lirst    but    ojie  of  tlu-  ordinary  .Irink- 
ing  vessels  used  at  the  social    feasts.     By   degrees,  as  the  i.ublic 
worship    became    more    regular  an.l   onlerly,  as  the   congregations 
'  V.  Roller:  Calacomhes  de  Rome,  torn,  ii,  p.  90,  pi,  Ixiii. 


428         SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

had  tlieir  stated  places  of  assembly,  and  the  societies  cared  for  the 
The  chalice  and  furniture  of  the  churclies,  the  chalice  for  the  wiric  and 
paten.  jjjg  pateu  for  the  consecrated  bread  were  doubtless  of 

regular  pattern,  and  often  of  appropriate  decoration.  To  what  ex- 
tent the  forms  met  upon  sarcophagi,  on  slabs  of  marble,  or 
in  mosaics,  are  representations  of  the  chalice  and  paten  it 
is  difficult  to  say.  From  their  age  and  their  connection  with  in- 
scriptions, a  few  may,  without  violence  to  any  laws  of  sound  inter- 
pi'etation,  be  regarded  as  forms  of  sacramental  vessels.  Such 
evidence  must,  however,  be  received  with  caution,  since  some  of 
these  forms  are  jjlainly  for  purposes  of  ornament.  The  number 
of  chalices  and  patens  still  surviving  from  the  first  six  centuries 
Earliest  exam-  is  very  small.  Probably  the  earliest  are  those  found 
P^*^^*  at   Gourdon,  in  France,   now   preserved  in  the  Ro^^al 

Library  of  Paris.  They  are  of  gold,  ornamented  with  scales 
of  garnet,  and  beautifully  chased.  From  the  fact  that  they  were 
found  in  connection  with  gold  coins  of  the  time  of  Justin  I.,  they 
are  believed  to  be  as  early  as  the  sixth  century.  From  the  descri})- 
tions  of  Paul  Silentarius  we  can  safely  infer  that  the  vessels  which 
Rich  altar  fur-  decorated  the  altars  in  St.  Sophia  must  have  been  of 
niture.  wonderful  richness  and  beauty.     Numerous  notices  of 

other  Christian  writers  of  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  centuries 
clearly  indicate  that  the  altar  furniture  was  carefully  studied  and 
was  often  of  most  costly  material. 

Likewise  the  accounts  of  the  pillage  of  churches  in  the  times  of 
persecution,  or  during  popular  uprisings,  clearly  prove  that  the 
churches  were  in  possession  of  many  valuable  rolls  of  the  sacred 
Eusebius's  tes-  Scriptures,  as  well  as  manuscript  liturgies  and  hymns, 
timony.  Eusebius  assures  us  that  he  has  seen  Avith  his  own  eyes 

the  sacred  Scriptures  committed  to  the  flames  upon  the  market-places, 
and  the  houses  of  worship  thrown  down  from  their  foundations; ' 
and  Optatus  speaks  of  the  Donatists  burning  the  altars  of  their 
rivals,  and  destroying  the  beautiful  altar  vessels  of  gold,  or  melting 
them  down  and  selling  them  as  profane.*  After  the  recognition  of 
Christianitv  as  the  religion  of  the  empire,  the  imperial 

Imperial  gifts.         .  '  =■  „.,„. 

gilts,  not  only  or  churches,  but  of  richest  furniture,  were 
frequent,  and  added  immensely  to  the  impressiveness  of  the  public 

'  Ilist.  Eccles.,  1.  viii,  c.  2.  v.  Lactantius's  account  {de  Mori.  Persee,  c.  12)  of  the 
burning  of  the  splendid  church  at  Xicomedia  with  the  vohimes  of  the  sacred  Scrip- 
tures. 

^  TJic  edict  of  Diocleti;iii  contemplated  the  destruction  of  the  sacred  vessels  and 
books  as  well  as  iho  chiireli'-s.  The  jruardians  of  tiie  churches  frequently  refused  to 
produce  the  biniks  or  reveal  their  place  of  concealment. 


TIIK    LORD'S  SLPFEIi.  429 

worship."  TIu'  c^rowiiiLif  spU'iidour  of  cliurcli  decoration  and  furni- 
tiiri'  is  soiiu'tiiiu's  rrhiikcd  by  the  l)isho|is  as  robbery  of  proiotuj^aiast 
widows  and  orphans,' anil  is  conti'astcil  with  (he  sini-  tin- luxury. 
plicity  of  the  iirst  and  seeond  centuries,  when  the  warm  <jflow  of 
brotherly  love  was  prevalent,  and  when  the  body  of  the  Lord  could 
be  borne  in  a  basket  of  wicker  work,  ami  his  l)lood  in  a  vessel  of 
.irlass.'' 

'  Justinian's  intolerant  zeal,  in  building  ninety-six  cluirches  for  the  yielding  Greeks 
of  Asia  Minor,  and  supplying  them  with  linen  vestments,  Bibles,  liturgies,  and  vaaea 
of  gold  and  silver,  may  be  quoted  as  an  example. 

-  Clirysostoni :  Horn.  50  in  Matt. 

^  Hicron. :   Ep.  125. 


430        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 


CHAPTER  HI. 

EARLY    CHRISTIAN    WORSHIP. 
§  1.   The  Apostolic  Age. 

The  worship  of  the  apostolic  Church  was  simple,  and  without 
liturgical  character.  True,  Christ  left  a  form  of  prayer  which, 
by  its  spirit  and  comprehensiveness,  was  to  remain  a  model  for 
the  Church  in  all  the  future.  So  also  in  the  New  Testament, 
from  time  to  time,  recur  formulas  which  were  probably  the  germs 
suRsestions  of  *^f  ^^^^  stately  liturgies  so  widely  accepted  during  the 
a  liturgy.  following   centuries.       Doubtless   in   this,   as    in  other 

respects,  the  influence  of  the  Jewish  temple  and  synagogue 
service  was  powerful  and  lasting.  Prior  to  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  it  is  evident  that  the  distinction  between  Christian  and 
Jew  was  not  sharply  made,  and  many  of  the  Jewish  converts 
Jewish  influ-  continued  to  attend  upon  a  worship  which  had  be- 
^°ces.  come  venerable  from  age,  and  impressive  by  its  stately 

ceremonial.  Moreover,  the  doxology  and  the  psalmody  of  the 
Old  Testament  Scriptures  were  accepted  and  incorporated  into 
the  Avorship  of  the  new  religion,  and  they  were  found  to  be 
consonant  with  that  spirit  of  universalism  which  characterized  the 
teachings  of  Christ  and  of  his  first  apostles.'  In  accordance  with 
the  precepts  and  example  of  its  Master,  the  early  Church  was  ac- 
Spirit  of  the  ('ii^'tomed  to  offer  prayer  for  all  men,  even  for  enemies, 
early  ciiurch.  j^nd  in  this  respect  it  was  distinguished  sharply  frojn 
the  practice  of  Judaism  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  sjDirit  of  heathen- 
ism on  the  other.  The  bigoted  exclusiveness  of  some  Jewish  sects, 
Contrasted  and  the  narrower  limitations  occasioned  by  nationality, 
aiid'  heathen-  ^''^'th,  etc.,  recognised  by  the  heathen  world,  could  not 
ism.  liarmonize   with  the    truth  which  had   been  communi- 

cated to  Peter  through  a  special  divine  manifestation  (Acts  x, 
34,  35). 

Associated  Avitli  the  prayers,  often  mentioned  in  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  and  elsewhere,  is  found  the  recommendation  to  "  speak  in 
psalms  and  hymns  and  spiritual  songs,  singing  and  making  melody 
in  your  heart  to  the  Lord  "  (Eph.  v,  19);  "  teaching  and  admonish- 

■  Atigusti :   Handbuch  der  ch.  Archa^ologie,  Bd.  ii,  s.  "i 


EARLY    f'HUISTIAN    WORSHIP.  431 

i!i;4  oiU'  ;ui<)tli(.'r  in  psalms  ainl  hymns  ami  spiritual  s<mi;s  (ilyaXfinlr, 
vfii'oi^,iJ5alc  TTvevfiariKai(;),  siiiLjini^  with  grace  in  your  hearts  to  the 
Lord"  (Col.  iii,  17).  Another  part  of  the  worship  eon-  p„rms  of  wor- 
sisted  in  the  readini^  and  expt)undin<^  of  the  Serij»tures  .snip  in  apos- 
(Acts  I,  15,  sc'fj.;  11,  14  ;  IV,  33,  et  al.).  Doubtless  in  tins 
there  was  a  close  imitation  of  the  form  of  the  Jewish  worship, 
for  it  is  inconceivable  that  men  who  had  all  their  lives  been  accus- 
tomed to  the  free  and  stimulating  services  of  the  synagogue  should 
suddenly  sunder  themselves  from  these  associations,  and  devise  an 
entirely  new  order  of  worship. 

The  first  Jewish  convi'rts,  accustomed  as  they  had  been  to  hear  the 
law  reatl  and  expounded  by  some  priest  or  reailer,  and  to  listen  to  the 
impressive  utterances  of  the  Prophets  and  of  the  Psalms  Jewish  con- 
in  their  fre(pient  gatherings,  cherished  more  fully  the  ^ y'^^jg*^! u e* 
grand  and  solemn  lessons  of  their  sacred  writings  as  service, 
they  now  saw^  their  fulHUment  and  culmination  in  the  Messias  wliose 
kingdom  they  were  labouring  to  establish.  Doubtless  the  ])rev- 
alent  custom  among  the  Jews,  to  invite  any  well-informed  man  to 
ex])lain  the  Scripture  lesson,  was  entirely  coiisf^iant  with  the  feel- 
ings of  the  early  discii)les,  when  the  right  to  teach  was  not  of  oflicial 
sanction,  but  of  spiritual  endownu-nts,  or  of  a  special  charism,  ^aQiona 
6c5aaKa?.ii{6v.  The  custom  of  Paul  on  his  missionaiy  tours  also  illus- 
trates the  easy  and  natural  connection  of  the  early  converts  with 
their  former  religion,  as  it  was  celebrated  in  the  svna-   „    „     • ..  ^ 

,  ,  .  -  Paul's  method 

g(»gues  of  the  dispersion.     His  method  was  to  attach   or  cvanKi'iiza- 

himself  to   the  Jewish   synagogue,  and,   in    a   spirit   of 

generous  universalism,  use  the  existing  forms  to  convey  the  higher 

lisson  of  salvation  through  Jesus  Christ. 

The  question  of  the  composition  of  the  churches  founded  by  Paul 

still  remains  an  open  one,  esjx'cially  whether  the  Jewish  or  the  heathen 

I'lement   at    first    prei)onderated.      Doubtless    in    nearly  every   case 

thiTc    was   a   mixture   of    converts  from  both.       Inasmuch    as    the 

theism   of  the  Jews  was  the  substantial   foundation   on    ciiiipusition  ..r 

which  the  Christian  svstem  must  be  reared,  their  forms    ''"'     '•'""•"•■in^s 

founded    by 
had,  presumably,  large  influence  in  all  the   churches  es-    Pan'. 

tablished  by  I'aul   and  his  co-workers  during  their  wide  missionary 

journey ings,  and   the  simple  synagogue  worship  probably  had  very 

considerable  effect  upon  most  of  these  churches  for  a  century  after 

the   death   of   the  apostles.'     If  these   are  to  be  regarded  as,  in  a 

'  With  rospect  to  tlio  composition  or  the  Clinn;h  nt  Rome,  Bnnr  find  Sclnvpgler,  as 
wpH  as  Tliiersch  i\w\  oiliers  not  of  tlio  Tiibinfrcn  f^cliool,  Imve  Fonght  to  prove  <he 
prnponderance  of  Jewish  inHncnce.  But  many  others,  as  Neander,  SclinfT,  Lnnge, 
liavc  controverted  this  claim. 


403         SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH, 

measure,  colonies  of  the  mother  church  at  Antioch,'  then  must  tlie 
preponderatinof  influence  of  tlu'  lieathen  element  be  i)r(!- 

Preponaerance    ^       '  •^  ...  . 

of  heathen  con-   sumed.     Moreover,    the    opposition    which    Paul    often 

verbiu  some,  gi^^ountered  from  the  Jews,  compelling  him  to  leave  the 
synagogue,  and  establish  an  independent  society  (Acts  xiii,  45,  seq.; 
xviii,  5-7  ;  xix,  8,  seq.),  would  suggest  a  larger  number  of  Gentile 
converts  in  the  churches  of  Antioch  of  Pisidia,  of  Corinth,  and 
of  Ephesus,  just  as  the  history  would  lead  us  to  suppose  that  in 
the  church  at  Berea  the  majority  of  converts  were  sincere  Jews, 
Of  Jewish  ia  '^^^o  had  diligently  searched  their  Scriptures  to  discover 
others.  the  fulfillment  of  the  promise  of  the  Messiah.    While  the 

records  of  the  first  century  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  re- 
specting the  forms  of  Christian  worship  are  exceedingly  meager,  it 
cannot  be  doubted  that  the  character  of  the  services  of  the  churches 
Character  of  would  be  somewhat  affected  as  the  majority  of  the 
the  public  wor-   members  were  of  Jewish  or  Gentile  origin  ;  in  the  former 

ship  affected  by  .         •  ,i        ^  r    ^^  i    • 

the  character  case  perpetuating  the  forms  of  the  sj'^nagogue,  and  m 
ofthe church,  ^he  latter  modified  by  the  peculiar  thought  of  the 
heathen  converts. 

A  more  distinctive  service  might  be  supposed  to  be  developed  in 

the  latter  societies,  since  the  liberty  of  the  Gospel  would  experience 

little  hinderance  from  former  customs,  and  be  untram- 

ThG  sprviCGs  in 

churches  of  meled  by  a  venerable  ritual.  Yet  we  are  checked  from 
heathen  oriffin   j^^g^j^jj^^  ^qq  hastv  inferences,  since  the  letters  of  Paul 

developed  more  »  •'  ... 

distinctive  to  the  churches  which  are  most  distinctively  of  Gentile 
'"^"^^'  converts  abound  in  references  to  the   Old  Testament 

Scriptures,  and  some  of  the  elements  of  the  worship  to  which  refer- 
ence is  therein  made  clearly  point  to  a  Jewish  origin.  Nevertheless, 
there  is  evidence  that  in  some  of  the  churches  the  letters  of  the 
apostles  were  read  in  the  assemblies,  and  constituted  a  part  of 
their  service  for  edification  and  instruction  (1  Thess.  v,  27  ;  Col. 
Paul's  letters  iv,  16).  By  degrees  these  letters,  with  other  New  Testa- 
Gentn'e church"  "''^^"^  documents,  came  to  be  regarded  as  of  equal  and 
es.  even   superior  importance  to  the  Old  Testament,  and 

their  authoritative  character  was  recognised  earlier  by  the  churches 
of  Gentile  than  by  those  of  Jewish  character." 

When  all  the  circumstances  are  considered,  Ave  cannot  speak 
of  a  contradiction  between  the  spirit  and  worship  of  Jewish 
and  Gentile  societies,  but  rather  of  a  variety  in  unity.  The 
Yet  no  real  ""ity  consisted  partly  in  their  communion  with  God 
contradiction,  jn  Christ,  on  the  basis  of  the  doctrine  of  the  apostles, 
which  was  by  both  considered  the  reason  and  end  of  divine  woi'- 
'  V.  Lechler:    Op.  cit.,  a.  110.  "  v.  Lechler:    Op.  cit,  s.  120. 


EAUI.Y    I'lIUISTlAN    WOKSHIP. 


4:i3 


ship;  partly  in  tlu-  fntiTiial  association  of  l.cli.-vcrs  with  oni' 
anotliiT,  which  was  stiiimlatcd  and  pnunotcl  l.y  tlu-ir  nli-ious 
services.  Furthermore,  both  parties  ha.l  their  sniaUer  aii.l  more 
exchisivc  society  j?atherin,i;s,  as  well  as  their  m..re  i.uhlic  assemblies 
to  which  the  non-C'iiristian  public  ha<l  access.  The  .lillereiicc  be- 
tween the  Jewish-t'hristian  and  (ieiitile-Christiaii  churches  in  its 
real  essence  consisted  in  the  fact  that  with  those  societies  which 
were  formed  out  of  the  converted  in  h.athcn  countries,  their  wor- 
ship bv  virtue  of  their  entire  isolation  from  the  Jewish  ^.^^.^^^.^  ,^j,,_ 
temple  and  synatr<.irne  service,  was  more  freely  and  pen  deuce 
independently  developed  by  the  pure  spirit  of  tlu-  (Jos-  heaiiR-n  con- 
pel,  while  ill  Palestine  the  connection  with  the  Old  ^•''"'^• 
Testament  ritual  was  more  persistent  and  protracted.  In  tine,  the 
worship  of  the  (lentile-diristian  churches  shares  in  the  liberty,  inde- 
pendence, and  novelty  of  Christianity,  but  in  such  manner  that  this 
independence  of  the*  New'  neither  excludes  a  leanin.tr  toward  the 
forms  of  the  Old  Testament  worship,  nor  does  its  free.loin  ignore  a 
law  of  orderly  arrangement  which  is  developed  from  within.' 

§  2.    Wor.-ihip  ui  (he  Time  of  the  Apostolic  Fathers. 

It  is  quite  remarkable  that  the  apostolic  fathers  give  us  very 
few  hints  relative  to  the  nature  and  order  of  i)ublic  worship. 
Scarcely  a  paragraph  is  met  in  Clement,  Polyearp,  Ilermas,  or  Bar- 
nabas. The  archaic  (locument,  "  The  Teacliing  of  the  Twelve,"  if 
it  can  be  tirmly  placed  near  the  end  of  the  fii"t  or  at  x^e  "Teach- 
the  beginning  of  the  second  century,  becomes  valuable  '"«•" 
as  iriving  statements  ri'lative  to  the  manner  of  celebrating  the  sacra- 
ments oF baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper  (r.  book  iii,  chaps.  1,  2),  as 
well  as  the  character  of  the  assemblies  upon  the  Lord's  day.  We 
are  impressed  by  the  simplicity  of  the  service,  and  by  its  almost 
absolute  lack  of 'ritualistic  forms.  The  command  to  meet  together 
is  coupled  with  a  descriiUi(Mi  of  the  spirit  which  should  be  cherished 
by  the  participants,  being  largely  a  rei)etition  of  the  injunction  of 
(iirist'  (Matt.  V,  23,  24).  Fre<pient  assembly  is  earnestly  enjoined 
— "  IJut  ve  shall  come  together  often,  and  seek  the  things  which 
l)efit  your  souls;  for  the  whole  time  of  your  faith  thus  far  will  not 
profit  you,  if  you  do  not  become  perfect  in  the  last  time."  ^ 

The  references  to   pul)lic  worshi])  in   the   Ignatian   writings  are 

'  Lcchlcr:   Op.  cif.,  fs.  120.  121. 

«  ^l6axr/  Tuv  AttootoXuv,  chap.  xiv.  "But  on  the  Lord's  day  do  ye  assemble  and 
break  bread,  and  give  thanks,"  etc. 
'  Id.,  chap.  xvi. 
28 


434         SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

very  few,  and  funiisli  little  aid  in  construct  in  <2^  the  form  of  public 
Notices  in  ig-  service  in  the  first  quarter  of  tlie  second  century.  The 
natius.  duty  of  frequent  meetings  is  inculcated:   "Take  heed, 

then,  often  to  come  together  to  give  thanks  to  God,  and  show  forth 
his  praise.  For  when  ye  assemble  frequently  in  the  same  jjlace, 
the  powers  of  Satan  are  destroyed,  and  the  destruction  at  which  he 
aims  is  prevented  by  the  unity  of  your  faith."  '  He  agrees  with 
the  "  Teaching  "  respecting  the  propriety  and  custom  of  observing 
the  first  day  of  the  week,  rather  than  the  Jewish  Sabbath;  "no 
longer  observing  the  Sabbath,  but  living  in  the  observance  of  the 
Lord's  day,  on  which  also  our  life  has  sprung  up  again  by  him  and 
by  his  death,"  °  etc. 

The  few  heathen  notices  of  the  worship  of  the  Christians  hi  the 
first  half  of  the  second  century  are  important  in  themselves,  and  in- 
structive respecting  the  simplicdty  of  services  which  continued  in 
the  Church  after  the  death  of  the  apostles.  The  testimony  is  also 
important  as  coming  from  enemies.  In  his  well  known  letter  to 
Heatiien  testi-  Trajan,  about  A.  D.  102,  Pliny  describes  the  sim- 
moay.  plicity  of  the  worship,  and  l^ears  witness  to  the  high 

moral  character  of  the  Christian  fellowship.  "They  are  accus- 
tomed to  asseml)le  before  dawn  on  a  certain  day,  and  sing  re- 
sponsively  a  hymn  to  Christ  as  God,"  ^  etc,  The  celebration  of 
the  sacred  meal,  and  the  pledge  to  abstain  from  all  wickedness 
while  absent  from  each  other,  are  likewise  attested.  Lucian,  the 
.universal  scoffer,  saw  in  Christianity  only  one  of  the  numberless 
follies  of  his  time.  His  mocking  spirit,  while  contemning  all  re- 
ligions, sobers  into  candor  by  acknowledging  the  benevolence  of 
the  Christians,  and  he  testifies  to  the  power  of  their  belief  in  immor- 
-tality  to  keep  them  steadfast,  and  cause  them  to  abound  in  all 
helpfulness  and  kindness.^  He  likewise  speaks  of  their  worship  of 
Christ,  of  the  reading  of  their  sacred  writings,  and  the  celebration 
of  the  sacred  meal. 

§3.  Public   Worship  in  the  Second  and   Third  Centuries. 

It  is  not  till  the  middle  of  the  second  century  that  we  meet  M-ith 
a  somewhat  formal  and  complete  descri])tion  of  Christian  public 
justinMartyr"s  ^vorship.  Justin  Martyr,  in  his  first  Apology  to  the  em- 
account,  peror,  senate,  etc.,  says:  "  On  the  day  called  Sunday  (?/ 
Tov   'HAt'ow  Xeyoiievrj  i]fi^-Qo)  all   who  live   in  cities  or  in  the  country 

'  Ad  Ephe^.,  c.  xiii  ;   v.  .ilso  (ul  ^fugnes.,  c.  vii;   cd  Poli/r.,  o.  iv. 
=*  Ad  Magnes.,  c.  9.  •'  Epistolae.  1.  x,  ep.  96. 

*  de  Peregrino,  11-13.  v.  Friedlanrier:  Slttengeschichfe  Roms,  Bd.  iii,  589-590. 
-Ublhorn:    Conflict  of  Christianity  tuith  Heathenism,  pp.  P.25,  326. 


EAIU.V   CIIKISTIAN    WORSHIP.  486 

gatlior  tou^c'thcr  to  one  pl.ici",  ami  the  iiu'inoirs  of  the  apostles  or 
the  writinL,'s  of  the  j)ro|»h(.'ts  are  read  as  h)ii,<^  as  time  jx-nnits;  then, 
when  the  reailer  lias  ci-asiMl,  the  pri'sich-iit  vei-bally  instructs,  and 
exhorts  to  the  imitation  of  these  Ljood  ihini^s.  Then  we  all  rise  to- 
t^ether  autl  ]»ray,  and  as  we  before  said,  when  our  prayers  are  ended, 
bread  and  wine  and  water  an-  brouijht,  and  the  president  in  like 
manner  olfers  prayers  and  thankso;i\  in;,^s,  ace(»rdin<j^  to  his  ability, 
and  the  peopk'  assent,  say  in  i^,  ,  l///ti///  and  there  is  distribution  to 
eacli,  and  a  jtartieipation  in  that  over  whieh  thanks  have  oruer  of  ser- 
been  given,  ami  to  those  who  are  absent  a  portion  is  ^''*- 
sent  by  the  deacons.  And  they  who  aiv  well  to  do,  and  willing, 
give  what  each  tliinks  tit;  and  what  is  collected  is  deposited  with 
the  presidint,  who  succors  the  orphans  and  the  widows,  and  those  who, 
through  sickness  or  any  other  cause,  are  in  want,  and  those  who  are 
in  bonds,  and  the  strangers  sojourning  among  us,  and,  in  a  word, 
takes  cari'  of  all  w  ho  are  in  need.  But  Sunday  is  the  day  on  which 
we  all  hold  our  common  assembly,  because  it  is  the  first  day  on 
which  (iod,  having  wrought  a  change  in  the  darkness  and  matter, 
made  the  world;  and  Jesus  Christ  on  the  same  day  rose  from  the 
dead."  • 

In  this  brief  passage  a  very  lively  sketch  of  the  form  and  sj)irit 
of  Christian  worship  in  the  middle  of  the  second  century  is  given. 
1.)  The  day  on  which  tlu'  assembly  gathers  and  the  summary 
reason  of  selecting  this  day.  It  is  Sunday,  and  not  statcmenta. 
the  Jewish  Sabbath;  it  is  because  on  that  day  God  finished  his  crea- 
tion, and  Jesus  Christ  rose  from  the  dead.  2.)  The  gathering  is 
from  city  and  adjacent  country  into  one  place;  the  jdace  is  not 
characterized;  but  it  is  a  society  under  president  and  helpers. 
3.)  The  order  of  tlie  service  is  like  that  in  apostolic  times,  with 
the  exception  of  singing,  Avhich  is  not  here  mentioned.  The 
lector  reads  selections  from  the  (rospels,"  and  from  the  pro- 
phetic Scriptures;  next  the  president  expounds  and  exliorts 
to  an  imitation  of  the  examples  furnished  in  the  sacred  lessons. 
Then  follows  prayer,  led  by  the  president,  during  which  all  stand; 
next  the  consecration  of  the  elements  for  the  Lord's  Supjjer,  their 
distribution  by  the  deacons,"  a  participation  in  both  kinds  by  all 
who  are  present,  and  the  care  for  those  who  are  absent,  by  the 
deacons.  After  the  communion  is  the  collection  for  the  poor  and 
needy,  which  is  deposited   with   the  ]>resident  for  disbursement  to 

'  A)wl.  i.  c.  67. 

'  Apol.  i,  c.  66,  "  For  the  apostles,  in  llie  memoirs  composed  by  tlicm,  wiiich  are 
Ciiilcd  Gospels,"  etc. 
3  V.  c.  65. 


436         SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

all  who  may  be  in  want,  or  in  bonds,  as  well  as  to  the  stranger 
sojoui'ning  among  the  brethren.  From  this  account  b}'  Justin  it 
might  be  fairly  inferred  that  there  existed  a  regular  and  recognised 
order  of  worship,  and  to  proper  officers,  president,  lector,  and  dea- 
cons, specific  duties  w^erc  now  assigned.  Here  is  noticed  a  regular 
and  orderly  procedure  in  the  service,  but  it  is  still  characterized  by 
earnestness  and  simplicity,  no  intimation  of  an  involved  liturgy 
appearing,  except  possibly  in  the  response  of  the  people.' 

Other  writers  of  the  second  century  add  very  little  to  our  knowl- 
edge of  i)ublic  worship.  Origen,  Irenieus,  and  Tertullian  in  their 
quite  extensive  writings  dwell  but  slightly  upon  this  subject.  In 
his  reply  to  Celsus,  Origen  uses  a  few  expressions  which  indicate 
a  fixed  order  of  service  in  the  churches  of  Alexandria,  but  it  is  not 
easy  to  construct  from  these  the  complete  form  of  worship.  Ter- 
Tertuiiian's  tullian's  account  of  the  services  in  the  North  African 
statement.  church  agrees  quite  closely  with  the  statement  of  Justin 
Martyr.  He  adds  a  few  particulars,  as,  "  We  also  give  admonitions, 
institute  examinations,  and  administer  the  divine  censure."  From 
the  last  expression  we  are  to  infer  that  the  discipline  of  the  diurch 
was  also  considered  in  the  public  assemblies.  He  also  informs  us 
that  in  prayer  they  turned  toward  the  east;*  that  they  lifted  their 
hands  to  God  the  Father;^  and  that  in  the  udssa  JideUuni  the  Lord's 
Prayer  was  used,  and  the  kiss  of  peace  was  given.'' 

When  the  sacerdotal  principle  was  greatly  strengthened,  during 
^     ^   the  first  half  of  the  third  century,  the  public  services 

More  fixed  and  •    i      /  rm 

formal  in  third  assumed  a  more  fixed  and  ceremonial  character.  Ihe 
century.  sharp  distinction  between  laity  and  clergy  brought  cor- 

responding changes  in  the  conduct  of  worship.  From  this  time  the 
ministering  priest  appears  more  prominently  in  both  the  missa 
catechu nienor urn  and  in  the  missa  Jidellnvi.  The  bishop  or  presby- 
ter is  the  offerer  in  the  eucharist,  "  who  offers  the  sacrifices  to  God." 
The  sacrifice  is  now  celebrated  daily;  the  lessons  are  read  from  a 
pulpitum.  It  is  evident  that  there  is  a  kind  of  responsive  service, 
for  the  Sursum  Corda  and  the  Habenms  ad  Dominum  are  ex- 
cyprian's  pressly  mentioned   in  Cyprian's  treatise  on  the  Lord's 

words.  Prayer.^     Also  he  speaks  of  the  attitude  in  prayer  as 

standing:   "Moreover,  when  we  stand  praying,  beloved    brethren, 

'  Notwithstanding  Justin's  Apolog.y  is  addressed  to  the  emperor,  who  might  be 
supposed  to  be  more  interested  in  affairs  pertaining  to  iiis  capital,  it  is  believed  that 
he  desci'ibes  the  order  of  worship  which  was  extant  in  the  patriarchate  of  Antioch, 
within  which  he  resided. 

"^  Apol.^  c.  16.  ^  Idolat,  c.  vii.  *  de  Oratione,  c.  14. 

^  de  Oratione  dominica,  c.  31. 


EARLY   C'lIKlSTIAN    WOHSIIII*.  43W 

we  out^ht  to  be  watelil'iil  atul   earnest  with   our  whole  heart,  intent 
on  our  prayers."  ' 

The  charaeti-r  of  publie  worshijt  in  the  African  rliurelies  during 
the  fourtli  eentury  ean  be  pretty  well  asrertaini-tl  from  AuRustine's 
the  \vritini,'s  of  Aui^ustine.  The  follo\vin«r  is  the  order  ^I^U'^ici/'in- 
as  therein  ri'vealed.  The  Scripture  readint;  was  from  format lun. 
the  pro[tluts,  epistles,  and  <jfospt'ls — a  psalm  being  sun<x  between  the 
epistle  and  t^ospel  lesson.  VV^e  infer  that  the  address  or  sermon 
made  to  the  people  was  early  in  the  public  service.  In  the  missa 
Jidelium  the  worshij*  be<;an  with  the  Siirsum  (Jorda  ("Lift  up 
your  hearts  ")  and  the  llnhanius  ad  Doininwn  ("  W^e  lift  them  up 
unto  the  Lord").  The  first  priest  then  responded,  "  Let  us  give 
thanks  to  our  Lord  God,"  and  the  people  said,  "  It  is  meet  and  right 
so  to  do."  The  prayer  of  consecration  of  the  elements  (sanctitication) 
is  made  only  by  the  priest;  since,  from  the  language  of  Augustine, 
this  is  regarded  as  of  the  nature  of  a  sacrifice.  After  tlie  consecra- 
tion, the  Lord's  Prayer  was  re})eated  by  the  clergy  only.  Then  the 
Pax  vobisrnni  ("  Peace  be  with  you  "),  and  the  kiss  of  peace.  Next 
followed  the  communion  and  the  dismissal  by  the  benediction,  which 
Augustine  mentions  in  his  private  letters.  In  these  letters  is  found 
also  the  statement  that  in  the  public  service  prayere  were  otTered 
for  the  conversion  of  unbelievers,  for  the  catechumens,  that  they 
might  be  earnest  in  the  j»reiiaration  for  baptism,  for  spop«>  of  the 
all  believers,  for  bishoi>s  and  priests,  for  all  rulers,  for  mvocaUon. 
the  suffering  and  persecuted,  for  absent  nu'iubers  of  the  congre- 
gation, and  for  enemies.'^ 

The  notices  contained  in  the  writings  of  the  first  three  and  a  half 
centuries  represent  the  Lord's  Supper  as  the  central  act  of  public 
worship,  around  which  revolves  every  minor  |)art,  and  which  gave 
significance  to  the  whole.  The  celebrating  of  this  sacrament  is  the 
supreme  object  of  all  public  assemblies  of  the  s;iint8. 

'  de  Orutione  dominica,  c.  31. 

'  »'.  Mono:  Lateinische  und  griechische  Messen  atis  dem  2kn  bis  %ten  Jahrhunderi, 
Fraiiktorl,  1850. 


438        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIl^  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE     E  A  R  L  I  K  S  T     LITURGIES. 

§  L  Origin. 

The  almost  unbroken  peace  which  the  Church  had  enjoyed  between 
the  reigns  of  Marcus  Aurelius  and  Decius  had  added  greatly  to  the 
number  of  her  adherents,  but  had  brought  serious  moral  enervation 
even  upon  some  of  her  high  officials.  Freedom  from  opposition,  and  a 
strono-  reaction  against  the  rigors  of  the  Montanistic  discipline,  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  lapse  of  a  majority  of  North  African  Christians 
during  the  terrible  persecution  under  Decius  and  his  successors.'  The 
most  marked  symptom  and  proof  of  a  decaying  i)iety 

Occasions    of  ^i  »_  ./^.i./ 

the  growth  of  were  the  relegation  of  personal  duties  to  a  class  of  church 
liturgies.  officials,  and  a  growing  formalism  in  public  worship. 

It  was  during  this  interval  of  peace  that  the  sacerdotal  notion  had 
greatly  strengthened,  and  the  influence  of  the  lait}^  had  correspond- 
ingly declined. 

The  forty  years  between  the  death  of  Valerian  and  the  Diocletian 
persecution  were  most  important  for  the  discipline,  doctrine,  and 
worship  of  the  Church.  Tlie  readmission  of  the  lapsed,  after  the 
Decian  persecution,  had  originated  the  sacrament  of  penance,  which 
Penitential  became  SO  powerful  a  factor  in  the  doctrine  of  the  Latin 
system.  Church.^     The  more  lenient  treatment  of  those  who  had 

denied  Christ  under  Valerian  tended  to  tlie  relaxation  of  ecclesias- 
tical discipline,  and  the  general  freedom  from  legal  disabilities  gave 
opportunity  for  the  erection  of  spacious  churches,  where  worship 
was  conducted  with  ever-increasing  pomp.  Just  then,when  piety  was 
feeble  and  heresy  was  rank,  the  Church  felt  the  necessity  of  guard- 
ing its  orthodoxy  by  the  clearer  fornndation  of  doctrine,  and  fixing 
the  order  of  its  worship  by  the  construction  of  stately  liturgies. 

It  was  probably  under  these  circumstances  that  the  great  litur- 
gies^ were  rapidly  developed.     From  the  liturgical  germs  found  in 

'  Aiihe  :  VEglise  et  VEtat  dans  la  seconde  Moitie  du  III'  Sikle,  4  vols.,  Paris,  1876- 
1885,  vol.  iv,  pp.  1Q,seq. 

-  V.  Aube:  Op.  cil.,  vol.  iv,  pp.  30,  set/.  Leckcy :  History  of  European  Morals, 
London,  1S84,  vol.  i,  pp.  457,  seq. 

3  The  term  liturgy,  Xecrovpyia,  has  come  to  mean  the  order  and  method  of  public 
worship;  more  especially  the  manner  of  celebrating  the  eucharist.     The  term  mass 


THE   i:aklii:st  LITIKiJIKS.  4:^9 

llu'  N\'\v  'IVstaiiU'iit,  ami  in  tlic  writiii^cs  of  the  antt'-Niceiio  fathers, 
wc'iv  steadily  perfected   the  iiiiposiiiu;  foriiis  whose   loni^-contiiiued 
use   <ijave   character   to   the    |uililic    worslin)  of   the  East  ami  West. 
Thev    Iiave    uiidcrtjoiie    niunerous    imixntaiit    chaiiLres, 
accordiiiLT  to  the  varviiiij^  foitiiiics  and  (h)ctriiial  (U'vcl-     nout-      un-m 

',.,,,,','  ,  ,  ,  ■      ,        IllodillciUloils. 

opnu'iits  ol  tlie  C  Imrcli,  or  as  tliey  liave  oeen  aiueiided 
hy  conciliary  decisions.  None  are  probably  older  than  the  foiirtii 
century;  since  till  tlu'  Church  was  i-elieved  of  its  leiial  <lisal)ilities, 
and  jilaccd  uiuler  state  protection,  the  celebration  of  tiie  eucharist, 
I'spccially,  ])elongcd  to  the  /Ji.fcijili/uc  arcniii.  The  period  for  the 
full  development  of  the  jj^reat  liturgies  begins,  therefore,  with  the 
conijdete  triumph  of  Christianity  over  heathenism.  'I'his  is  evident 
fiom  their  frequent  use  (;f  terms  which  originated  in  the  General 
Councils,  where  fundamental  doctrines  were  first  formulated.  Nev- 
ertheless, they  have  certain  striking  resetnl)lances  which  suggest  a 
common  underlying  tradition,  and  marked  dilFerences  that  could 
result  only  from  diverse  environnu-nts. 


§  2.   Classification  anil  Denrriiition. 

The  classification  of  the  early  liturgies  according  to  their  origin, 
points  of  likeness,  and  inHueiice  has  been  attempted  by  several 
learned  liturgists; '  but  the  results  ai'e  by  no  means  harmonious. 

Neale  arranges  tliem  under  five  classes,  namely:  J.  That  of  St. 
Janu's,  or  of  Jerusalem.  2.  That  of  St.  Mark,  or  of  Neaio's  ria^wi- 
Alexaiulria.  3.  That  of  Thadda-us,  or  of  Edessa.  4.  That  icaUou. 
of  St.  Peter,  or  of  Rome.  5.  That  of  St.  John,  or  of  Ephesus. 
AV'^hile  tradition  ascribes  the  origin  of  each  of  these  to  the  person 
whose  name  it  bears,  it  is  evident  that  they  were  the  result  of  long- 
repeated  services  at  the  great  centers  of  ecclesiastical  ])owci-,  were 
modified  with  the  shifting  fortunes  of  the  Church,  and  were  in  use 
in  different  districts  as  the  influence  of  the  patriarchal  capitals 
was  augniente<l  or  decline(l.     Moreover,  the  growth  of   a   multitude 

is  jipplied  to  the  pulilic  oucliarisiic  service  by  llie  Lalin  Cliurch.  Tlie  liturgicHl 
l)0()ks  were  generally  oailcil  by  ihe  lieailK-n  libelli,  by  llie  Cluircli  suciamentaria,  libri 
vujskriorum,  etc. 

'  The  ('ollowiiiK  are  ainonjr  tlie  most  learned  writers  upon  tlie  litnrpies  of  llic 
Churcli:  L.  A.  Mnraiori  (K.  C):  Litiinjia  fiomana  vetus,  2  vols.,  Vcnet..  1748.  Palm- 
er (Anglican):  Oriijinea  Liturfline,  2  vols..  London,  1845.  Daniel  (Lnilioran): 
Cudex  liturijicus  eccksut;  univeisa;  in  epiUnnen  redactus,  4  vols.,  Lip«iic,  1847-1851. 
Mone  (R.  C):  Lateini.srhe  und  grifsrhlschf.  Afi.tsen  aus  dem  2len  his  Gten  Jnhrhunderl, 
PVankfort.  1850.  Neale  (Annlifiin) :  The.  Litunjies  of  S.  .\fuik.  S.  .hnne".  S.  Clement, 
S.  C  hrysoslom,  S.  Pitsil,  or  according  to  thu  uses  of  the  chuiches  of  Alexandria,  Jerusa- 
i:in.  Constatidnoplr,  London,  1859. 


440        SACRAMEXTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

of  lesser  liturgies  from  these  argues  a  great  variet}^  of  opinion,  and 
a  large  degree  of  liberty  in  the  different  districts  and  churches. 

The  Eastern  liturgies  are  divided  into  two  parts:  1.  That  pre- 
ceding, and,  2.  That  following  the  Sursum  Corcla.  They  generally 
go  under  the  names  of  the  proa/iaphora  and  the  anapliora.  It  has 
Two  parts  of  ^^en  discovered  that  usually  one  liturgy  in  ever}'  class 
a  liturgy.  or  family  of  liturgies  supplies  the  p)'>'oa^^aphora  to  all 

the  others.  Of  some  sixty  Oriental  liturgies  there  are  not  a  dozen 
exceptions  to  a  common  proanapkora.  This  would  seem  to  point 
to  a  common  source  of  one  branch  of  the  public  service;  while  the 
great  variety  found  in  the  anaphora  would  only  be  in  harmony  with 
the  spirit  of  the  East,  which  allowed  greater  variety  in  the  lan- 
guage and  order  of  public  worship. 

1.  The  oldest  liturgy  is  probably  that  of  St.  Clement,'  which 
dates  from  about  the  first  half  of  the  fourth  century.  While  it 
Liturgy  of  St.  ^^^  fallen  entirely  into  disuse,  it  is  of  interest  in  reveal- 
cieuient.  jng  the  character  of  the  early  rituals,  and  in  assisting  to 

detei-mine  the  changes  which  were  introduced  into  the  worship  in 
the  post-Nicene  period.  In  it  the  missa  cutecliumenorum  is  strictly 
separated  from  the  missa  fideliiim ;  the  forms  are  simple;  as  from 
very  early  times  the  sainted  dead  are  commemorated,  there  is  no 
Its  pecuiiari-  reference  to  individual  names;  Mary  is  not  once  men- 
'''*^*-  tioned:  all   of  which   circumstances  point   to   an  early 

origin.  In  these  resi)ects,  as  well  as  with  reference  to  the  reading 
of  the  Scriptures  and  the  homil}^,  the  formula  of  consecration,  the 
petition  for  the  excommunicate,  and  the  prayer  for  enemies  and 
persecutors,  this  liturgy  agrees  in  sentiment  and  spirit  with  what  is 
given  by  Justin  Martyr  and  Tertullian,  and  would,  therefore,  justify 
the  opinion  that  the  eighth  book  of  the  "Apostolic 
Constitutions  "  might  be  a  product  of  the  third  century. 
Drej^  has,  however,  pointed  out  two  circumstances  which  forbid  so 
early  an  origin:  First,  the  mention  of  the  ascetics,  for  whom  praj'^er 
is  offered,  and  to  whom  a  place  of  honor  next  to  the  clergj^  is  as- 
Two  later  eie-  signed  in  the  missa  fidelinm\  secondly,  the  mention  of 
inents.  subdeacons  in   the  liturgy.     Both  these  classes  received 

official  recognition  after  the  third  century;  hence  the  origin, or  at  least 
the  present  form,  of  the  eighth  book  of  the  Constitutions,  containing 
the  Clementine  liturgy,  must  be  later  than  the  third  century.* 

'  Tliis  liturgy  is  found  in  the  eighth  book  of  the  "Apostolic  Constitutions." 
V.  Cotelerins's  edition  of  ihe  ApostoUc  Fatiiers.  For  ;i  critical  examination  and  esti- 
mate, V.  especial]}'  Drej'  and  Bickell,  elsewhere  cited. 

^  V.  Drey:  Ntue  Untersuchungen  iiber  die  Constitutionen  und  Kanones  der  AposteL 
s.  139,  seq.     v.  Const.  Apos.,  1.  viii,  c.  11. 


THE    KAKMEST    LITURGIES.  441 

2.  Another  vt-rv  Jiiu-icnt  liuirify,  bt'loni(in<^  to  the  very  lar^e  class 
calleil  by  Ncale  the  Ilierosolyiiiitaii  (or  of  Jerusalem),  is  uturgy  of  s, 
that  of  8.  James.  "  From  this  (ireek  liturgy  there  are  J"'"*'"- 
three  sets  of  offshoots.  The  Hrst  of  these  is  the  ('esarean  brancli. 
St.  Basil's  litur«;y  is  a  recast  of  that  of  S.  James,  as  St.  Chrysostom's 
is  an  abbreviation  of  and  new  aildition  to  that  of  St.  Basil.  From  St. 
Basil's  sj)ran>;  the  Armeno-(Jregorian  rite,  as  at  jtresent  ^^  i,,p,.^ 
used;  while  St.  Chrysostom's  exercised  an  induence  on  branches, 
the  later  forms  of  the  Nestorians.  Circumstances  have  rendered 
the  Constantinopolitan  rites,  as  I  have  already  said,  sole  possessors 
of  th«  ortho(h)x  ?]ast.  The  liturify  of  St.  Basil  is  said  on  all  Sun- 
days in  Lent  except  I'alm  Sunday,  on  Maundy  Thursday,  Easter 
eve,  the  vigil  of  Christmas  and  the  Epiphany,  and  the  Feast  of  St. 
Basil  (January  1).  That  of  Clirysostom  is  a})pro|iriated  to  every 
other  day  in  the  year.  .  .  ,  The  second  offshoot  of  S.  James  is  of  far 
less  importance.  It  embraces  but  two  offices,  the  Sicilian  liturgy, 
.  .  .  the  other  named  from  St.  C^^-il,  which  was  never  widely 
used,  and  of  which  it  is  impossible  to  say  where  it  was  employed. 
The  Sicilian  liturgy  differs  principally  from  that  of  S.  James  in 
ami>liHcation.  .  .  .  The  third  offshoot  of  the  Hierosolymitan  office 
is  the  Syriac  liturgy  of  S.  James,  and  its  dependents.  It  differs 
verbally  from  the  Greek  office  of  the  same  name,  from  which  it  is 
derived.  The  prayers,  generally  speaking,  are  rather  shorter, 
though  the  Invocation  to  the  Holy  Ghost  is  much  amplified."' 
This  Syriac  liturgy  is  l)elieved  to  be  the  source  of  no  less  than 
thirty-nine  distinct  liturgies,  all  of  which  were  in  use  among  the 
Mono})hysites. 

3.  The  liturgy  of  S.  Mark  was  influential  in  Alexandria,  and  in 
the  churches  which  were  regarded  as  dependent  uj)on,  or  su1)ject 
to,  the  Alexandrian  patriarch.  In  its  ])resent  form  it  is  J^^^^^J.gy  ^f  gt 
usually  ascribed  to  Cyril,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  about   Mark. 

tlie  first  quarter  of  the  fifth  century.  Offshoots  from  this  were  used 
in  the  Co))ti(^  and  Ethiopian  churches.* 

]Many  other  liturgical  forms  originated  in  the  East  whicli  had  a 
wider  or  narrower  influence,  whose  shades  of  difference  are  numerous 
and  interesting  to  notice.  As  before  said,  it  is  ])robab]e  tliat  the  more 
uidiridied  spirit  i)f  the  Eastern  churches  hel|)ed  to  modify  and  adjust 
the  liturgies  to  the  varying  conditions;  while  the  centralizing  forces 
of  the  West  secured  for  the  churclies  greater  uniformity  in  ])ublic 
worship. 

The  Western  liturgies  may  be  studied  under  four  classes:  1.  Tlu' 

'  Abridpefl  from  Ni-ale. 

*  V.  Daniel:   Codex  Liturgicus  eccksice  universce,  Ltpsiie,  1853,  lib.  iv,  p.  i;!5. 


442      sacra:-ients  and  worship  of  early  church. 

Gallican,  which  has  been  traced  by  Mone  and  others '  to  Ephesus  as 
The  Western  ^^^^  place  of  its  origin,  but  which  was  amended  from 
liturgies.  time  to  time  by  Hilary  and  others.    2.  The  other  member 

of  this  family  is  the  old  Spanish,  Gothic,  or  Mozarabic,  which  w^as 
probably  an  imported  liturgy,  but  was  largely  modified  by  Isidore 
of  Seville  in  the  seventh  century,  3.  The  Roman  liturgy,  which 
can  hardly  be  older  than  the  fifth  century.  It  seems  very  probable 
that  the  vigorous  bishops  of  Rome,  during  the  fifth  and  sixth  cen- 
turies, gradually  brought  this  litui-gy  into  form;  especially  Gregory 
the  Great,  who  was  active  in  effecting  reforms  in  ecclesiastical 
hymns  and  music,  prepared  a  sacraineutarluyn  which  was  largely 
accepted  by  the  Latin  Church.  4.  The  Ambrosian,  named  after 
the  bishop  of  Milan,  like  all  other  liturgies,  was  a  work  of  gradual 
and  long-continued  development.  It  is  more  nearly  related  to  the 
Roman,  although  in  some  features  departing  widely  from  it."  It  is 
still  in  use  in  the  diocese  of  Milan. 

All  the  great  liturgies  have  aimed  to  unify  the  thought  and  feel- 
The  philosophy  i^g  of  the  Congregation  in  acts  of  solemn  worship, 
of  the  hturgy.  They  have  varied  according  to  the  views  of  their  com- 
pilers respecting  the  supreme  thought  which  should  dominate  the 
public  service.  Hence  the  Greek  and  the  Latin  liturgies  may  be 
regarded  as  an  attempt  to  express  in  the  great  assembly,  or  by  the 
community  of  believers,  for  purposes  of  instruction  or  edification, 
Avhat  each  esteems  the  central  doctrine  of  Christianity.  The  modi- 
fications which  these  have  undergone  are  indices  of  the  shifting 
of  the  center  of  a  doctrinal  system,  or  of  a  modified  view  of  the 
best  means  of  expressing  the  dominant  truth  to  the  assembled 
Church. 

The  thought  of  the  liturgy  of  the  Greek  Church  is  the  divine  man- 
ifestation in  effecting  the  work  of  human  redemption; 

The        cpntral 

thought  in  the  extending  from  the  act  of  creation,  through  all  the  inter- 
Greek  liturgy,  ^.pj^jng  dispensations,  to  the  life  of  Christ  from  his  birth 
to  his  glorification.  Every  prayer,  lesson,  antiphonal,  or  chant;  every 
posture,  action,  change  of.  vestments,  shifting  of  colors,  etc.,  are 
so  many  symbols  to  illustrate  the  unfolding  liistory  of  redemption. 

'  Mone:  Lateinische  unci  grieddsrhe  Mcsi^en  aiis  dem  2ten  bis  6ten  Juhrhundert, 
Frankfort.  1850.     Neale:  Essays  on  Lifurgiology. 

'^  Daniel:  Op.  cit,  vol.  i,  pp.  48-113,  has  arrnnjTed  the  four  great  Western  litur- 
pcies  in  parallel  columns,  so  that  their  harmonies  and  variations  can  be  conveniently 
studied.  This  learned  htnrgist  has  in  this  work  given  us  a  mass  of  curious  and  val- 
uable information,  and  his  researches  have  greatly  aided  in  tracing  these  liturgies  to 
tlieir  origins  The  subject  is  beset  with  peculiar  difficulties,  and  the  scholars  are  by 
no  means  in  harmony  respecting  the  chronology  and  relative  influence  of  these 
forms  of  public  worship. 


Tin:  i:ai{lii:st  lituuuies.  443 

In  tlu'  Latin  ("Imrcli  the  ciitiic  litiiri^y  cciiti'is  in  one  tliniit^lit  of 
siiprcim'  interest,  namely,  tlic  aUmini;  saciitice  of  ( 'lirist,  veritably 
repeated  at  every  mass.  With  variety  in  si-coinlary  pg„,^j,  j,^ 
parts,    dnrint'  the   eliantrinir   festivals  of  the  year,   the   trim*    in    ihe 

.  i        1  •    1        1     "      .'     1  I       *  1  Latin  liturKles. 

point  around  whieli  the  whole  system  revolves,  and  to- 
ward whieh  every  member  points,  is  the  sacrificial  ofTeriiii;  of 
Christ  in  the  mass  by  the  offieiatin<jf  priest,  and  the  appropriation 
of  its  benefits  by  the  worshipping;  Church.  Ileiure  tlie  wi<li'r  ran<fe 
of  thoiitxht  to  l)e  exj)ressed  l)y  the  Greek  liturffies  gave  oci-asion  f"or 
a  more  involved  and  imposiuLT  symbolism;  while  the  Latin  litur- 
gies, ])y  a  concentration  of  attention  on  one  act  in  the  scheme  of 
redemjjtion,  would  give  less  opportunity  for  spectacular  display, 
yet  would  produce  a  deeper  and  more  lasting  impression.' 

'  In  the  liturgies  of  the  Protesfcxnt  Cliurclies  the  thoughts  of  the  prieslhood  of  all 
believois,  salvation  tlirough  personal  faith,  individual  privilege  and  rcs[)onsibilily, 
and  Mistruction  of  the  people  in  doctrine  and  duty  are  very  prominent.  Hence  the 
eiicharisl  is  not  celebrated  on  every  occiision  of  public  worsiiip,  but  the  sermon  as- 
sumes a  place  of  greater  relative  prominence  tlian  iu  otlier  liturgies. 


444        SACRiU^IENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 


CHAPTER  Y. 

THE   LORD'S   DAY,   OR   SUNDAY. 
§  1.  Historic  Statement. 

The  daily  assembly  of  the  disciples  for  worship  and  for  the  cele- 
Eucharist  ceie-  bratioii  of  the  Lord's  Supper  largely  ceased  with  the 
flrsr(fay°of  the  ^postolic  age.  Soon  the  eucharist  was  consecrated 
week.  weekly  and  on  the  occasion   of  great  festivals,  till   at 

length  a  methodical  and  stated  observance  of  weekly  and  yearly 
feasts  was  instituted.  Daily  assemblies  were,  however,  recommended 
by  some  teachers  during  the  first  six  centuries,  and  explicit  injunc- 
tions for  such  gatherings  are  found  in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions.' 

As  before  observed,  the  Jewish  Christians  at  first  continued 
The  Jewish  ^o  frequent  the  temple  and  synagogue  services,  but 
Christians   at-   at  a  very  early  date  "  the  first  day  of  the  week  "  took 

tended     the  .>  j  •/ 

Jewish  wor-  the  place  of  the  Jewish  Sabbath  as  the  chief  time  of 
*'P-  public  worship   (Acts  xx,  V;   1  Cor.  xvi,  2)  in  many  of 

the  churches  of  Jewish  Christians.     It  was  the  day  of  the  resurrec- 
tion of  Christ,  of  most  of  his  appearances  to  the  disciples  after  the 
resurrection,  and  on  this  day  the  Holy  Spirit  was  poured 

Reason    for  '  j  j      i  i 

ohservinff  the  out  on"  the  day  of  Pentecost."  For  these  reasons,  and 
flrst  day.  especially  after  the   destruction  of  the  sacred  city  had 

rendered  the  sacrificial  service  of  the  temple  impossible,  Sunday  be- 
came the  recognised  day  of  assembly  for  fellowship  and  for  the  cel- 
ebration of  the  Lord's  Supper.  It  is  called  in  "  The  Teaching  of  the 
Twelve"^  the  "Lord's  day  of  the  Lord"  (KvpiaKrjv  de  Kvpiov). 
The  Jewish  Christians  at  first  observed  both  the  seventh  and  the 
first  day  of  the  week;  but  the  Gentile  Christians  kept  the  "Lord's 
day "  from  the  beginning.  It  is  diflicult  to  doubt  that  it  had 
T^  ,  ^-      .  .^     a])Ostolic  sanction.     The  relation  of  the  seventh  to  the 

Relation  of  the       ' 

seventh  to  the  first,  as  understood  by  the  Jewish  Christians,  may  not 
first.  1  ,  .  1  ,      .    ,.       . 

be  easy  to  determme;  yet  there  seem  to  be  indications 

that  the  seventh  was  regarded  as  a  day  of  preparation  for  the  first. 

'  V.  1.  viii,  cc.  35-41. 

*  Barry:  art.  "Lord's  Day,"  in  Did.  of  Christ  Antiq.,  vol.  ii.  p.  lO-JS;  and  Hessey: 
"Lord's  Daj','"  in  Smith's  Did.  of  the  Bible,  vol.  ii,  p.  1677;  Schaff :  Hist,  of  the  Ch. 
Church,  vol.  ii,  p.  205. 

^  Chap,  xiv,  1.     The  seventh  day  is  not  mentioned  in  this  archaic  document. 


THE    LOKDS    DAY.   OR    SUNDAY.  445 

"The  idi'U  of  Christian  worsliip  would  attacli  mainly  to  tlic  oin-; 
tlic  (>l)lii,falion  ot"  ivst  would  continiii*  attaclu'd  to  the  other;  althouLjh 
a  certain  intorchanirc  of  characteristics  would  ijrow  up,  as  worship 
nect'ssitated  rest,  and  rest  naturally  sut^<;este<l  worship."  ' 

In  his  letti-r  to  the  .Ma<;nesians,Mi;natius  evidently  addressed  a 
Church  of  mixed  character,  since  he  speaks  of  sonu'  i>r„aiim"s  ics- 
"  who  were  i>rou<xht  up  in  the  ancient  order  of  thiu<2;s,"  ""'>J"y- 
who  "havi'  come  to  the  possession  of  a  new  hope,  no  longer  ohsi-rv- 
ing  tht'  Sabbath,  but  livin<ij  in  tlie  observance  of  the  Lord's  day,"  ^ 
etc. 

There  is  neither  in  this  writer  nor  in  the  Barnabas  epistle  an  inti- 
mation that  Sunday  was  rerjirded  as  in  any  way  a  sub-  The  t^)nrs  day 
stitute  for  the  Jewish  Sabbath,  nor  yet  a  continuation  [lj"r  "('"'j'lS 
of  it;  rather  it  was  a  new  institution.  It  is,  however,  sabbatb. 
impossible  to  determine  the  time  of  its  bcijinning;  no  impres- 
sive enactment,  like  that  in  the  case  of  the  Decalogue,  so  pnactment 
was  needed.  The  recollection  of  the  joyous  events  on  neoessary. 
the  first  day  of  the  week  led  the  early  Christians  to  meet  together 
and  to  celebrate  them  with  gladness.  Not  until  the  fourth  cen- 
tury do  we  find  a  statement  intimating  that  the  Jewish  Sabhath, 
with  its  sanctions  and  duties,  was  transferre<l  to  the  Hrst,  or  the 
"  Lord's  (hiy."  Eusel)ius  says:  "On  this  day,  which  is  the  first  of 
the  Light  and  of  the  true  Sun,  we  asseml)le  after  an  interval  of  si.\ 
days,  and  celebrate  holy  and  spiritual  Sabbath.  .  .  .  All  things 
which  it  was  duty  to  do  on  the  Sabl)ath,  these  we  have  transferred 
to  the  Lord's  day."*  The  observajice  of  the  Jewisii  Sabbath  in  the 
churches  of  Jewish  Christians  continued  for  the  Hrst  five  centuries. 
In  the  East  both  days  were  celelirated  with  rejoicing;  in  the  \\"est 
the  Jewish  Sal)l>ath  was  ol)served  as  a  fast. 

The  reign  of  Constantine  marks  a  change  in  the  relations  of  the 
peoi)le  to  the  Lord's  day.  The  rescript  of  this  emperor,  constantine-s 
commanding  the  observance  of  Stmday,  seems  to  have  "'sriipi. 
had  little  regard  for  its  sanctity  as  a  Christian  institution;  but  the 
day  of  the  Sun  is  to  be  generally  regarded  with  veneration.  "But 
the  believer  in  the  new  paganism,  of  which  the  solar  worship  was 
characteristic,  might  ac(]uiesce  without  scru]>l(»  in  the  sanctity  of  the 
first  day  of  the  week."  ' 

His  successors  not  only  sanctione<l  the  legislation  of  Constantine, 

'  Barry:  in  loco  cit.  2  Ep.,  c.  15. 

'v.*  Liglilfoot:  Ignatius,  ii,  p.  120.  His  remarks  on  IJiis  passage  are  important. 
"Not  merely  in  the  observance  of  it,  bnt  in  tlie  appropriation  of  all  tiiose  ideas  and 
associatiDhs  wiiich  arc  involved  in  its  observance,"  eta 

*  Com.,  Psalm  xcii.  *  Milman:  Hist,  of  Chrielianity,  vol.  ii,  p.  296. 


446        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

but  enlarged  it,  by  multiplying  the  number  of  sacred  days,  and 
legally  prohibiting  the  transaction  of  branches  of  public  and  private 
business,  as  well  as  the  more  debasing  public  amusements.  "  Thus 
„   ^^  Theodosius  I.  increased  the  number  of  iudicial  holidays 

Further  provi-  •>   _^  •' 

sionsoftbeein-  to  one  hundred  and  twenty-four.  The  Valentinians,  I. 
peiors.  ^^^^1  jj^  prohibited  the  exaction  of  taxes  and  the  collec- 

tion of  moneys  on  Sunday,  and  enforced  the  previously  enacted  pro- 
hibition of  lawsuits.  Theodosius  the  Great,  in  A.  D.  386,  and  still 
more  stringently  the  younger  Theodosius,  in  A.  D.  425,  forbade 
theatrical  performances;  and  Leo  and  Anthemius,  in  A.  D.  460,  pro- 
hibited other  secular  amusements  on  the  Lord's  day." '  While,  by 
an  early  law,  Honorius  had  respected'  the  public  amusements,  and 
provision  had  been  made  for  their  maintenance  from  the  public 
treasury,  by  a  later  rescript  the  sanctity  of  the  Lord's  day  was 
Humane  provi-  guai'ded,  and  a  humane  provision  made  for  the  judges 
sions.  i(j  visit  the   prisons   on   Sunday,  and   inquire  into  the 

treatment  of  prisoners,  and  alleviate,  as  far  as  possible,  the  hard- 
ships of  their  condition. 

Various  other  imperial  enactments  make  plain  the  duties  of  civil 
and  ecclesiastical  officers  respecting  the  observance  of  Sunday,  until 
it  takes  its  place  as  an  institution  to  be  guarded  and  regulated  l)y 
the  government. 

§  3.  Sanctity  and  Ground  of  Observance. 

It  is  indisputable  that  the  resurrection  of  Christ  was  the  one 
all-sufficient  fact  which  accounts  for  the  rise  and  growth  of  the 
Christian  Church.  "  Jesus  and  the  resurrection  "  was  the  burden 
of  apostolic  preaching.  Hence  the  recollection  of  the  day  of  the 
resurrection  was  so  indelibly  impressed  upon  the  hearts  of  the  first 
disciples  that  on  its  return  they  came  together  to  pray,  and  to 
recall  the  memory  of  the  Lord,  by  the  breaking  of  bread  and  the 
celebration  of  the  eucharist.  It  was  the  dictate  of  the  glowing  love 
for  Christ,  whose  followers  they  delighted  to  be  reckoned. 

We  fail  to  find  the  slightest  trace  of  a  law  or  apostolic  edict  in- 
stituting the  observance  of  the  "day  of  the  Lord;"  nor  is  there  in 
the  Scriptures  an  intimation  of  a  substitution  of  this  for  the  Jewisli 
Sabbath.  The  ])rimal  idea  of  the  Jewish  Sabbath  was  cessation  of 
labor,  rest;  the  transference  of  this  idea  to  the  first  day  of  the  week 
does  not  appear  in  the  teachings  of  Christ  nor  of  his  apostles.  Nor 
in  the  Council  of  Jerusalem,  when  the  most  important  decisions  are 
reached  relative  to  the  ground  of  union  of  Jewish  and  Gentile  Christ- 

'  Schaff :  Ilist.  of  the  Christian  Church,  vol.  iii,  p.  381.  Cod.  Theod.,  xv,  5,  2,  a. 
386:  "Nullus  Solis  die  populo  spectaculum  prsebat." 


Tin:    LOKD'S   DAY,  Oil   SUNDAY.  447 

ians,  is  one  word  fouiKl  ivsjK'ctiiii;  tlio  observance  of  the  Sa}>ljatli. 
Contrariwise,  Paul  disliiit-tly  warns  a«;aiiist  the  imposition  of 
burdens  upon  tlie  Church  respcctini;  ihiys,  but  dechares  for  a  con- 
scientious freedom  in  these  observances.  "Let  every  man  l)e 
fully  persuaded  in  his  own  mind"  (Rom.  xiv,  5,  6).  Still  more 
strou<;ly  (h)es  lie  upl)raid  the  (Talatian  Churc^h  for  jyuttinir  itself 
again  in  bonthige  to  the  weak  and  beggarly  elements,  t-£  ra  dnOt:vti 
Kai  TCTiiix^  OTOLx^la,  as  days,  months,  times,  and  years;  while  in  \\\> 
letter  to  the  Colossians  (Col.  ii,  10,  17)  he  speaks  of  the  entire  aboli- 
tion of  the  Jewish  Sabbath. 

From  all  the  passages  of  the  New  Testament  touching  this  ques- 
tion, it  is  plain  tliat  there  is  no  intimation  of  the  transference  of  the 
Sabbath  to  the  first  day  of  the  week,  nor  of  imposing  upon  Christ- 
ians the  obligation  to  observe  it  after  the  maimer  of  the  Jewisli 
Sabbath.  l^est  was  the  chief  tliought  connected  with  the  one; 
joyous  activity  and  glad  worship  with  the  other.  Ijotli  days  con- 
tinued to  be  observed  by  the  Jewish  Christians,  but  the  associations 
of  the  two  were  entirely  dissimilar.  Like  all  Christian  institutions 
which  have  been  examined,  the  first  day  of  the  week,  or  Sumhiy, 
came  to  be  hallowed  "  from  a  natural  fitness  of  things,"  and  not 
by  formal  apostolic  or  ecclesiastical  enactment.' 

The  distinction  between  the  Jewish  Sabb;ith  and  the  Lord's  day 
is  repeatedly  set  forth  by  the  apostolic  fathers,  and  the  difference 
in  the  mode  of  observance.  In  the  Barnabas  letter  it  is  argued  that 
the  six  days  mentioned  in  Gen.  ii,  2,  signify  a  thousand  years  each. 
After  this  time  C'hrist,  by  the  overthrow  of  Antichrist,  will  reign  the 
^.eventh  thousand  years,  which  is  the  day  of  rest  mentioned  in  Gen- 
esis. The  rest  and  the  sanctification  of  the  real  Sabbath  will  be  the 
perfect  sanctification  of  believers,  and  the  working  of  righteousness. 
"  Wherefore,"  he  concludes,  "  we  keep  the  eighth  day  with  joyful- 
ne.s.s,  the  day,  also,  in  which  Jesus  rose  again  from  the  dead."'' 

Justin  Martyr  is  very  clear  in  liis  statements  relative  to  the  obli- 
gation and  observance  of  the  Jewish  Sabbath  and  of  the  Justin's  opin- 
Lord's  day.  h\  his  dialogue  with  the  Jew  Try])hon,  ***"• 
who  taunts  tlu-  Christians  with  having  no  festivals  nor  Sabl)atlis, 
Justin  clearly  claims  that  Sunday  is  to  them  a  new  Sabl)ath,  and 
that  tlie  entire  Mosaic  law  has  been  abrogated.''  The  rtie Mosaiciaw 
new  law  binding  upon  Christians  regards  eveiy  day  as  abrojfaUMi. 
a  Sabbath,  instead  of  passing  one  day  in  rest  or  absolute  idleness. 
lie  further  claims  that  the  Sal)bath  was  given  to  Israel  under  peculiar 

'v.  Barry:  art.  "  Lord's  Day,"  in  Smitli   and   Cliectliam's  Dictionary  of  Christian 
Antiquities,  p.  1043. 
'  c.  XV.  »  Oum  Tryph.,  cc.  10,  11. 


448        £1ACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

circumstances,  and  hence  could  not  be  of  perpetual,  but  must  be  of  only 
temporary  obligation.'  This  temporary  character  of  the  command- 
ment is  further  argued  from  the  fact  that  the  Sabbath  had  not  been 
instituted  at  the  beginning,  but  was  first  given  to  the  Jews  in  the 
wilderness.  As  prior  to  Abraham  circumcision  had  been  unnecessary, 
and  before  Moses  the  Sabbath  had  not  been  enjoined,  so  since  the 
coming  of  the  Son  of  man  the  obligation  to  hallow  the  Sabbath  no 
longer  exists. 

Tertullian  claims  that  Adam,  Abel,  Enoch,  Noah,  Abraham,  and 
Tertuiiian's  Mclcliizedek  knew  nothing  of  a  Sabbath  da^^,*  and  that 
^'^^^-  the  law  of  Moses  is  not  in  perpetuity,  but  only  of  tem- 

porary obligation.  The  cessation  from  labor  did  not  have  its 
ground  in  the  law  of  Moses,  but  came  from  the  consideration  tluit 
the  jo3'^ous  festival  of  the  Lord's  day  should  not  be  marred  by  any 
thing  which  would  disturb  or  turn  the  thought  away  from  God,  and 
give  place  to  the  devil. ^  That  on  Sunday  the  Christians  stood  while 
praying,  and  did  not  fast,  find  their  explanation  in  the  fact  that  the 
day  of  the  resurrection  of  the  Lord  was  looked  upon  as  a  da}^  of  re- 
joicing and  triumph,''  and  that  such  practice  had  apostolic  sanction. 

With  respect  to  the  strictness  with  which  the  first  day  of  the 
week  was  observed  during  the  first  three  centuries,  the  following 
facts  are  important  to  notice.  Between  the  death  of  the  apostles 
and  the  edict  of  Milan,  the  Lord's  day  was  sanctified  by  a  Church 
unrecognised  by  the  state,  and  exposed  to  opposition  and  sometimes 
to  bitter  persecution.  The  motive  for  its  observance  was,  there- 
fore, purely  moral  and  religious.     The  social  position  of 

The  motive  '  i  J  _    &    _  i 

moral  and  re-  the  early  Cliurch,  drawing  its  members,  for  the  most 
igioub.  part,  from  the  poorer  artisans,  traders,  and  slaves,  for- 

bade the  strict  and  general  keeping  of  the  Lord's  day,  much  more 
of  both  the  Sabbath  and  Sunday.  Thus  the  universal  hallowing 
of  the  day  of  the  resurrection  was  impossible. 

True,  Tertullian  advised  Christians  to  postpone  all  business  until 
Sunday  was  over,^  and  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  enjoin 

Provisions   for  '      ■'  '  t        ti     t  i     n  i         i  i 

observance  of  that  the  Sabbath  and  the  Lord  s  day  shall  be  observed  as 
the  sabbath.  festivals,"  "  because  the  former  is  the  memorial  of  the 
creation,  the  latter  of  the  resurrection ; "  that  the  slaves  work  five  days ; 
that  on  the  Sabbath  day  and  the  Lord's  day  they  are  to  have  leisure 
to  go  to  church  for  instruction  in  religious  truth.'     But  it  is  quite 

'  Id..,  cc.  18,  19.  2  (7o,j  Judceos.  c.  4.  ^  De  Oratore,  c.  23. 

*  De  Corona  Mil,  c.  ?,.     Ironfeus:  Fraj.,  c.  7.         ^  ^^g  Qy^^f^  q  2?..         «  1.  vii,  c.  23. 

'  1.  viii,  c.  33.  Tlie  last  book  may  have  been  composed  after  the  publication  of 
the  edict  of  toleration.  The  mention  of  botli  the  Sabbath  and  the  Lord's  day  is 
evidence  of  the  Jewish-Christian  thought  which  characterizes  most  of  this  collection. 


THE    LORD'S    DAY,   Oil    SINDAV.  440 

incredible  lliat  the  I:iri,fe  body  of  Cliris(i;ins  eould  absolutely 
cease  from  toil  duriiii;  two  days  of  the  week,  besides  attending 
other  festivals  which  had  been  instituted;  or  that  masters  would 
permit  slaves  ami  di'pi'iidents  to  desist  from  labor  for  so  lars^e 
a  proportion  of  the  time,  especially  since  the  Christian  Church 
liad  little  favor  with  the    heathen    world.      The   Chris-      ,         „  „. 

Inipiissllillltv 

tians  in  the  the  third  century  being  very  larLTily  in  ..f  liicnii  ob- 
the  minority,  especially  outside  the  great  marts  of 
trade,  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  all  could  secure  even  a  single, 
day  of  the  seven  for  positive  and  continuous  cessation  from  toil. 
It  is  well  known  that  Christian  gatherings  took  ])lace  at  night, 
and  it  is  probable  that  many  converts  of  the  servile  or  artisan 
classes  laboui'cd  hard  on  the  si'vcnth  and  first  days  in  order  to  be 
present  at  the  evening  assemblies  ami  the  sacretl  meal.'  While 
the  Jewish  Christians  still  adhered  with  great  tenacity  to  the 
observance  of  the  seventh  day,  in  the  estimate  of   the 

/>!         •,  ,  •  /-111  11  1      The       (;.>ntlle 

(Tcntile  converts  this,  at  nrst,  could  nave  liatl  no  sucli  ciiurdH-s  un- 
sanctity  or  authoritative  sanction.  Converts  from  hea-  ^v'i,',i"ui!'"obiu 
thenism,  who  had  had  little  i)revious  acciuaintance  with    Ruiion  lo  keep 

,        T        •   1    ^.      •  1     1  1       <•  •  •        tlH!  Lords  day. 

the  Jewish  bcnjitures,  were  probably,ior  a  time,  not  in 
a  position  to  appreciate  the  forni  and  obligation  of  the  fourth  com- 
mandment as  in  its  sjtirit  a))plying  to  the  Lord's  day.* 

Thus  the  recognition  of  two  days  was  found  in  the  churches 
composed  chiefly  of  Jewisli  Christians,  while  in  the  (ientile-Christian 
churches  the  first  day  of  the  week  would  be  more  exclusively  celebrated. 
When  Tertullian  says,  "On  the  LonTs  day  every  one  of  t,,^  fourth 
us  Christians  keeps  the  Sabbath,  meditating  in  the  law,   '-""""andini-nt 

.    .  .     '  '  -^     .  .        '    not  the  hasis  of 

and  rejoicing  in   tlie  works  of  God,"  there  is  noticed   i^.rd's  day  ob- 
that  adherence  to  a  practical  rule  which  was  character- 
istic  of   the   Western   mind,   but  no  inclination   to    sabbatize    the 
Lord's  day  by  deriving  the  obligation   for  its  observance  from  the 
fourth    commandment.'     Notwithstanding   the   beginnings   of    the 

'  Ciiiiiiiii<;liam:    The  Growth  of  the  Church,  p.  2S1. 

*  V.  Uigg:  Tht  Sabbath  and  the  Sabbnih  Law  be/ore  and  after  ChrM,  London,  18G0, 
p.  45. 

'  "It  is  very  suggestive  lliat  in  the  Scriptures  tlie  repose  of  God  after  creation  i.s 
made  tiic  prototype  and  Kisis  for  the  celebration  of  the  Sal)batli  (Gon.  ii,  'A:  Kxod. 
XX,  8,  .leq.).  It  is  theroCore  implied  that  it  is  our  innermost  Godlikeness  that  calls 
for  tiio  rest  of  the  Sabl)ath — tlie  trnl}-  rational,  rehgiously  moral  essence  of  man,  and 
not  the  mere  natural  need  of  repose  and  enjoyment.  .  .  .  God  blessed  l];e  Sabbatii 
day;  there  rests  upon  its  observance  a  special,  an  extraordinary  benedielioi),  an  im- 
paitation  of  heavenly  poods,  even  as  the  V)lessing  upon  labour  is  primarily  only  an 
impartition  of  temporal  poods.  The  Sabbath  has  not  merely  a  ncpativc  sipnillcancy, 
is  not  a  mere  interruption  oflabour,  but  it  has  a  very  rich  positive  significancy — ii  is 
29 


450        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

sacerdotal  |)riiicii)le  are  found  in  Tertullian's  writings,  and  its  com- 
plete triumph  was  realized  under  Cyprian,  there  is  by  neither  of  these 
fathers  any  distinct  recognition  of  the  fourth  commandment  as  the 
ground  and  reason  of  hallowing  the  day  of  the  Lord's  resurrection. 

The  Alexandrian  school,  as  represented  by  Clement  of  Alexandria 
and  Oriffen,  more  strongly  presents  the  spiritual  view  of 
school  more  the  Lord's  day.  In  his  argument  with  Celsus,  Origen 
spiritual.  claims  that  true  Christians  make  all  days  Lord's  days; 

yet  in  other  writings  he  exalts  the  first  day  over  the  seventh,  as 
symbolic  of  a  continuous  Sabbath  of  rest. 

In  the  midst  of  the  corrupting  influences  of  heathenism,  and  on 
,  account  of  the  widespread  indifference  of  the  Church  of 

Reasons    of  _  ^ 

seeking  a  legal  the  third  century,  after  the  ardor  of  her  first  love  had 
sancuon.  cooled,  the  Christian  teachers  felt  the  necessity  of  bring- 

ing some  stress  of  authority  upon  the  Christian  conscience  to  hold 
it  to  the  faithful  observance  of  the  first  day,  as  the  Jews  had  known 
the  power  of  a  positive  enactment  in  keeping  them  steadfast  in  the 
hallowing  of  their  Sabbath.  The  constant  temptation  of  the  Christ- 
ians to  attend  upon  the  heathen  spectacles  and  festivities  could,  in 
the  case  of  such  whose  type  of  piety  was  low,  no  longer,  as  at  first, 
be  broken  by  considerations  of  the  high  privileges  of  Christian  wor- 
ship, and  of  the  commemoration  of  the  resurrection  of  Christ,  but 
the  restraints  coming  from  a  quasi-legal  enactment  were  found  to  be 
more  and  more  necessary.  Thus  while  the  Christian  fathers  of  the 
second  and  tliird  centuries  are  in  entire  accord  in  teaching  that  the 
first  day  of  the  week,  the  Lord's  day,  is  that  which  Christians  should 
^  .      celebrate,  there  is,  nevertheless,  noticed  during  the  un- 

This    sanction  '  m  •  i    ^i         • 

is  of  apostolic  fortunate  times  of  Tertullian  and  Cyprian  a  growing 
institution.  tendency  to  enforce  the  observance  of  Sunday  by  con- 
siderations somewhat  similar  to  those  recognised  under  the  Mosaic 
dispensation  and  by  the  Jewish  Christians;  yet  the  obligation 
comes  not  from  the  fourth  commandment,  but  from  the  apostolic 
The  rhristian    institution  of  the  Lord's  day.     Nor  is  there  any  evidence 

emperors  have  tJi^t  the  Christian  emperors,  from  Constantine  to  Jus- 
no  reference  to...  ..i,,  -,  ■,      . 

the  fourth  com-  tiniaii,  HI  their  edicts  for  the  observance  and  regulation 
mandment.        ^^^.  s,,,,^!,^,^.^  ^^.g,.g  influenced  by  the  Jewish  law.     During 

tlio  tri^ins:  free  scope  to  tlie  higlier.  timc-transcendiii<?  nature  of  tlie  rational,  Godlike 
spirir,  the  roattaoliinjr  of  the  spirit  tiiat  had  been  immersed  by  labour  inlo  the  tem- 
poral to  the  imperishable  and  to  the  divine.  .  .  .  The  celebration  of  the  Sabbath 
holonps  to  morality,  per  se,  and  does  not  depend  on  the  fact  of  the  state  of  redemp- 
tion from  sinfulness:  but  where  sin  is  yet  a  dominant  power,  tliere  its  observance  is 
less  free,  legally  morn  strict  than  vviiere  the  freedom  of  the  children  of  God  prevails." 
Wutke:    Ckristiaa  Ethics,  trans,  by  Lacroix,  New  York,  1S73,  vol.  ii,  pp.  213,  214. 


THE  LOIiDS    DAY,   OR  SUNDAY.  -tOJ 

the  first  six  centurios  there  are  few  if  any  inslanees  of  their  .lirect 
appeal  to  the  fourth  comiuaiulment.  Neitlier  can  many  passages 
in  the  Cliristian  writers,  nor  any  eonciliary  decision,  be  quoted  in 
which  the  authority  for  keeping  the  tirst  day  of  the  week  is  de- 
rived from  tlie  Mosaic  law. 

Nevertheless,  fro.n  the  time  of  the  attempts  of  the  emperors  to 
adjust  the  civil  conditions  to  the  recognition  of  Sunday  ^^^  ,^^  ,^^^, 
as  the  chief  religious  holiday,  the  sense  of  obligation  vj-w^stu-piuni- 
to  keep  sacred  the  first  day  of  the  week,  coming  from 
le-al  enactment,  more  and  more  supplanted  the  consideration  of 
the  high  and  jovful  privilege  which  had  animated  the  Christian 
Church  during  the  tirst  years  of  its  activity.  From  tlu"  last  part  of 
the  sixth  centurv  the  strict  legalistic  view  becomes  more  and  more 
prominent,  an<l  the  rulers  in  State  and  Church  incline  to  strengthen 
the  civil  and  eonciliary  enactments  respecting  the  Lord's  day  by 
divine  authority  as  contained  in  the  fourth  commandment.' 

•  The  sabbath  literature  is  of  immense  vohime.  Since  tlie  Reformation  the  dis- 
cussions upon  the  nature  and  obU^ation  of  the  Sabbatii  have  been  many  and  ex- 
haustive The  following  are  thorough  and  scholarly:  Bingham:  AntiquiU^.s  o,  the 
Christian  Church,  bk.  xx,  chap.  ii.  Bintcrira:  Denkwgrdi<jkdten  der  Chn^t-hath- 
oUschen  Kirche,  vol.  v,  1.  c.  1.  Heylin:  History  of  the  Sabhath.  Hessey :  Sunday:  Hs 
Origin,  History,  and  Present  OhUnotion,  Bamplon  Lectures,  London,  1860.  Gilhllnn: 
The  Sabbath  Viewed  in  the  Lvjht  of  Reason,  Revelation,  and  Hidory,  New  York,  186?. 
Probst-  KirchUche  Disciplin  der  drei  ersten  Jahrhunderte,  Bd.  iii,  1.  Cox:  The  Liter- 
ature on  the  Sabbath  Question,  Edinburgh,  1865.  Barry  :  "  The  Lord's  Day,"  in  Smith 
and  Cheetham's  Dictionary  of  Ch.  Antiquities,  vol.  ii,  pp.  1042-105.!.  Zockler: 
"Sonntagsfeier,"  in  Herzog  u.  Plitt's  Real-Encyklopadie,  Bd.  xiv,  ss.  428^35. 


452         SACRAMENTS  AND  AVORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

EASTER     AND     OTHER     FESTIVALS. 

§  1.  Idea  and  Time  of  Observance. 

Besides  the  weekly  observance  of  Sabbath  and  the  Lord's  day, 
.  ^  the  Pasvsover,  with  Avhich  the  passion  and  resurrection 

The    influence  .  '  .      .  ^  . 

of  the  Jewish  of  Christ  were  so  intimately  associated,  continued  to 
passover.  exert  a  very  considerable  influence  upon  Christians  of 

Jewish  origin.  This  great  festival,  however,  soon  obtained  an 
exclusively  Christian  significance,  and  became  a  proper  Chiistian 
Passover,  especially  in  churches  composed  of  converts  from 
heathenism,  to  whom  Jewish  institutions  were  largely  matters  of 
indifference.  All  Christians  alike  agreed  in  the  propriety  of  the 
yearly  celebration  of  the  great  events  which  were  regarded  as 
the  most  important  in  the  history  of  redemption.  Respecting  the 
significance  of  these  facts  there  was  no  difference  of  opinion;  to 
keep  alive  the  remembrance  of  the  passion,  death,  and  resurrection 
of  the  Lord  Avas  regarded  by  all  alike  as  a  high  privilege  and  an 
imperative  duty.  The  commemoration  of  the  resurrection  soon 
became  the  most  important  event  of  Holy  Week,  and  is  now  known 
as  Easter. 

At  an  early  date,  probablj-  in  the  first  half  of  the  second  century, 
Controversy  a  difi^erence  of  o})inion  arose  as  to  the  jiroper  time  of 
about  the  time   commcmoratino-  the  resurrection  of  Christ,  consequently 

of  observing  _  »_  ,  j  i  j 

Easter.  respecting  the  time  of  observing  the  related  events  of 

th(^  institution  of  the  eucharist  and  of  the  crucifixion.  Probably 
tliis  controversy  may  be  ultimately  traced  to  the  diversity  of  opin- 
ion in  the  churches  of  Jewish  and  Gentile  origin  respecting  the  ob- 
ligations of  the  Mosaic  institutions.*  One  party,  the  Christians  of 
Asia  Minor  and  a  few  others,  adhered  strictly  to  the  tradition 
respecting  the  time  of  celebrating  the  passover  by  Christ  and 
his  apostles  just  before  the  crucifixion.  Hence  they  uniiormly 
The  Judaizing  observed  the  Christian  passover  on  the  fourteenth  day  of 
party.  i\^q  month  Nisan,  which  was  the  first  month  of  the  sacred 

year  of  the  Jews.  This  was  observed  as  a  fast.  In  the  evening  of 
the  same  day,  Roman  time,  but  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth 

'v.  Renan  :  Marc-Aurelc,  pp.  194,  195. 


EASTER    AND   OTHER    FKSTIVAI.S.  453 

Nisan,  Jewish  liini',  they  j)art<M)k  of  the  coinmuirKtii,  to  oominemo- 
rate  tlu-  last  paselial  supper  of  Christ.  Tiie  I)e<^inirm<^  of  thi'  festival 
might  fall  upon  any  day  of  the  week;  only  it  had  a  fixed  date,  the 
fourteenth  Nisan,'  and  this  day  ri'-^ulated  the  entire  Easter  festival. 
A  seeond  party,  of  whieh  the  Roman  Church  was  the  leader,  cel- 
ebrated the  crucifixion  of  Christ  on  Friday,  the  day  of  xim  western 
the  week  on  wliich  it  actually  occurred.  The  Sunday  '"^'''J'- 
followinor  was  observed  as  Easter,  or  the  day  of  the  resurrection. 
They  extended  the  fast  from  Friday  till  Easter  day,  and  did 
not  celebrate  the  eucharist  before  the  festival  of  the  resurrection. 
By  this  arrangement  tlie  anniversary  of  the  death  of  Christ  always 
fell  upon  Friday,  and  that  of  the  resurrection  on  Sunday,  yet  the 
feast  was  not  fixed,  as  in  the  other  case,  but  movable.  Hence  the 
Cliristian  Sunday,  or  the  day  of  resurrection,  and  not  the  Jewish 
paschal  day,  regulated  the  Easter  festival. 

§  2.  Attempts  to  Reconcile  Differences, 

The  controversy  respecting  Easter  had  no  reference  to  its  doctrinal 
import;  herein  all  Christians  were  essentially  agreed.  The  inip<irt  of 
It  was  rather,  as  before  said,  a  question  of  adhei-ence  to,  "'<^  auesUon. 
or  independence  of  Judaism,  and  of  harmonizing  the  practice  of  the 
Christian  world  in  the  commemoration  of  the  most  important  events 
in  the  Saviour's  earthly  mission.  The  fierceness  of  the  controversy 
threatened  the  peace  and  unity  of  the  Church.  Near  the  middle  of 
the  second  century  Polycarp,  the  venerable  Bishop  of  Smyrna,  vis- 
ited Rome  in  the  interests  of  peace,  and  had  an  inter-  Attempts  at 
view  with  its  bishop,  Anicetus.'  The  attempt  to  unify  reconciliation, 
the  churches  was  unsuccessful,  although  a  spirit  of  mutual  charity 
was  promoted.  About  twenty  years  later  the  question  was  again 
debated  in  Laodicea  between  the  Quarto-decimanians  and  their 
opponents.  No  rupture  occurred  because  of  the  mutual  forbear- 
ance of  the  parties.  But  the  controversy  continued.  Toward  the 
close  of  the  second  century  the  Roman  bishop,  Victor,  The  iit'iimnd  of 
attemi»ted  to  interfere  with  the  churches  of  Asia  Minor,  victor. 
by  commanding  them  to  desist  from  their  nuxle  of  celebrating 
Easter.  To  this  demand  the  synod  of  Asia  Minor,  which  met  at 
Epliesus,  made  a  most  spirited  reply  through  Polycrates,  bishop 
of   that  city,  appealing  in  defense  of  their  rule  to  tlie  traditions 

•  Euscbiiis:  ITist.  Eccles.,  v,  c.  23.  "It  was  incumbent  on  tlicm,  at  all  times,  to 
make  an  end  of  the  fast  on  this  day,  on  whatever  day  of  the  week  it  should  happen 
to  fall."     Also  llippolytus:  Philosophnmena,  viii,  c.  18. 

*  V.  Eusebius:  Hist  Eccles.,  v,  c  24. 


454        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

which  had  come  down  to  them  from  the  apostles  John  and  Philip, 
as  well  as  from  the  venerable  Polycarp.  To  sustain 
their  practice,  the  church  of  Rome  and  its  adherents 
among  the  Eastern  churches  quoted  the  traditions  received  from 
the  apostles  Peter  and  Paul.  The  schism,  which  seemed  immi- 
nent on  the  threat  of  Victor  to  excommunicate  the  Quarto-deci- 
Good  offices  of  manians,  was  happily  prevented  by  the  good  offices  of 
irenaeiis.  xhQ  other  bishops,  especially  of  Irenseus,  Bishop  of  Lyons. 

While  of  the  party  of  Victor,  he  claimed  that  no  difference  of 
opinion,  where  an  essential  dogma  of  Christianity  was  not  involved, 
could  justify  the  jeoparding  of  the  peace  of  the  Church  and  the 
extreme  penalty  of  excommunication. 

The  Council  of  Aries,  A.  D.  314,  and  the  Council  of  Nice,  A.  D. 
conciuary  de-  "^^^r  decided  in  favor  of  the  Roman  rule,  and  those  who 
cisions.  refused  to  accede  to  this  decision  were  regarded  as  here- 

tics. The  rule  promulgated  by  the  latter  council  was  that  Easter 
Rule  for  eeie-  should  be  celebrated  on  the  first  Sunday  following  the 
bration.  flj-gt   f^n   moon    after   the  vernal    equinox,    and   must 

always  come  after  the  Jewish  passover.  If,  however,  the  full  moon 
occurs  on  a  Sunday,  Easter  falls  on  the  Sunday  after.  Thus  the 
time  of  this  festival  may  vary  from  March  21  to  April  25.  This 
was  probably  the  substance  of  the  Nicene  decisions.' 

This  conciliary  decision  did  not,  however,  settle  the  differences  in 
the  Eastern  and  Western  churches,  awing  to  the  different  astronom- 
ical cycles  employed  for  the  calculation  of  Easter.  The  cycles 
aimed  to  discover  a  i>eriod  which  should  contain  an  exact  number  of 
Different  ey-  Innar  months  and  of  tropical  years.  Many  cycles  were 
*^'®^-  proposed,  as  one  of  eight  years,  of  nineteen  years  (the 

Metonic),  of  seventy-six  years  (the  Calippic),  one  of  one  hundred 
and  twelve  yeai*s,  engraved  on  the  side  of  the  chair  in  the  statue  of 
Hippolytus  (v.  Fig.  50),  one  of  eighty-four  years,  which  was  a  modi- 
fication of  the  Calippic,  etc.  The  diversity  of  cycles  resulted  in  a  cor- 
responding difference  in  reckoning  the  Easter  Sunday.*    Since  the 

'  The  decisions  of  tlie  'NTcene  CoRQcil  are  not  quite  clearly  stated  in  any  single  au- 
thority ;  tliey  must  be  gathered  from  several  sources,  and  have  not  been  entirely 
unquestioned. 

*  The  recent  works  occasioned  bj'  the  bearing  of  the  Easter  controversy  upon  the 
criticism  of  the  gospels,  especially  John,  are  quite  numerous  and  important.  Among 
the  ablest  may  be  mentioned  Hilgenfeld:  Der  Pctschastreit  der  alten  Kii-elie  nach  seiner 
Bvdeutun'i  fiir  die  Kirchengeschichte,  etc.,  Halle,  1860.  Steitz:  In  the  Studienu.  Krit- 
iken.  1856.  1857,  1859.  Schiirer:  Die Paschastreiten  des  2ten  Jahrhwiderts,  1870.  For 
mathf»matical  cumputations  see  especially  Meier:  Handbuch  der  Math,  und  tech.  Chro- 
nolorjie,  Broslau.  1825.  De  Rossi:  Insaipiianes  Christ.  wMs  Romce,  Introduction,  gives 
valuable  discussions. 


EASTBR    AND    OTIIKIl    FESTIVAI.S.  4S3 

Al('.\:iM(lri:in  Cliiircli  Hxcd  tlic  venial  t'<|iiinox  on  the  21st  of  March, 
while  witli  the  Roiiiaiis  it  fell  on  March  IS,  it  is  evi<]cnt  that  there 
must  liavo  bc(Mi  :i  diversity  in  the  observance  of  Piaster  Sunday. 
'Phis  diversity  lias  not  yet  disappeared,  since  the  Eastern  Church 
has  never  adopted  the  improved  (ire^orian  calendar.' 

§  3.    The  Ceremonies  of  Easter. 

To  understand  tliese  it  is  necessary  Xu  remember  that  Easter  was 
the  central  point  of  the  paschal  season,  which  very  early  two  divisions 
exteii<h-d  over  a  period  of  fifteen  days.  The  first  week  «'  the  f.-sUvai. 
was  dcsi<rnated  -rrdaxa  aravQibaiaov,  or  the  passover  of  the  cross;  the 
second  week,  ndtjxa  dvaardaijiov,  or  the  passover  of  the  resurrection. 
While  not  of  apostolic  institution,  this  observance  of  Easter  was 
early  introduced  into  the  Church.  Tertullian  seems  to  recognise  its 
celebration,'  and  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  represent  it  as  quite 
general.  The  7Tdn\a  aravQuifjiaov  was  usually  kept  as  a  strict  fast, 
from  midnight  of  the  jirevious  Sunday  (Palm  Sunday)  till  cock- 
crowing  on  Easter  morn.  On  Good  Friday,  tlie  day  of  crucifix- 
ion, the  fast  was  continued  beyond  miibiiglit  of  the  fol-  Manner  of  o\>- 
lowing  (hiy;  the  kiss  of  peace  was  proliibited,  the  orna-  servanoe. 
ments  of  the  altar  were  removicd;  the  lights  were  extinguished;  no 
chanting  was  allowed  in  the  processions;  there  was  no  consecration 
of  the  eucharist;  the  collects  were  mostl}--  intercessory. 

As  the  Easter  morn  drew  near,  the  signs  of  sorrow  and  mourning 
were  laid  aside,  tlie  lamps  and  tapers  were  lighted,  Fromsorrowto 
and  a  scene  of  darkness  and  mourning  was  succeeded  R'adness. 
by  one  of  splendour  and  glatbiess.  Prayer,  supplicatioii,  the  singing 
of  ])salms  and  hymns,  tlie  reading  of  api)ropriate  Scripture  lessons, 
and  homilies  from  the  clergy  occupied  the  hours  of  the  evening  and 
niglit.  The  Easter  Sumlay,  from  Easter  eve  to  the  evening  of 
Easter  day,  was  one  continuous  celebration  of  the  resurrection.  The 
Scrij)ture  readings  included  the  entire  resurrection  history;  the  joy 

'  Kaltenbrnnnor:  Rf-nl-Ennik^opyi'lie  rhr  Chri.iHirh>>n  AltTthilmer,  articio  "Ostorn," 
Bii.  i,  s.  50.').  *■('(;.,  iliviiles  the  Easier  controversies  into  lliree  periods:  1st.  Tlte 
tlieoloijico-dofrmatic,  reacliins  to  the  Coiuicil  of  Nice.  A.  D.  .'?25.  2d.  The  astronom- 
ico-clironolofric.  from  A.  D.  'A'iH  lo  the  time  of  Dionysins  Kxisrnns,  A.  D.  525. 
3d.  From  .\  D.  525  to  the  time  oftlio  Vonnnible  Bede,  ahont  the  middle  of  liie  eiirlnh 
eenturv.  dnrinc:  which  llip  rnle  aooopted  by  thf  Catholic  Chnrch  was  in  conflict  with 
the  various  pociiliaritics  of  tiie  provinces.  For  the  tlieoiopfian  tiie  first  is  of  especial 
interest,  on  account  of  tlie  connection  of  tliese  controversies  with  the  crilicism  of  the 
cvan'jTclista.  Tlie  .second  nnd  third  nre  more  important  to  the  iiistoriau,  because  they 
are  indispensable  to  the  solution  of  chronological  questions. 

'  ad  Uxor.,  ii,  c.  4. 


456         SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

of  the  people  was  unrestrained;  all  labour  was  suspended.    After  the 
recognition    of   Christianity   by  the   empire,   prisoners 
were  often  released,  debtors  forgiven,  and  slaves  manu- 
mitted.    The  entire  week  was  thus  considered  a  season  of  uninter- 
rui)tod  rejoicing. 

By  degrees  the  fast  preparatory  to  Easter  Sunday  was  lengthened, 
Lengthened  Ob-  until,  probably  about  the  time  of  Constantine,  it  reached 
servance.  forty  days  (Quadragesima,  Lent).     The  rejoicings  were 

also  continued  through  the  whole  period  of  fifty  days  (Quinqua- 
gesima)  from  Easter  to  the  day  of  Pentecost  (Whitsunday).' 

§  4.    The  Festival  of  Pentecost. 

The  tenn  Pentecost  was  used  by  the  ancient  Church  in  two  senses:* 
one  had  reference  to  the  fiftieth  day  after  the  resur- 

Twousesofthe  ,  «  ^,     .  i       tt   i      o    •   • 

word  Pente-  rection  of  Christ,  when  the  Holy  Spirit  was  poured  out 
^^^'  upon  the  infant  Church;  the  other  included  the  whole 

period  between  Easter  and  Whitsuntide,  which  was  considered  as 
belonging  to  the  rejoicings  of  Easter.  Used  in  the  latter  sense  it 
was  called  Quinquagesima.  During  the  fifty  days  the  eucharist  was 
Mode  of  obser-  celebrated  daily,  fasting  was  forbidden,  and  the  congre- 
vance.  gation  stood  while  praying.    Also  from  the  fifth  century 

the  Lord's  ascension  was  observed  on  the  fortieth  day,  his  various 
manifestations  to  his  disciples  after  the  resurrection  were  recalled, 
and,  as  a  crowning  glory,  the  baptism  of  the  Holy  Spirit  was  (Com- 
memorated on  Whitsunday,  the  final  day  of  the  Easter  period. 
This  being  the  last  great  festival  of  the  year,  the  Sundays  following 
until  Advent  were  reckoned  therefrom. 

§  5.    The  Feasts  of  Epiphany,  Christmas,  etc. 

After  the  union  of  Church   and  State  feasts  and  festivals  were 

,.        greatly  multiplied,  and  occupied  a  large  place  in  the  re- 

Multiplication     >^  -^  ^  '.  .,,. 

of  feasts  and     ligious  services.     This  was  in  obedience  to  a  law  or  the 

festivals.  spiritual  life,  that  when  piety  is  waning  forms  and  cere- 

monies are  substituted,  and  become  more  highly  valued. 

The  feast  of  the  Epiphany  was  usually  observed  on  the  6th  of 
January,  to  commemorate  Christ's  manifestation  in  the 

Original   festi-  -^  '  .  . 

vai  of  Epiph-  flesh.  At  first  this  included  his  advent  and  baptism, 
""'^'  but  later,  when  Christmas  became  a  regularly  observed 

festival,  it  was  confined  to  his  baptism.     The  date  of  the  birth  of 

'  Probn'ily  .«■)  ca'lod  from  the  cnstom  of  newly  baptized  persons  appearing  in  white 
clotliing  from  Easter  day  to  Whitsunday. 


EASTER   AND   OTHER    FESTIVALS.  457 

Christ  it  is  impossible  to  detiTiniiu'.  Xrither  in  the  SeripUnv 
record  nor  in  the  patristie  literature  are  found  sufficient  pj,„,„f(.,,risf 
data  for  solvin<if  this  problem.  The  bii'tli  of  Christ  had  i>  i  r  i  ii  u  n - 
been  phu-ed  on  the  25th  of  December  by  the  Church  of 
the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries;  but  the  reasons  for  this  decision  can- 
not be  satisfactorily  (K'termined. 

There  is  etpial  uncertainty  respecting  the  origin  of  the  Christmas 
festival.  Numerous  theories  have  been  advocated,  but  none  are 
universally  accei)ted.  Many  circumstances  p</int  to  its  origin  in  the 
attemijted  cliristianization  of  various  heathen  festivals   „  ,       , 

which  were  celebrated  on  or  near  the  25th  of  Deceml)er.  kIh  of  the  tus- 
If  this  supposition  is  well  founded,  its  origin  must  have 
been  subsequent  to  the  recognition  of  Christianit}'  by  the  State;  since 
the  wi'll  known  hostility  of  the  ante-Nicene  fatliers  to  the  heatiien 
festivals  would  have  absolutely  forbidden  a  syncretism  of  rites  so 
abhorrent.  But  the  general  decline  of  spiritual  life  during  the  fourth 
and  fifth  centuries,  and  tlie  recei)tion  of  multitudes  into  the  Church 
who  were  moved  by  no  higher  motives  than  populaiity  or  worldly 
interest,  ]nepared  the  Christian  Church  to  connect  with  j^,w  type  of 
her  own  festivals  those  derived  from  the  heathen  cultus  spirituality, 
which  might  appear  to  have  symbolic  reference  to  the  life  and  work 
of  Christ.  Such  were  the  Saturnalia,  Sigillaria,  Juvenalia,  and 
Bnimalia,  which  were  celebrated  in  the  montli  of  December  to  com- 
memorate the  golden  age  of  freedom  and  equality,  also  in  honour  of 
the  unconquered  sun,  Avhich  renewed  its  strength  at  the  winter  sol- 
stice. 

The  laboured  investigations  given  to  this  subject  have  (piite  firmly 
established  the  following  conclusions: 

1.  Until   near  the  close  of  the   fourth   century  the  Nativity  was 
celebrated  in  the  Oriental  churches  in  connection  with       conriusions 
the    Ej)iphany,    or   on    January   6  —  this   custom   con-        readied, 
tinning  in  man}'-  parts  of  the  East  for  a  century  or  more  later. 

2.  From  a  much  earlier  date  the  Nativity  was  celebrated  in  the 
Western  churches  on  December  25,  and  it  occupies  an  important 
l)lace  in  the  most  ancient  liturgies.  It  is,  however,  impossible  to 
fix  the  date  when  the  change  from  January  0  to  Deceml)er  25  was 
made, 

.3.  Since  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century,  December  25  was 
quite  generally  recognised  as  the  day  for  the  celebration  of  the  Na- 
tivity, and  was  counted  among  the  most  important  festivals  of  tlie 
Christian  year. 

4.  There  was  a  growing  tendency  to  recognise  days  of  ])reparation 
foi   its  celebration,  as  Christmas  vigils,  and,  later,  four  advent  Sun- 


458        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

days  in  the  West,  and  six  advent  Sundays  in  the  East,  as  means  for 
awakening  a  desire  for  the  coming  Redeemer.  Likewise,  the  season 
between  Christmas  and  Epiphany  was  afterward  filled  up  with  feast 
days,  each  designed  to  recall  the  memory  of  some  person  or  event 
connected  with  the  Nativity,  as  St.  Stephen's  day,  December  26; 
St.  John's  day  (the  evangelist),  December  27;  and  the  Innocents, 
December  28. 

When  Mariolatry  came  to  be  practised  by  the  Church  of  the  fifth 
Influence  of  ^^'^^^  following  centuries,  there  gathered  round  this  cul- 
Marioiairy.  ^ug  ^  great  number  of  festivals  in  honour  of  the  Virgin, 
commemorating  many  real  or  apocryphal  events  in  her  life.  This 
worship  assumed  such  prominence  in  the  Middle  Ages  as  almost  to 
supersede  that  paid  to  Christ  himself.  Also  the  multiplication  of 
saints,  and  especially  the  canonization  of  those  who  had  suffered 
martyrdom  during  the  trying  periods  of  the  history  of  the  Church, 
greatly  multiplied  the  number  of  feasts  and  festivals,  until  almost 
the  entire  year  was  devoted  to  some  event  in  the  lives  of  these  who 
received  the  homage  of  a  Church  from  which  the  earnest  spirit  of 
piety  had  largely  departed. 


BOOK  FOURTH. 


Archeology  of  Christian  Life. 


THE 

ARCnJIOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  CHRISTIAN   FAMILY. 


"God  setteth  the  solitary  in  families"  (Psa.  Ixviii,  6).     The  fam- 
ily, is  the  initial  state,  or  contains  it  in  [jerm.    It  is  often   _^     ,     „ 

''  ^     .  '  .  '^         ^  The    family   a 

made  the  Scripture  type  of  the  Church.  Ihe  Church  type  of  the 
betjins  with  the  first  true  worship  in  the  household.  ^'''"'"*'''- 
The  love,  the  confidence,  the  tender  care  of  each  for  the  other,  which 
sliould  characterize  the  family,  are  often  used  to  illustrate  the  com- 
nuiuity  of  interest  felt  by  the  in<lividual  members  of  the  Church, 
and  the  intimacy  of  the  relations  of  Christ  to  his  Church  (Rev.  xix, 
tJ-K);  xxi,  9). 

The  stability  and  purity  of  the  Church  and  State  have  been  ])ro- 
portioiiate  to  the  popular  and  IcLjal  estimate  of  the  sanctity  and  sta- 
bility of  the  marriage  relationship.  The  presence  of  Christ  at  the 
weddint!^  in  Cana  of  Galilee,  where  he  performed  his  Christ's  sano 
first  miracle  to  contribute  to  the  rejoicinofs  of  the  occa-  "°"- 
sion  (John  ii,  7,  -sc*/.),  happily  illustrates  the  feeling-  and  teachinc^  of 
(-hristianit}''  with  respect  to  jnarriaije.  Christ  is  explicit  in  his 
in(!ulcation  of  the  divine  origin  and  sacredness  of  this  institution.  It 
is  more  than  filial  duty;  it  is  unifying:  the  twain  become  one  through 
the  purity  and  intensity  of  a  mutual  love;  common  interests  are  ne- 
cessitated by  common  affection  (Matt,  xix,  .5,  6;  Eph.  v,  31).  The 
teaching  of  the  founder  of  the  new  religion,  that  only  one  frrmind  of 
one  single  ground  of  divorce  is  lawfid,  alike  distin-  divorce, 
guished  his  followers  from  both  Jews  and  heathen  of  his  day.  He 
revolutionized  society  by  giving  to  the  family  a  sure  foundation, 
and  by  the  elevation  of  woman  to  be  the  true  companion  and  equal 
of  man. 

The   example  of   Peter  (Matt,  viii,  14;  Mark  i,  ;30;   Luke  iv,  38), 
and  the  express  teaching  of  New  Testament  writers  (1  Tim.  v,  14 j 


462  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   LIFE. 

Heb.  xiii,  4;  1  Tim.  iv,  3),  are  in  harmon}"  with  tlie  con.luet  of 
Christ  respecting  the  sanctity  of  the  marriage  rehition.  Moreover, 
Paul's  teach-  the  counsel  of  Paul  to  the  Corinthian  Church,  evidently 
ous  wi'th'^that  ^'^  reply  to  their  request,  is  entirely  consistent  with  tlie 
or  Christ.  general  doctrine  of  the  New  Testament.       lie  guards 

marriage  so  carefully  that  even  to  those  who  are  joined  to  unbeliev- 
ers the  advice  is  given  not  to  disturb  their  relationships  exci^pt  by 
mutual  consent  and  for  mutual  good.' 

This  remained  the  teaching  of  the  Church  for  two  hundred  and 
The  ^^^y  years.     The  Pauline  doctrine  of  expediency  as  to 

the  apostolic  marriage,  and  of  the  sacred  duty  of  parties  who  have 
^  ^^^'  entered  into  the  marriage  union  to  remain  faithful  to 

each  other,  is  clearly  recognised  by  the  apostolic  fathers  and  their 
immediate  followers.     In  the  epistle  to  Diognetus  the  author  speaks 

of  the  manners  of  the  Christians,  and  institutes  compari- 
Diognetus.  i     i       i         i 

sons  and  contrasts  between  these  and  the  heathen  cus- 
toms. "  For  they  neither  inhabit  cities  of  their  own,  nor  employ  a 
peculiar  kind  of  speech,  nor  lead  a  life  which  is  marked  out  by  any 
singularity.  .  .  .  They  dwell  in  their  own  countries,  but  simply  as 
sojourners.  As  citizens  they  share  in  all  things  with  others,  and 
yet  endure  all  things  as  if  foreigners.  Every  foreign  land  is  to  them 
as  their  native  country,  and  every  land  of  their  birth  as  a  land  of 
strangers.  They  marry  as  do  all;  they  beget  children;  but  they  do 
not  destroy  their  offspring.  They  have  a  common  table,  but  not  a 
common  bed.  They  are  in  the  flesh,  but  they  do  not  live  after  the 
flesh."  * 

Likewise  in  the  epistle  to  Polycarp,  Ignatius  retains  the  Pauline 
ignatius's  ad-  Spirit  in  recognising  the  doctrine  of  expediency  with  re- 
^'^*-  spect   to   mai'riage,   but  is  very  rigid  with  regard    to 

the  sacredness  of  this  relationship  when  once  entered  into,  and  willi 
respect  to  the  duty  of  mutual  helpfulness.  "  Speak  to  my  sisters, 
that  they  love  the  Lord,  and  be  satisfied  with  their  husbands  both 
in  the  flesh  and  spirit.  In  like  manner,  also,  exhort  my  brethren,  in 
the  name  of  Jesus  Christ,  that  they  love  their  wives,  even  as  the 
Lord  the  Church.  .  .  .  Let  all  things  be  done  to  the  honour  of  God."  ^ 

'  There  Is  no  real  contradiction  in  the  teachins^s  of  1  Cor.  vii.     No  rigid  law  cswi  be 

imposed.     "  I  have  no  commandment  of  the  Lord  "  (ver.  25);  the  cir- 

th^'^l^wf"^^         cnmstances  of  each  mnst  govern  each;  "  tiie  present  distress"  Is  the 

key  to  the  whole  teaching;  if  one  has  power  of  selfcontrol,  then,  in 

tlie  present  circumstances  of  peril,  celibacy  may  be  best;  but  if  not,  owing  to  the 

fearful  temptations  of  Corinthian  society,  marriage  is  advi.sable.     But  when  marriage 

has  been  entered  into,  duty  is  plain  ;   no  separation,  even  for  a  se:i.son,  is  permitted 

e.xcept  by  mutual  consent.     The  rights  of  husband  and  wife  are  reciprocal. 

**  Ad  Dior/neL,  c.  v.  ^  Ad  Polyc,  c.  v. 


THE   CIIUISTIAN   FAMILY.  463 

In  liis  apolotjy  to  flic  «'in|n'r<ir  and   senate,  Justin  Martyr  is  no 
less  explieit    in    his  interpretation   and   I'nforceincnt   of 

,„.     ,  ,  .  ,,  •    11        1        II  II  Justin  Martyr. 

(  lirist  s  teacliings.  He  espeeially  dwells  upon  the  law 
of  adultery  and  divorce,  as  given  by  Christ,  to  show  tlu'  opinion 
aiul  practice  of  the  Christians.  Tliis  is  so  opposed  to  the  law  of 
the  heathen  government  tliat  the  apologist  claims  that  he  knew 
of  men  and  women  of  sixty  or  seventy  years  of  age  who  have 
eoiilinued  ))ure  during  all  their  lives;  "aiul  I  boast  that  I  could  j)ro- 
duce  such  from  every  race  of  men."  '  He  also  adds,  what  is  conso- 
nant with  the  Pauline  teaching,  "  But  whether  we  marry,  it  is  only 
tliat  we  may  bring  ui>  childri'n;  or  whether  we  decline  marriage,  we 
live  continently." 

The  early  Romans  far  excelled  the  Greeks  in  their  respect  for  and 
honour  of  woman.     Yet  amon*;  the  former  she  was  ab-   „     ,., 

'^  P  o  s  1 1 1  o  n   o  f 

solutely  destitute  of  rights  apart  from  her  husband,  woniiui  amuiif? 
while  with  the  latter  she  was  usually  the  veriest  slave. 
Even  in  the  earliest  and  purest  period  of  Roman  history,  when  mo- 
nogamy w^as  enjoined  on  the  husband,  and  the  infidelity  of  the  wife 
was  visited  with  heavy  penalties,  the  marital  authority  disregarded 
the  liiw  of  nature,  and  changed  moral  sul)jection  into  legal  slav- 
ery.' The  family  being  absolutely  guided  by  the  single  will  of  the 
head  of  the  household  (puferfaiiiilias),  the  wife  and  child,  equally 
with  the  bullock  and  the  slave,  were  destitute  of  legal  without  legal 
rights.  To  rear  or  not  to  rear  the  child  which  the  wife  ""'K^its- 
had  borne  him  rested  with  the  free  will  of  the  householder.  In  the 
family  woman  necessarily  held  a  position  of  domestic  subjection.' 
In  the  later  years  of  the  rej)ublic,  after  the  emancipa-  Eviisundcrthe 
tion  of  woman  from  the  rigor  of  the  earlier  laws  had  la't'r  republic 
been  partially  effected,  the  weakness  of  heathen  morality  was  shown 
in  the  fearful  relaxation  of  the  ties  of  domestic  life,  and  in  tlu'  bitter 
complaints  of  the  sterner  moralists  against  the  i-vils  of  celibacy,  the 
shameless  extravagance  of  women,  the  prostitution  of  marriage  to  a 
matter  of  mercantile  speculation,  and  the  consequent  ease  and  fre- 
quency of  divorce.  Celibacy,  childlessness,  and  infanticide  had  be- 
come so  common  among  the  upper  classes  during  the  closing  period  of 
the  republic  that  the  Latin  stock  had  l)een  largely  diminished,  ami 
final  extinction  was  threatened.  So  alarming  was  the  situation  that 
the  first  em|)eror,  in  order  to  save  the  nation,  regarded  it  as  lu'cessaiy 

to  set  le<;al  bounds  to  luxury,  to  curtail  the  ]»racti(;e  of 

•  •  '  Leffal  restraints. 

adultery  and  divorce  by  measures  ot  the  utmost  sever- 

'  ApoL,  Q.  XV. 

'  V.  Mommscn  :    Illativij  of  Rome,  Xcw  York,  1870,  vol.  i,  pp.  -19,  89. 

•  Ibid.,  pp.  89,  90. 


404  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 

ity,  and  to  offer  extraordinary  rewards  to  fathers  *  who  should  rear 
large  families.  But  the  disease  Av^as  too  deepseated  for  radical 
cure;  it  could  only  be  held  in  check  by  the  vigorous  treatment  of 
a  master  mind  like  Julius  Caesar.  It  broke  out  anew  with  increased 
virulence  under  his  successors.    It  was  this  Roman  social 

The  conflict.  ,  -  ^  -,        r    •  ^•  T         1 

world,  emasculated  oi  its  earlier  and  robuster  virtues, 
inoculated  with  the  vices  of  Oriental  luxury,  and  weakened  by  long 
indulgence,  which  was  opposed  to  the  simple  teachings  of  Jesus  and 
his  apostles  respecting  the  sacredness  of  the  marital  relationship, 
the  equality  of  man  and  wife,  the  high  sanctity  of  maternity,  and 
the  solemn  duty  of  child  nurture. 

The  Christian  fathers  are  earnest  in  their  defence  of  the  purity  of 
Christian  morals,  in  contrast  with  this  abounding  corruption  of  hea- 
Tertuiiian's  tlienism.  Tertulliaii  boldly  challenges  an  examination 
teaching.  ^f  ^]jg  \[(q  ^nd  practices  of  the  Christians,  and  plainly 

upbraids  the  heathen  for  their  wicked  practice  of  infanticide.''  He 
as  ardently  defends  the  sanctity  of  marriage  against  the  opinions  of 
some  schools  of  the  Gnostics,  especially  Marcion.^  His  is  strictly 
the  Pauline  view.  He  neither  prescribes  abstinence  from  marriage, 
nor  does  he  insist  upon  it.  He  says  that  the  Creator  bestowed  his 
blessing  upon  the  institution  as  on  an  honourable  estate,  as  he  did 
upon  the  w^hole  of  his  creatures  for  good  jind  wholesome  uses.^  The 
limitations  of  desire,  and  the  duty  of  fidelity  to  vows,  are  not  im- 
posed upon  woman  alone,  but  upon  both  man  and  wife  alike. 

A  like  contrast  is  seen  in  the  care  and  rights  of  childhood  under 

the  heathen  and  Christian  systems.     The  difference  of  teaching  and 

^   practice  is  here  world-wide.  Scarcely  a  statute  condemna- 

Heathen     and    ^  .  i      i  r  r^        • 

Christian  view  tory  of  abortion  IS  found  in  all  the  range  of  Grecian  or 
of  abortion.  Roman  jurisprudence.  If  regretted  and  condemned  at  all, 
no  check  was  given  to  an  almost  universal  practice  Avhicli  was  sap- 
ping the  energies  of  the  heathen  world.  While  recognised  as  wrong 
by  many  of  the  heathen  moralists,  it  scarcely  received  a  severe  cen- 
„     .  sure  in  all  their  writings.    So  also  with  infanticide.    The 

Opinions      re-  ^     .  i        /-i        i  t 

spectinginfan-  practice  was  almost  universal  among  the  Greeks.  It 
ticide.  finds  a  place  in  the  ideal  systems  of  the  best  philoso- 

])1km-s  and  thinkers;  it  is  permitted  by  the  statutes  of  Lycurgus  and 
Solon.  Tlie  position  of  the  Greek  mother  encouraged  it.  The  Ro- 
man view  was  better,  although  its  practice  was  scarcely  improved. 
Tertullian  retorts  the  charges  of  immorality  upon  the  heathen  with 
withering  sarcasm.^     Probably  the  opposite  policies  of  Greece  and 

'  V.  Frierllandcr:   SittengeschicJite  Rnms,  Bd.  i,  s.  54. 

'  Ad  Notione^s,  1.  i,  c.  15;  Apol,  c.  i.^.  '  Contra  Mar.,  c.  29. 

*  Ibid.  *  Ad  Nat,  i,  13 ;  ApoL,  c.  ix. 


THE    ClIKISriAX    FAMILY.  46."i 

Rome — tlu'  one  (liscoma-iiiiLi  and  tlic  ollur  ciicoura'^^inuj  ]»n]m- 
lation — hail  iniicli  to  do  willi  tin-  piaclici'  <>{  exposure  and  iiilau- 
ticide.'  So  tiei'p  was  tlie  conviction  of  the  Roman  inffTwiimiieg- 
h'<;ishitors  that  these  evils  were  tlireateninu:  the  life  '»'•'"""'• 
of  the  state,  that  tiie  absoluti'  iii;ht  of  the  fatlier  over  his  oJT- 
sjiriiii;  had  early  bi'en  so  far  limited  as  to  forbid  him  to  expose 
or  destroy  any  well  formed  ehihl  until  it  had  eompleti'(l  its  third 
yi'ar.'^  Vet  'rertiillian  plainly  intimates  that  these  laws  were 
easily  evatled,  and  had  little  power  to  correct  these  widely  pn-va- 
lent  practices.^ 

^"'rom  its  view  of  the  sain-tity  of  human  life,  Christianity  })laeed. 
a  ^uard  at  its  fountain-head.  In  contrast  with  the  widespread  in- 
difference of  tln'  lu'athen  moralists  respecting  abortion,  the  Church 
branded  it  as  a  crime  of  peculiar  enormity,  scarcely  inferior  to  mur- 
der itself.  Abortion,  infanticide,  and  the  exposure  of  children  were 
usually  placed  in  the  same  class  of  crimes;  they  were  Abortion  and 
constructive  murder.  By  conciliary  decree  the  guilty  '"fantiLide. 
mother  was  e.vcluded  from  the  sacraments,  at  first  till  the  day  of 
<ljath,  but  this  was  afterward  relaxed  to  ten  and  seven  years  of 
])enance.  As  we  examine  the  treatment  of  children  in  the  house- 
h(»ld,  the  same  contrast  between  heathen  and  Christian  methods  is 
manifest.  The  blessing  ]>rononiu'e(l  1>y  Christ  upon  young  children, 
as  subjects  of  his  kingdom  (Matt,  xviii,  2-5;  .Mark  x,  15;  Luke 
ix,  47),  ('ontinued  to  be  recognised  in  the  early  Church,    iniiiii-ai  teach- 

The  apostolic   iniunction,   "Fathers,  provoke   not  vour   y'^f '•<''a"v«  i« 
I  J  '  'I  .  iraininK  of 

children  unto  anger  lest  they  be  discouraged  "  (Col.  ctiiuiren. 
iii,  21),  "but  bring  them  up  in  the  fear  and  admonition  of  the 
Lord"  (Eph.  vi,  4),  implied  a  sacred  obligation  to  projierly  train 
tlie  child,  and  on  the  |)art  of  the  child  certain  rights  as  against  the 
parents.  This  was  in  direct  contrast  with  the  provisions  of  the 
early  Roman  law,  which  recognised  the  absolute  power  contrary  to  the 
of  the  father  to  dispose  of  his  child;  even  to  sell  it  into  Ro'"""  iii»- 
slavery  or  to  deprive  it  of  life.  The  mitigation  of  the  sevi'rity  of  the 
earlier  law  by  the  more  humane  feelings  of  later  times,  and  by  the 
wisdom  of  the  great  Roman  jurists,*  had  moderated,  not  removed, 
this  contrast.  The  Christian  fatlier  enjoined  obedience,  but  his 
power  over  his  <»ffspring  was  limited  by  the  consideration  that  both 
alike  belonged  to  (4od.  The  few  pictures  of  the  Christian  house- 
hold drawn   by  the  ante-Nicene   writers  of  the   Church  are  beau- 

'  ?'.  Locky:    Op.  cit.,  vol.  ii,  p.  27.  ' 

'  Ibid.,  pp.  22.  27.     V.  also  Miniitius  Felix,  Atlianagoras,  and  Laclantius. 

3  Ad  Xat.,  i,  1.'). 

*  Milman :   Latin  Christianity^  vol.  i,  pp.  49G,  497. 

80 


466  AKCH^OLOGY   OF  CHKISTIAM    LIFE. 

tifu],  and  clearly  show  tae  vast  siipei'iority  of  the  Christian  over 
the  heathen  family.  Tertullian  exclaims,  "  What  a  union  is  that 
of  two  believers  who  have  one  hope,  one  rule  of  life,  and  one  serv- 
rictures  of  i<^'^'  ...  In  alternate  song  echo  psalms  and  hymns;  the}- 
family  life.  yje  with  each  other  who  best  shall  praise  their  God. 
When  Christ  sees  such  things,  he  rejoices.  To  these  he  sends  his 
own  peace.  Where  two  are,  there  also  is  he.  Where  he  is,  there 
the  evil  one  is  not." '  And  Clement  of  Alexandria  affirms,  "  The 
children  glory  in  their  mother,  the  husband  in  his  wife,  and  she  in 
Ihem,  and  all  in  God." 

Since  the  opinion  of  the  Church  of  the  first  three  centuries 
was  so  pronounced  respecting  the  sanctity  of  marriage  and  of  the 
famih',  it  might  be  presumed  that  it  had  careful  oversight  of  the 
parties  proposing  marriage,  and  prescribed  the  rules 
iiiid  oversight  of  its  Celebration.  While  the  Church  had  no  legal 
•of  mamapes.  ju]-is(^iction  over  marriage  until  the  time  of  Justin- 
ian, the  Christians  had  nevertheless  accomj^anied  it  with  solemn 
religious  ceremonies,  and  hallowed  it  by  the  benediction  of  the 
•community  of  believers.  The  Pauline  doctrine,  not  to  be  "  un- 
equally yoked  together  with  unbelievers"  (2  Cor.  vi,  14),  was  long 
regarded  as  of  binding  force.  Tertullian  is  clear  in  his  teachings 
o!i  this  i)oiiit.  Cyprian  regards  the  directions  of  Paul  as  wise  and 
•obligatory.  The  post-Nicene  theologians,  as  Jerome,  Ambrose, 
Augustine,  and  others,  are  positive  and  earnest  in  warning  against 
these  entangling  alliances,  while  the  conciliary  decisions  are  firm  and 
unyielding.     The  Church  also  prescribed  the  limits  of  afiinity  or 

consanofuinitv  within  which  lawful    wedlock  was   for- 
Trescribedlim-  o  ..  •!  ^   n 

its  of  ronsan-  bidden.  The  decisions  of  some  of  the  councils  are  full 
:Buinity.  ,^^^1   explicit,  and  persons  who  violate   these  rules  are 

•declared  guilty  of  incest,  and  liable  to  severe  ecclesiastical  penal- 
ties. I^ikewise  clandestine  marriagc^s  are  forbidden.  Ignatius  says, 
"  But  it  becomes  both  men  and  women  who  marry  to  form  their 
union  with  the  approval  of  the  bishop,  that  their  marriage  may  be 
according  to  God,  and  not  after  their  own  lusts."*  Those  were 
da3's  of  trial  and  danger,  and  the  propriety  and  duty  of  taking  ad- 
vice of  the  church  officers  respecting  this  most  sacred  relation  are 
frequently  urged  by  the  Christian  writers  both  before  and  after 
Constantine.^  The  necessity  of  obtaining  the  consent  of  parents  to 
the  marriage  of  children  under  lawful  age  is  another  evidence  of 
the  care  with  which  the  relationship  was  guarded,  and  the  purity 
of  the  Church  maintained. 

'  Ad  Uxor.,  xi,  8.  9.  "  Ad  Polyc.  c.  v. 

^  V.  Tertullian:   Ad  Uxor..  1.  xi,  c.  2. 


THE   CHRISTIAN   FAMILY.  407 

Tlie  plain  and  wliolcsoint'  tcadiini;  of  the  Now  Tostainont,  and  of 
most  of  tilt'  Christian  fatluTs  of  tlu-  first  throe  eonturios  Fiimliv  n-ia- 
resnectin<i:  inarria<a'  and  the   fainiiv  relation,  was  after-   ^''^'"■''''p  ^■'•'*''- 

i  f^  '^  •  '  _  ciii'd     by    two 

wards  weakened  by  two  prineiples  whose  baneful  influ-   principles. 
once  was  long  felt  in  both  East  and  West:   asceticism  and  mo- 
nastieisni. 

Aseetieisin  has  pi'rtained  to  every  religion,  and  to  every  stage  of 
society.  It  was  found  in  heathen  Rome,  Whether  this  practice 
among  the  Romans  is  to  1)0  attributed  to  a  feeling  of  disgust,on 
the  part  of  a  few  nobler  minds, with  the  prevailing  impurity,  to  the 
rise  of  Xeoplatonism  and  the  revival  of  the  Pythagorean  philosophy, 
to  the  Oriental  religions,  or  to  the  unconscious  yet  pow-  possible  oriirin 
erful  influence  of  Christianity,  may  not  be  fully  deter-  *'^  Asceticism, 
mined.  Probably  each  and  all  these  forces  were  in  operation  to 
produce  the  eifect.  Certainly  the  doctrine  of  both  Neoplatonism 
and  Pythagorean  ism,  that  matter  was  essentially  evil,  when  carried 
to  its  logical  result  would  lead  its  votaries  to  regard  the  human 
bod}^,  with  its  appetites  and  jtassions,  as  a  source  of  evil,  and  the 
indulgence  of  sensuous  desires  as  incomj)atible  with  loftiest  virtue. 
The  practical  effect  of  the  theory  upon  the  heathen  world  in  cor- 
recting the  prevalent  impurity  was,  however,  but  slight.  Xever- 
theless,  if  the  records  are  to  be  trusted,  it  is  noteworthy  that  some 
most  conspicuous  public  characters  were  plainly  influenced  by  this 
philosophy.  The  celibate  life  of  Apollonius  of  Tyana,  the  abstemi- 
ousness of  Zenobia,  the  maintenance  of  her  virginity  by  Hoathen exam- 
the  pagan  ■wife,  Ilypatia,  the  continence  of  Julian  after  p'''-''- 
the  early  loss  of  his  wife,  are  clear  indications  of  the  influence  of  the 
Neoplatonic  teaching,  as  well  as  of  a  desire  for  the  reformation  of 
paganism,  which  the  superior  morality  of  Christianity  had  provoked. 
To  what  degree  the  severe  asceticism  of  the  Indian  religions  affected 
the  western  mind,  and  how  far  the  Buddhist  monasticism  was  tlie 
suggestion  and  furnished  the  type  of  the  Christian  orders  of  monks, 
are  debated  (pu'sti^uis.  It  can,  however,  hardly  be  doubted  that 
this  ancient  and  widely  i)revalent  religion  was  known  to  the  West, 
while  the  striking  similarity  of  the  discipline  of  the  Buddhistic 
and  Christian  monks  suggests  a  common  origin,  or  at  least  similar 
conditions. 

But  the  perversion  of  the  teachings  of  Christianity,  which  incul- 
cated the  prime  duty  of  purity,  was  most  powerful  to  effect  the 
change  of  opinion  with  reference  to  the  married  state.  The  con- 
flict of  the  Church  with  the  social  evil  which  was  threatening  the 
life  of  the  empire  had  been  stubborn  and  persistent.  From  the 
first  the  words  of  Paul  as  to  the  lawfulness  of  a  celibate  life  had 


46S  AKCII.EOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   LIFE. 

been  influential,  and  a  condition  of  continence  had  received  high 

Causes  praise  from  the  Chi'istian  fathers.     The  declining  piety 

Btrengthening       £  ^j^    third  century,  and  the  doctrine  of  the  merit  of 

It  in  the  .  . 

Church.  good  works,  which  had  its  origin  in  the  penitential  sj's- 

tem  of  the  age  of  Cyprian,  greatly  strengthened  the  tendency  to 
asceticism.  An  unnatural  and  unscriptural  view  of  chastity  induced 
the  opinion  that  the  married  state  was  unfavorable  to  the  realiza- 
tion of  the  highest  perfection,  and  that  immaculate  purity  could  be 
attained  only  in  the  condition  of  celibacy  or  virginity,  or  by  the 
practice  of  the  most  rigid  abstinence. 

Nevertheless,  the  frequent  legislation,  both  civil  and  ecclesiastical, 
shows  how  difticult  it  was  to  enforce  the  condition  of  celibacy  and 
chastity,  even  in  case  of  those  who  had  taken  upon  themselves  the 
most  solemn  vows.  The  law  of  Jovian,  A.  D.  364,  denouncing  the 
attempt  to  marry  a  nun  as  a  capital  crime,  was  wholly  ineffectual  to 
prevent  the  scandal.  Yet  the  opinion  of  the  Church  respecting  the 
sacredness  of  the  marriage  relation  is  shown  from  the  fact  that  while 
the  synod  of  Rome,  A.  D.  384,  declares  the  union  of  men  with  nuns 
who  have  taken  vows  of  celibacy  to  be  adultery,  it  did  not  venture 
to  order  their  separation  from  their  husbands.  In  spite  of  Augus- 
tine's commendation  of  virginity,  and  his  favorable  opinion  of  celib- 
acy, he  regards  the  marriage  of  nuns  as  binding,  and  deprecates  the 
evil  results  of  separating  man  and  wife  under  such  circumstances.  A 
careful  examination  of  this  legislation  will  show  that  the  efforts  to 
declare  such  marriages  invalid  completely  failed;  and  that  in  the 
fifth  century  there  was  a  tendency  to  judge  these  marriages  more 
tenderly, and  not  to  interfere  with  them.' 

As  asceticism  made  war  against  one  of  the  three  great  foes  of  the 

,     ,.  ,  human  soul,  the  flesh,  so  monasticism  proposed  to  flee 

Asceticism  '  '  .  ^      *  .  . 

■versus  the         from  another,  the  woi'ld.    Men  Avithdrew  from  society  m 

*®^^'  order  to  concentrate  their  entire  energies  upon  the  puri- 

fication of  the  spirit  through  watching,  fasting,  and  prayer.    Monas- 
ticism ignored  the  social  duties  and  the  holy  work  of 

Monasticism  .  '^  ,  ■     ^  j 

■cersi/.s  the  elevating  mankind  by  personal  contact  and  influence,  and 
*'*''''^-  was  at  heart  a  system  of  absolute  spiritual  selfishness. 

The  two  principles  lying  at  the  foundation  of  monasticism,  celibacy 
and  asceticism,  were  alike  hostile  to  the  mai-ried  state,  pernicious  to 
the  family,  and  consequently  hurtful  to  the  truest  interests  of  so- 
ciety. The  fuller  discussion  of  their  influence  upon  Christian 
morality  does  not  fall  within  the  plan  of  our  inquiry.  It  need  only 
be  added  that  by  many  of  the  post-Nicene  writers  celibacy  and 
absolute  abstinence  from  carnal  pleasures  are  regarded  as  the 
^  Lea:  Hist,  of  Sacerdotal  Celibacy.  Boston,  18S4,  pp.  10:5-105. 


THE  CHRISTIAN   FAMILY.  469 

hi^liest  virtues;  marriage  is  a  m-cessary  fvil  i-ntailcd  by  the  fall, 
which  must  be  endured  by  those  content  with  low  at-  (^„j,g^  ^^^ 
tainments  in  moral  purity;  the  familv  is  no  longer  the   vinriuUy     tae 

1-       .•.     .•  r/'i^i  '•»•  r*i  T       hlRbesl  virtues. 

most  sacred  institution  of  dod;  the  position  of  the  wife 

.uhI  mother  is  almost  infinitely  below  that  of  her  upon   whom  rest 

the  vows  of  perpetual  virginity,' 

Thus  the  powerful  protest  against  the  abounding  impurity  led 
the  Church  to  the  other  extreme  of  severity.  What  was  at  first 
regarded  in  the  light  of  a  duty,  plainly  fiowing  from  principles 
enunciated  by  Christ  and  his  apostles,  was  exalted  to  the  position 
of  the  most  meritorious  work  for  the  attainment  of  salvation.  The 
low  standard  of  piety,  and  the  perturbed  state  of  society  con.sequent 
upon  the  rivalries  of  the  East  and  West,  and  upon  the  gad consequen- 
tribal  migrations,  contributed  still  further  to  these  ^^ 
unhappy  results.  But  amid  all  the  influences  unfavourable  to  the 
family  life  the  Church  was  careful  to  guard  its  sanctity;  it  place<l 
the  family  on  a  lower  plane  only  by  attributing  to  a  celibate  and 
virgin  state  a  loftier  dignity. 

'  See  especially  the  treatises  on  virjrinity  by  several  of  the  most  influential  and 
able  post-Nicene  theologians — Basil  Ambrose,  Chrysostom.  Augmstine.  and  otliers. 
The  language  of  Jerome,  the  great  promoter  of  monaslicism  in  the  West,  is  oflea 
most  extrava$;aQt  in  praise  of  virginity  and  a  reclu^  life,  and  oootemptuoiis  whea 
he  refers  to  the  married  state. 


4?0  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   LIFE. 


CHAPTER  11. 

THE  CHURCH  AND  SLAVERY. 

"  Render  therefore  unto  Caesar  the  things  which  are  Caesar's;  and 

unto  God  the  things  that  are  God's"  (Matt,  xxii,  21).     "Let  every 

soul  be  subject  unto  the  higher  powers.     For  there  is  no  power  but 

of  God:  the  powers  that  be  are  ordained  of  God.  .  .  .  For  he  is  the 

minister  of  God  to  thee  for  good"  (Rom.  xiii,  1-4).     In  these  pas- 

Reiations     of   sages  are  expressed  the  relations  of  the  early  Church  to 

the  Church  to   ^|^     government  under  which  its  members  then  lived. 

civil     govern-  o 

nient.  The  duty  of  obedience  to  civil  authority  is  here  plainly 

inculcated.  The  qualifying  teaching  of  Peter  has  reference  to  those 
cases  where  men  are  unable  to  submit  to  civil  injunctions,  and  pre- 
fer to  suffer  for  conscience'  sake,  or  where  government  has  so  far 
forgotten  the  reason  of  its  institution  as  to  be  no  longer  a  terror  to 
evil  doers  or  a  praise  to  the  good.  The  Christian  Church  proposed  no 
revolution  in  the  civil  order,  but  aimed  to  permeate  society  with  a 

new  principle  which  would  effect  all  needed  reforms. 

The  declaration  of  Christ,  "  My  kingdom  is  not  of  this 
world  "  (John  xviii,  36),  embodied  the  true  spirit  of  the  Church  in 
relation  to  secular  authority.  The  existing  forms  were  accepted; 
the  realm  where  Christ  was  to  reign  was  the  human  spirit;  the  law 
of  his  government  was  the  law  of  love.  This  law  being  supreme 
over  all  alike  who  should  become  subjects  of  his  kingdom,  an  equal- 
ity of  privilege  was  recognised  in  the  midst  of  the  most  diverse 
social  conditions.  It  is  the  silent  yet  powerful  operation  of  this 
law  which  is  to  be  considered  in  estimating  the  influence  of  Chris- 
tianity upon  Roman  institutions  and  life. 

At  the  time  of  the  Advent  slavery  was  an  institution  recognised 
Slavery  a  fixed  ^nd  regulated  by  the  Roman  law;  slaves  were  found  in 
Institution.  every  province  of  the  vast  empire.  This  unfortunate 
class  had  at  first  been  chiefly  captives  taken  in  war;  at  a  later 
period,  when  the  original  source  of  supply  had  largely  ceased,  they 
were  propagated  by  means  of  numerous  marriages  encouraged  by 
Condition  of  the  owners.  They  were  the  property  of  the  masters ;  the 
the  slave.  children  could  be  sold  or  alienated  like  other  propei'ty. 

While  policy  or  feelings  of  humanity  might  lead  masters  to  miti- 
gate the  severities  of  bondage,  and  political  or  social  considerations 


THE    CIIUIU'II    AND    SLAVEKV.  471 

fivqueiitly  iiuluccd  tlie  iiuimiinissioii  of  8laves,  tlicy  wciv,  novcillu!- 
less,  at  the  mercy  of  every  caprice  and  ))assioii  of  the  owner.  Nor 
does  the  fact  that  self-interest  often  k'd  the  tjieat  families  to  en- 
courage in  their  slaves  the  cultivation  of  the  practical  and  line  arts,' 
and  even  to  assist  some  to  rise  to  the  position  of  teachers,  counsel- 
lors, and  companions,  change  the  essential  features  of  the  system. 
A  frecdnian  could  not  he  the  equal  of  the  freeborn;  hy  him  no  civil 
or  military  honor  was  attainable;  his  sons  were  excluded  fiom  tin; 
senate;  they  were  tainted  with  servility  to  the  third  and  fourth 
^generations.'  While  it  is  impossible  to  determine  the  number  of 
slaves  in  the  empire,  or  even  their  projjortion  to  the  entire  popula- 
tion, it  is  universally  conceded  that  their  condition  was  fearfully 
de<^raded,  and  that  they  were  a  constant  threat  to  the  peace  and 
pros[)erity  of  the  state. 

Christianity  recognised  this,   as  it  did   other  institutions  of  the 
cHiiiirc.     No    attempt    was    made   for    its    immediate   ,^  ,  ,    ,    „, 

'      .  t  ...  .  .         Chrlstiiinltyilld 

abolition.  A  new  and  despised  religion,  gathering  its  not aitempt du 
votaries  at  first,  for  the  most  part,  from  the  luunble,  '"*"''  '^'^I'l'""- 
and  often  from  the  servile  class,  was  not  in  position  to  make  open 
war  upon  an  institution  hoary  with  age  and  of  well  nigh  universal 
prevalence.  The  Scripture  teaching  is  that  liberty  is  of  the  Spirit; 
that  the  relations  of  master  and  slave  are  only  accidental,  not 
essential;  that  a  slave  can  be  the  truest  freeman  througli  the  liberty 
wherewith  Christ  shall  make  him  free.  The  teaching  of  Sciiptun; 
and  of  the  early  Christian  fathei-s  is  usually  that  of  submission  and 
obedience  to  the  existing  laws.  The  expectation  of  the  early  reap- 
pearing of  Christ  to  establish  liis  kingdom  among  men,  which  from 
time  to  time  finds  expression  in  the  writings  of  the  apostles  and  early 
fathers,  probably  led  the  early  Church  to  regard  social  distinctions 
as  of  slight  importance.  Since  every  disciple  of  Christ  was  a  citizen 
of  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  a  kingdom  different  fi'om,  and  exalte«l 
tar  above,  all  earthly  govcnimcnts,  the  Chui'ch  rt  nounccd  all  claim 
to  earthly  rulcrshij),  aii<l  could  ivmain  indilfcrent  toward  exist- 
ing social  distinctions.  The  care  of  the  Church  was  for  the  relief 
of  the  immediate  wants  of  its  members.  The  motive  to  the  alle- 
viation of  liardsliijis  did  not  seem  to  be  like  that  of  the  philoso- 
phers of  the  Stoic  schools,  namely,  to  introduce  into  society  a  more 
humane  feeling;  but  the  conviction  of  the  supernatural  freedom  and 
equality  to  which  men  were  invited  found  exj)ression  among  the 
early  Churches  only  in  the  religious  life  and  intercourse.  This  spir- 
itual freedom  and  equality  pertained  to  the  life  of  fellowship  which 

'  V.  Fricdliindor :   Sittfingrtrhirti'  nnm<t.  Pd.  iii,  ps.  258.  ■_'.'J9. 

'  Gibbon:  Decline  and  Fall,  etc.,  Harper's  edition,  New  York,  1880,  vol.  i,  p.  51. 


472  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   LIFE. 

was  expcM-ienced  by  Christians  themselves,  without  directly  influ- 
encing political  action  or  instituting  means  for  the  early  abolition 
of  slavery.  Yet  this  was  by  no  means  the  whole  work  of  the 
Christian  Church. 

"  The  treatment  of  slaves  by  their  Christian  masters,  and  the 
.    ,   relation  of  Christian  slaves  to  their  masters,  undei'went 

But  reco<rnised  _  _  ' 

all  as  equal  in  an  immediate  change.  .  .  .  As  members  of  the  Church 
o»pe  .  there  was  no  difference  between  them.  They  came  to 
the  same  house  of  God,  acknowledged  one  Lord,  prayed  and  sang 
together,  ate  of  the  same  bread,  and  drank  from  the  same  cup.  .  .  . 
The  Church,  it  is  true,  would  not  receive  a  slave  without  a  certificate 
of  good  conduct  from  his  Christian  master,  but  when  this  condition 
was  complied  with  he  became  a  full  member  without  any  limita- 
tions. He  was  even  eligible  to  its  offices,  not  excepting  that  of 
bishop.  Not  infrequently  it  occurred  that  a  slave  was  an  elder  in 
the  same  church  of  which  his  master  was  only  a  member. 

"  The  Church  bestowed  labor  on  both  slaves  and  masters.  .  .  .  Ac- 
it  cared  for  the  cording  to  pagan  conceptions  slaves  were  incapable  of 
slaves.  morality.     The   Church  trained    them  for   virtue,   and 

not  unsuccessfully.  There  were  many  slaves  who,  in  extremely 
difficult  circumstances,  attested  the  reality  of  their  Christian  life 
with  fidelity  and  great  endurance.  Even  among  the  martyrs  there 
was  an  unbroken  line  of  slaves.  The  fairest  crown  fell  on  them,  as 
well  as  to  the  free.  .  .  .  Harsh  treatment  of  slaves  was  regarded  a  suf- 
ficient ground  for  excommunication.  .  .  .  The  Church  would  not  min- 
ister to  the  merely  natural  desires  of  the  slaves  for  liberty.  Yet  it 
deemed  it  a  praiseworthy  act  for  a  master  to  emancipate  a  slave. 
.    ..        It  irladlv  recoo-nised  emancipation  as  a  work  of  Christian 

Emancipation  >->         J  »  _  i 

encouracccd  love,  and  manumissions  often  occurred.  .  .  .  After  the 
prac  ise  .  ^\^[y^[  century,  it  was  customar}^  to  perform  the  act  of 
manumission  in  the  Church,  before  the  priest  and  the  congregation. 
The  master  led  his  slave  by  the  hand  to  the  altar;  there  the  deed 
of  emancipation  was  read  aloud,  and  at  the  close  the  priest  pro- 
nounced the  benediction.  .  .  .  Their  former  masters  esteemed  it  a 
duty  to  help  and  counsel  them  as  Cliristian  brethren,  and  thus  they 
did  not  find  themselves  isolated,  but  in  the  midst  of  a  communion 
which  instructed  them  to  be  active  and  usefiil  men." ' 

Yet  it  is  unhistoric  to  attribute  the  abolition  of  slavery  and  the 
rehabilitation  of  manual  labour  exclusively  to  Christianity.  The 
Roman  Stoics,  like  other  philosophers  before  them,  had  taught  the 
duty  of  humanity  to  slaves,  and  had  announced  with  clearness  the 
principle  that  bondage  and  freedom  were  only  accidents  of  society, 
■  Uhlhoni :    Conflict  of  Christianity  loilh  Heathenism,  pp.  184-188. 


Till-:    CIUIU  II    AM)    SLAVERY.  473 

tliat  tlie  master  may  l)i'  a  Ixm.lman  ti>  his  vit-es,  while  tlu;  .slave  may 
be  the  noblest  Ireemaii  throui^h  his  virtues.  In  this  respect  the 
teaehinLT  t>t  Stoieism  was  very  like  that  of  Christianity.  .S(jine  em- 
perors, too — notably  Hadrian,  the  Antonines,  and  Alexander  Seve- 
rus — tliroui^h  a  sentiment  of  sympathy,  or  moved  by  fear,  proniul- 
l^ated  laws  restricting  the  power  of  the  master,  and  protecting  the 
slaves  from  many  cruel  and  harmful  practices  which  had  long 
disgraced  Roman  civilization.  Moreover,  these  maxims  of  the 
Stoics,  relative  to  the  essential  ecpiality  of  man,  had  powerfully  in- 
fluenced tlie  Roman  jurisprudence,  and  led  to  a  consequent  amelio- 
ration of  the  condition  of  the  servile  classes.' 

Nor  can  it  be  clainiL'd  that  the  legislation  of  the  Christian  emf)er- 
ors  of  the  fourth  century,  respecting  the  condition  and  rights  of 
slaves,  was  a  very  great  advance  upon  that  of  the  heathen  emperors 
of  the  third.  Hy  the  abolition  of  the  ])unishment  of  crucilixion  the 
slaves  had  gained,  since  they  had  been  chiefly  exposed  to  this  dread- 
ful penalty;  but  still  more  humane  and  wide-reaching  was  the  enact- 
ment of  the  statute  forbidding  the  sej»aration  of  their  families.' 
The  legislation  of  Justinian  was,  however,  almost  revolutionary. 
The  two  great  disabilities  under  which  the  slave  population  had 
suffered  for  so  many  centuries,  namely,  the  power  of  the  master  to 
subject  the  slave  to  torture,  and  the  non-recognition  of  the  legality 
of  slave  marriage,  were  entirely  removed.  This  may  be  regarded 
as  the  most  important  legislative  contribution  to  the  abolition  of  sla- 
very Avhich  was  made  by  the  Christian  emperors  prior  to  the  seventh 
century.  To  this  may  be  added  the  removal  of  all  restrictions  to 
the  manumission  of  slaves,  which  had  hitherto  prevented  the  action 
prompted  by  the  humane  impulses  of  noble  mi'u,  both  jiagan  and 
Christian. 

The  influence  of  the  moral  type,  which  Christianity  encouraged, 
has  been  strongly  emphasized  by  some  writers  on  the  relations  of 
Christianity  to  slavery.*  The  qualities  neglected  or  despised  by  the 
heathen  world  were,  under  the  Christian  system,  crowned  as  royal 
virtues.  Humility  is  often  commanded  by  Christ,  ami  he  wdio 
would  be  great  in  his  kingdom  is  instructed  to  become  the  servant 
of  all.  Service,  helpfuliu'ss,  charity,  long-sufFering,  gentleness,  pa- 
tience, goodiu'ss,  forgiveiu'ss,  non-resistance,  are  the  graces  which 
especially  adorn  the  Christian  character.  To  what  extent  this  view 
of  the  perfection  of  human  character  brought  the  Christian  Church 
into  closer  relationships  to  the  lai'ge  class  of  Roman  slaves  is  wor- 

'  Tortiillian.  in  Apolofiftir.us,  gpoaka  olill>Pse  clmnpos,  and  attributes  tliom  to  a  se- 
cret woikiiijr  of  nature,  tcndiufif  toward  Cliristianit}*.  not  by  Christianity. 

»  V.  Lccky :    Op.  ciL,  vol.  ii,  pp.  6.3,  64.  '  Lecky:    Op.  cil.,  vol.  ii.  pp.  GS,  69. 


474  ARCH^OLOaY   OF   CHRISTIAN   LIFE. 

thy  of  most  thoughtful  consideration;  doubtless  it  was  one  import- 
ant motive  to  their  care,  and  to  the  amelioration  of  their  condition. 

Another  notable  service  rendered  by  the  Church  of  the  fourth  and 
fifth  centuries  was  her  strong  and  persistent  opposition  to  the  prev- 
alent luxury.  The  discourses  of  the  great  preachers  and  monks 
abound  in  warnings  against  the  destroying  vices,  against  excess  in 
dress,  food,  and  equipage,  and  also  very  especially  against  immoral 
and  lustful  callings,  as  those  of  actors,  gladiators,  panders,  etc. 
This  check  placed  upon  luxury  and  extravagance  had  the  direct 
effect  to  decrease  tlie  demand  for  the  labour  of  slaves,  and  tliereby 
to  contribute  to  their  more  rapid  manumission.' 

While  the  relation  of  Christianity  to  Roman  slavery  has  been  vig- 
orously discussed,*  and  the  opinions  of  investigators  have  by  no 
means  been  accordant,  we  see  from  the  spirit  of  Christ's  teacliing, 
as  well  as  from  abundant  testimony  gathered  from  the  writings  of 
the  Christian  fathers,  that  in  the  early  Church  no  distinction  of 
Slaves  eligible  pi'^^'^l^^o®  between  master  and  slave  was  recognised, 
to  office  la  the  Slaves  were  freely  admitted  to  the  sacraments,  and  wei-e 
eligible  to  all  the  ecclesiastical  offices.  Calixtus  was  a 
Roman  slave.  The  Council  of  Orleans,  in  549  A.  D.,  was  compelled 
to  somewhat  modify  the  earlier  requirements  that  the  Christian  mas- 
ter must  liberate  his  slaves,  by  allowing  the  master  to  obey  the  laws  ' 

■  Alliird:    Op.  ciL,  pp.  409-473. 

^  The  treatise  of  Wallon  :  Histoire  de  I'esclavage,  2d  ed.,  Paris,  1879;  and  of  Allard: 
Les  esclaves  ChreL,  Paris,  1876,  have  used  the  monumental  evidence  but  very  spar- 
ingly. The  same  want  is  felt  in  Zahn:  Sclaverei  u.  C hristenthum,  Heidclb..  1879; 
Leehler:  Sclaverei  u.  C hristenthum,  Leipzig,  1877-78,  and  in  nearly  every  other  dis- 
cussion. Allard  is  most  in  sympathy  with  the  spirit  of  the  epigraphic  teaeiiiiig,  and 
gives  some  valuable  suggestions. 

3  The  history  of  slavery  in  the  United  States  of  America  furnishes  some  parallels 
to  illustrate  the  difficulty  of  making  the  teaching  of  the  Ciiurch  respecting  tliis  insti- 
tution effective  and  practical  under  the  Roman  government.  The  American 
Churches  frequently  protested  against  slavery,  but  the  laws  enacted  hj  the  different 
slave  States  made  this  protest  nugatory.  The  desired  instruction  was  forbidden  to 
slaves  by  penal  statutes.  May  not  this  be  a  sufficient  answer  to  the  excessive 
statements  of  that  school  of  critics  to  which  M.  Havet  belongs?  "There  is  no  more 
stupendous  e.xample  of  frauds,  which,  nevertheless,  can  make  for  themselves  believ- 
ers, than  the  persistent  attempt  to  srive  to  Christianity  and  the  Church  the  honour  of 
the  abolition  of  slavery"  (in  the  Roman  F>mpire).  v.  Le  Christianisme et  les origiiies, 
t.  i,  Litroduction,  p.  xxi.  This  judgment  respecting  the  early  Church,  in  eflfectii'g 
the  emancipation  of  slaves  under  the  Roman  Empire,  is  paralleled  by  the  statenicnis 
of  a  class  of  writers  in  our  day  respecting  the  attitude  of  the  American  Churclics 
toward  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  the  United  S'ates.  Both  alike  are  defective  and 
unhistoric.  The  wiser  and  more  humane  p'#icy  of  Hadrian  and  the  Antoniries  was 
probably  largely  independent  of  Clirisiianitj'.  The  influence  of  Christianity  was 
exerted  without  ostentation.     Even  Gibbon  recognises  its  later  power. 


THE  CHURCH  AND  SLAVERY.  475 

respi'ctiniij  the  slavo,  l)iit  lorhiuli'  him  to  i-xiKrt  of  the  sl:iv«'  any  ser- 
vice incompatible  with  his  new  dij^nity  as  a  incmluM-  of  the  Chmch. 
Fi'iiiah'  slavi's  often  exercised  tlie  office  of  deaconesses.' 

The  study  of  nioniinienls,  in  all  parts  of  the  lionian  lOnipiiX-,  fur- 
nishes the  most  empiiatic  coninient  and  completest  cor-  Monunn-iiui 
roboration  of  the  statements  of  the  Christian  fathers.  ""riu^irreJ^ 
These  lu'lp  more  fidly  to  comprehend  the  t^randeur  of  <>iJ^. 
that  revolution  already  acliieved  in  the  minds  of  tl»e  Christians,  loni^ 
before  its  effects  became  visible  in  the  society  of  tlie  state."  If  we 
enter  a  pagan  columbarium,  where  the  rich  families  de-  ApaRjincoiuiu- 
posited  the  ashes  of  their  slaves  and  freeibiieii,  all  the  i>in"ium. 
distinctions  of  society  and  class  are  here  continued.  It  would  seem 
that  even  the  grave  did  not  erase  the  stigma  attaching  to  the  servile 
(Masses.  The  name,  employment,  relation,  etc.,  of  the  slave  is  per- 
petuated upon  the  cinerary  urns.  Only  the  absence  of  the  master 
distinguishes  this  house  of  the  dead  from  the  [)alace  of  the  living. 

How  marked  the  contrast  in  a  Christian  catacomb  !  The  claim  of 
Lactantius  is  fully  justified — "With  us  there  is  no  dis-  ^^  jistincUon 
tinction  between  rich  and  [)Oor,  between  bondan<l  free."  '  amonB  the 
Nothing  tells  us  whether  a  tomb  contains  the  remains 
of  the  servile  or  of  the  fix'e.  Every  tiling  is  commingled.^  Upon  one 
is  seen  the  evidence  of  noble  birth,  upon  another  the  indication  of 
the  labourer's  avocation;  here  is  the  tomb  of  the  maiden,  there  of 
the  widow,  and  in  the  midst  of  all  is  the  faithful  pastor  and  bishop 
of  their  souls. 

"  During  the  thirty  years  in  which  I  have  studied  their  cemeter- 
ies I  have  found  no  more  than  a  solitary  inscri[)tion  from  Testimony  of 
which  the  condition  of  a  freedman  could  be  inferred." '  epiKrapi.ists. 
"  In  the  very  considerable  number  of  Christian  inscriptions  which 
we  exatnined,  I  have  not  met  more  than  two  fitidl  bearing  the  men- 
tion of  seriiiiti  or  lihcrtns,  except  as  an  appellation  of  fidelity  toward 
God."'  "In  the  new  Christian  conimimity  freedmen  de  Rossi's  opin- 
and  slaves  were  brethren,  and  together  served  the  same  '""• 
(iod.  Among  the  faithful  of  the  Roman  Church  the  spirit  of  fra- 
ternity triumi)hed  over  the  proud  arrogance  with  wdiich  the  insti- 
tutions of  the  republic  and  of  the  empire  were  infected.  Of  this 
most  eloquent  testimony  is  found  in  the  silence  which  is  observed 

'  Anrilla  Dei  is  tlio  title  froquently  met  on  the  tombs  of  Christian  women. 

*  A  Hard:  Les  esclaves  Chretieneg,  p.  2;!5.  '  Div.  Lisf.,  v,  17. 

*  Ailiird:  op.  cit,  pp.  236,  237.  '  Nfaran.u'oni :   Acta  S.  Vidonni,  p.  130. 

*  Le  Blant:  Inscript.  chret.  de  la  Gaul,  t.  i,  p.  119.  The  word  titiilm  was  applii'd 
to  an  ecclesiastical  division  or  district  of  the  city.  Each  one  of  the  lituli  socma  to 
have  had  an  extra-mural  cemetery  under  its  care,  where  its  dead  were  interred. 


476  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF   CJHRISTIAN    LIFE, 

respecting  the  social  condition  of  tlie  deceased  in  the  so  many  thou- 
sands of  eiiitaplis  discovered  in  the  catacombs.  Were  they  skives  ? 
Freedmen  ?  These  say  nothing  about  it.  I  have  never  met  the 
mention,  as  an  undoubted  fact,  of  one  serous  ;  very  rarely,  and  this 
exceptional,  of  a  freedman;  while  we  could  not  read  ten  pagan  epi- 
taphs of  the  same  period  without  finding  these  designations  of  slaves 
and  freedmen." '  The  silence  of  the  monuments  is  the  most  power- 
ful comment  on  the  statement  of  Lucian  with  respect  to  the  belief 
of  the  Christians:  "Their  lawgiver  has  persuaded  the  Christians 
that  they  are  all  brothers." ''  "  This  law  was  nowhere  M^ritten  or 
traditional;  it  was  the  spontaneous  effect  of  the  religious  doctrines 
of  the  new  society,  which  are  reflected  in  its  early  epigraphy  as  in  a 
mirror."  ^ 

The  whole  number  of  ancient  Christian  inscriptions  in  which 
Libertus  sei-  slaves  are  mentioned  is  only  about  thirty,  and  about  the 
dotnraet.  same   number   in   which  the  title  of  libertus   is   met.^ 

This  wonderful  disparity  between  the  number  of  Christian  and  hea- 
then monuments  bearing  these  marks  of  the  servitude  of  the  interred 
cannot  be  explained  by  the  inferior  social  condition  to  which  it  has 
been  claimed  the  converts  to  Christianity  largely  belonged;  since 
this  would  naturally  tend  to  increase  rather  than  diminish  the  num- 
ber mentioned  among  the  servile  class.  Moreover,  the  great  ma- 
jority of  these  Christian  inscriptions  belong  to  a  period  later  than 
the  second  century,  when  the  new  religion  had  become  widely  pro- 
fessed, and  had  adherents  among  the  government  officials,  and  even 
conclusions  i»  ^he  imperial  household.  By  a  careful  comparative 
reached.  study  of  tliese  monuments,  the  following  conclusions  are 

reached : 

1,  That  in  the  Christian  Church  the  number  held  as  slaves  was 
reduced  to  a  minimum. 

2.  That  in  Church  relations  and  in  Christian  burial  there  was  rec- 
ognised absolute  equality  of  right  and  privilege,  and  that  all  re- 
garded themselves  as  members  of  a  common  household. 

Another  interesting  class  of  epigraiihical  objects  are  the  bullce. 
These  were  little  tablets  or  bands  of  metal,  which  were 
The  buiias.  accustomed  to  be  fastened  to  the  neck  of  fugitive  or 
untrustworthy  slaves.  Scarcely  more  than  twenty  of  these  of  a 
clearly  Christirm  origin  have  been  discovered.  They  tell  an  inter- 
esting story  of  the  efforts  of  the  Christian  Church  to  soften  the 
hardships  of  this  condition.     They  likewise  clearly  testify  to  the 

'  de  Rossi:   B'dl.  di  arch,  crist.  1866,  p.  24.  ^  de  mwfe  Peregrini,  13. 

^  de  Rossi :  Roma  Sotkrranea,  t.  i,  p.  348. 

^Scluiltze:   Dit  aUchristlicJien  Grabsidtten,  Leipzig,  1882,  s,  258. 


TIIK   ClirUCII    AND    SLAVKUV.  477 

oxistcnce  of  slavery  within  the  C'hurch,  as  (•(•iiiici-UmI  with  Christ- 
iaii  basilicas.  It  was  claiiiUMl  by  Piirnoris '  that  the  cruel  c-iistoiu  of 
i)raii(linu-  in  tiu-  forehead  fulJi'itive  and  perverse  slaves  was  supplanted 
\}V  tliis  milder  charaeterization  through  a  special  edict  of  C'onslan- 
tine.  Only  three  of  these  chains  for  the  neck  have  been  certainly 
traced  to  the  pre-Constantiue  period.  The  greater  part  of  these 
fmllije  are  clearly  contemporaneous  with  Constantine,  or  belong  to 
the  fourth  century." 

A<j::iin,  the  nioiumuMits  accord  with   the  written  records,  and  con- 
firm the  claim  that  Christianity  elevated  labour  and  the   cnristianiiy  i!l- 
c  ,    i'  ■  1  •  *  cvati'il  labour. 

labourer  to  a  state  of  respeclal)ility. 

The  condition  of  the  free  labourer  under  a  govennnent  where 
slavery  is  the  legal  condition  of  a  large  portion  of  the  population 
must  be  one  of  great  hardship  and  humiliation.  It  has  been  so  in 
all  lands.  That  it  was  emphatically  true  of  the  Roman  labourer  all 
historians  and  moralists  alike  affirm.  But  Christianity  was  to  teach 
another  law  than  that  which  was  then  observed  by  paganism.  The 
awakening  of  a  spirit  of  industry,  and  the  affirmation  of  the  dignity 
of  labour,\vere  two  important  services  rendered  by  the  early  C-hurch. 
The  literature  of  the  fathers  is  full  and  explicit  on  this  point;  the 
monumental  and  epigraphical  lesson  is  plainly  confirmatory  of  the 
documentary.  Such  inscriptions  as  the  following  would  musirative  in- 
„ot  be  t..lei-ated  on  a  pagan  monument:  MHTPI  KATI-  -^ripUons. 
ANIAAII  EProriOIi2.  This  belongs  to  the  third  century.  De  Rossi' 
also  describes  a  tomb  on  which  the  husband  had  engraved  the  pic- 
ture of  a  loom  and  shuttle,'  emblems  of  domestic  industry,  rec^alling 
the  customs  of  the  ancient  Roman  days.  Still  another  is  where  the 
wife  has  erected  a  rich  tomb  to  her  husband,  ujion  which  stands  an 
inscription  that  would  be  regarded  a  cause  of  humiliation  to  the 

'  De  servis  eorumque  ministeriis,  Pailovn.  1613. 

'  de  Rossi:  BnU.  di  arch,  crist,  1874,  pp.  60,  seq.  The  fnllowincr  m;iy  ho.  criven  as 
ail  example  of  these  bullce:  Tt-ne  7ne  quiafuji  tt  revoca  me  PuhW>  Huhrh  L'lliuo  domino 
meo.     "Seize  me  I'Ccause  I  have   Hod.  and  return   me  to   rul>liu3  Knbrius  L;aiiuis, 

mv  master!  " 

"»  De  Rossi:  Bulldlino  di  arch,  crisf..  186").  p.  r>2.  Tlic  full  form  of  ili-  List  word, 
as  found  in  the  inscription,  is  EPronOflOin.  On  this  de  Rossi  comm.-nts:  "  II  is 
evident  to  ir.e  that  the  stone-cutter  lias,  by  misUike.  repeated  the  svIInMe  no.  ns  i( 
he  would  ainoiid  (ryoTzdii^,  as  in  so  many  other  syllables  which  we  liiid  carelessly 
reduplicated  in  both  Greek  and  Latin  inscriptions,  altiioufrh  no  such  word  is  found 
in  the  classical  lexicons,  it  is  plain  that  it  si<riiilies  o/jmwo.  luboriosa.  ...  It  shows 
tiie  Christian  glorying  in  labor— a  thin;;  unknown  to  tJie  |>apan  world:  that  labour 
was  not  disjiraceful,  but  lionourable;  that  disfrrace  and  sin  canie  from  indolence 
anil  laziness." 

*  De  Ros.si:  Insa-ip.  Christ,  urbia  Roma:,  No.  14  (A.  D.  279),  p.  21. 


478  ARCHEOLOGY    OF    CIIRISTLVN    LIFE. 

proud  Roman:  AMATRIX  PAVPERORVM  ET  OPERARIA.'  The 
companionship  in  labour  is  not  now  regarded  disgraceful,  but  wor- 
thy of  commendation.  See  the  following,  from  Garrucci,  found  in 
the  catacomb  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Marcellinus  upon  a  tomb  erected  by 
a  humble  saint  named  Primus  to  Leontia  :  LEONTIiE  CVM  LABA-- 
RON.'E  SVtE." 

Thus  the  testimony  of  the  Christian  fathers  and  of  the  monuments 
are  in  accord  Avith  reference  to  the  influence  of  Christianity  in  ame- 
liorating the  condition  of  slaves  under  the  Roman  Empire,  and  in 
effecting  their  gradual  emancipation.  It  was  by  the  operation  of 
the  law  of  love  which  was  promulgated  by  the  Founder. 

'  De  Rossi:   Inscrip.  CJirisL,  No.  62  (A.  D.  341),  p.  49. 

*  Garrucci :  Nuove  epigrafe  giudaiche  di  vigna  Randanini,  p.  9. 


liELATlON  TO  CIVIL  AND  MILITARY  LIFE.  479 


CHAPTER  III. 

RKLATION  (»F   THE    KARLY  CHUIICEI   TO  CIVIL  AND  MILITARY  UFK. 

TiiK  cliaiiujes  in  Roman  opinion  relative  to  the  family,  to  slavery, 

and  to  manual  labour,  had  not  been  effected  by  Christianity  alone. 

We  have  noted  tlie  iiiHuence  of  the  Stoical  philosophy  in  causing 

the   revolution.      To   what  extent  these  moditications  of  thought 

and  i)ractice  may  be  attril)utable  to   this  or  that  force  which  was 

silently    at    work    in    the     Roman    world    during    the    second    and 

third  centuries  may  not  be  (letermined.     The  change  is  indubitable. 

From  the  first  Christ iairity   had   insistcMl   ujx)!!   honourable    labour 

as  a  duty.     The  example  of  C-hrist  and  his  aijostles  is      „  . .,    ,, 
_        »  _  '  Cnnstlanlty 

positive;  the  teachings  of  the  Scriptures  are  clear  and      ciuouragod 

explicit.     The  slothful  servant  is  pictured  as  deserving      '*  °"'^' 

condemnation;  Paul,  the  tent-maker,  glories  in  his  ability  to  gain  a 

livelihood,  and  will  tiot  consent  to  be  a  burden  to  his  brethren.    The 

man  who  will  not  toil  may  not  eat  his  bread  in  peace.     "Diligent 

in  business  "  was  associated  with  "  serving  the  Lord." 

But  it  is  important  to  notice  the  relation  of  the  Church  to  certain 

trades  and  industries.     The}'  had  direct  influence  upon  the  type  of 

Christian  morality,  and  brought  the  teaching  of  the  Christians  and 

of  the  heathen  into  sharpest  contrast.     The  early  Church  was  beset 

by  adverse  influences  arising  from  the  prevalent  idolatry.   Adverse  influ- 

from  the  abounding  impurity,  and  from  the  corrupting  enws. 

exhibitions  connected  with  the  popular  amusements.      The  statues, 

temples,  and  altars  dedicated  to  an  innumerable  multitude  of  gods; 

tlie  reverence  in  which  sojue  of  these  were  held  by  the  people;  their 

almost  continuous  Avorship,   conducted   in  all    the  great  centers  of 

population,  enveloped  the  Christians  in  an   atmosphere  laden  with 

impurity.     The  failure  or  blank  refusal  to  jtarticipate  in  the  public 

worshii)  of  what  were  reituted  to  be  the  guardian  divini-   „    , 

1  ...  Tr.vinirpositicin 

ties  of  the  State  made  the  Christians  an  object  of  hate  of  the  chrtsi- 
and  suspicion,  and  subjected  them  to  the  charge  of  athe- 
ism. The  position  of  a  monotheistic  faith  and  of  an  absolute  relig- 
ion was  often  delicate  in  the  extreme.  To  show  themselves  loyal 
subjects  of  the  empire,  and  yet  uncompromising  in  their  allegiance 
to  Christ,   brought   daily    embarrassments   to   Christians.      Those 


480  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIA.N  LIFE. 

engaged  in  tlie  service  of  the  temples,  or  in  trades  connected 
directly  with  idolatrous  worship,  as  image  makers,  incense  dealers, 
etc.,  were  adjudged  by  the  Church  as  contributing  to  the  corruption 
of  the  i:)eople,  and  were  ineligible  to  membership. 

The  testimony  of  the  fathers  on  this  point  is  clear.  Tertullian 
Certain  trades  says:  "I  take  it  that  that  trade  which  pertains  to  the 
condemned.  very  soul  and  spirit  of  idols,  which  pampers  every 
demon,  falls  under  the  charge  of  idolatry.  ,  .  ,  The  dealer  in  frank- 
incense is  a  s^'mething  even  more  serviceable  toward  demons,  for 
idolatry  is  more  easily  carried  on  without  the  idol  than  without 
the  ware  of  the  frankincense  seller,  .  .  .  No  art,  then,  no  profession, 
no  trade  which  administers  either  to  the  equipping  or  making  of 
idols,  can  be  free  from  the  name  of  idolatry."  '  "  Again,  can  you 
have  denied  with  the  tongue  Avhat  you  confess  with  the  hand  ?  Can 
Tertuiiian's  .vou  unmake  by  word  what  you  make  by  your  deed  ? 
opinion.  Q^^^  you,  who  make  so  many,  preach  one  God  ?     Can 

you,  who  make  false  ones,  preach  the  true  God  ?  "  ^  "  For  it  matters 
not  whether  you  erect  or  equip;  if  you  have  embellished  his  temple, 
altar,  or  niche;  if  you  have  pressed  out  gold-leaf,  or  have  wrought 
his  insignia,  or  even  his  house;  work  of  that  kind,  which  confers 
not  shape,  but  authority,  is  more  important." '  "  Whatever  guilt 
idolatry  incurs  must  necessarily  be  imparted  to  every  artiiicer  of 
The  Apostolic  every  idol."  ^  With  this  teaching  the  Apostolic  Consti- 
Cdnstitutions.  tutions  are  in  harmony.  "  If  a  maker  of  idols  come,  let 
him  either  leave  off  his  emplojanent  or  let  him  be  rejected."  * 
Such  is  the  consistent  and  uniform  teaching  of  the  early  Church. 
The  sin  of  idolatry  was  a  constant  threat,  and  warnings  against 
the  evil  by  the  leaders  of  the  Church,  both  before  and  after 
Constantine,  are  positive  and  frequent.  The  Christians  were  for- 
bidden to  do  any  thing  which  could  directly  or  remotely  abet  or 
compromise  with  tliis  besetting  sin  of  the  Roman  world.  Like 
teaching  is  found  with  respect  to  those  employments  which  were 
connected  with    the  eorruptinsr   practices   and   amuse- 

Public  amuse-  ^        »     r 

ments  inter-  ments  of  heathen  society.  It  included  stage  actors, 
dieted.  teachers  of  the  art,  procurers  and  panderers,  gladiators, 

those  employed  in  the  public  shows,  soothsa^^ers,  minstrels,  dan- 
cei's,  etc. 

The  Roman  drama  had  become  fearfully  corrupt.  While  nobk 
sentiments  are  occasionally  found  in  the  plays  represented  before 

'  de  IdnloJ..,  c.  2.  ^  Ibid.,  c.  6.  '  Ibid.,  c.  8. 

■•  fbid.,  c.  4.    "  Quicqiiid  idolatria  commiltit,  in  artificem  queraamqiie  et  cuiiisciimque 
idoli  depuletur  nccesse  est." 
*  Cons.  Apos.,  1.  viii,  c.  32. 


ItELATIOX  TO  CIVIL  AND  .MILITARY  LIFL.  481 

an  avcrai^i'    aiidicncc,    the   resultant    iurtucTicc    was   dclmsing,    and 

actors    wt'ir    luld    in    \i>\v    cstccni.       I'ndcr    tin-    later  .  ,,., 

Low  condition 

reimldic,  tlie  utterances  of  tlie  stajxe  were  ol'ten  laden  of  the  lioman 
with  ridieule  of  the  jrods,  and  ha<l  in  no  small  dci^ree 
enconrajjjed  the  i^rowinj^  seei»ticisin.  Bill  undtr  the  »iii])ire 
tlie  theatre  had  been  LC'"eatly  de_Lrra<led  by  the  jdililic  shows  and 
popular  exliibitions.  While  the  en<trinous  amphitheatres  were 
crowded  fur  many  successive  days  to  witness  the  gladiatorial 
contests,  the  races  and  games,  the  entire  seating  capacity  of  the 
great  theatres  was  less  than  50,000;  and  in  ordinary  times  the 
theatre  of  Pompey,  with  a  capacity  of  iVjSSO,  could  accommodate 
all  visitors.  80  depraved  had  become  tlie  KcMuan  taste  that 
even  this  small  number  could  be  gathered  only  by  exhibitions 
of  the  lowest  species  of  the  drama,  light  comedy  and  mime.  The 
indecencies  of  these  representations  were  shocking  in  the  extreme. 
The  boldest  impiety,  the  most  shameless  imtiiodcsty,  the  grossest 
vulgarity  awakened  deafening  applause  from  the  debauched  ])opu- 
lace.'  Nor  was  the  character  of  these  representations  much  imi)roved 
in  the  Eastern  Empire,  even  in  the  time  of  Justinian.  The  ukc  dograda- 
lowest  forms  of  social  life  were  there  presented.  The  tion  in  the  East, 
most  sacred  relations  were  travestied.  The  unfaithfulness  of  hus- 
banil  or  wife  was  the  fi'cquent  subject  of  rei)resentation,  in  which 
the  escapades  of  the  panderer  or  adulterer  were  occasions  of  uidim- 
ited  mirtli.  Snatches  from  the  indecorous  songs  heard  in  the  the- 
atre were  repeated  upon  the  streets  to  p(;ison  the  imagination  and 
bi'eak  down  all  moral  restraint.* 

True,  a  few  nobler  characters  of  heathendom  felt  the  degi'ading 
influence  of  these  foi'ms  of  dramatic  representation,  and  struggle<l 
to  impi'ove  the  public  taste.  But  they  were  entirely  impotent  to 
arrest  the  sweeping  tide  of  corruption.  ISIoivover  high  tragedy 
was  never  ])opular  with  even  the  better  classes  of  the  Hitrh  tmjredy 
Roman  w(»rld.  They  preferred  the  lighter  works.  The  "ni^'P"''"". 
degeneracy  of  the  later  plays  was  manifest.  Tin-  introduction  of 
music  and  the  dance  soon  caused  the  rejiresiMitations  to  assume 
the  form  of  the  jiantomime,  which  becami',  in  turn,  the  most  cor- 
rupting form  of  theatrical  rein-escntation.  So  gi-nei'ally  was  the 
immoral  influence  of  the  di'ama  recognised  that  actors  i^pai  disahiii- 
were  generally  under  social  and  legal  di.sability.  Often  ties  of  actors, 
they  had  no  greater  rights  than  slaves  or  freedmen.  Hence  it  came 
to  ])ass  that  the  great  mass  of  players  were  fi'om  these  classes,  stmkcn 
into  the  deepest  degradation,  with  few  if  any  legal  privileges.* 

'  FricHlandor :  SHtenyeschichte  Rotiu.,  Bd.  ii,  ss.  ."JO  1-395. 
"  Jbid.,  ss.  396,  397.  »  Ibid.,  83.  424,  seq. 

31 


483  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 

As  miglit  be  expected,  the  purity  of  tlie  Church  was  constantly 
threatened  by  these  exhibitions,  and  stringent  rules  were  enacted 
respecting  the  classes  who  were  connected  with  theatrical  represent- 
ations, and  the  frequenting  of  the  plays.  Tertullian  finds  in  all 
the  shows  and  spectacles  alike  a  taint  of  idolatry,  and  is  vigorous 
Ai.  u  „  f  •  .    ill  warnino^  aofainst  their  contaminating  influence.     "It 

All  snows  taint-  &       »  o 

ed  with  idoia-  may  be  grand  or  mean,  no  matter,  any  circus  proces- 
^^'  sion  whatever  is  offensive  to  God.     Though  there  be 

few  images  to  grace  it,  there  is  idolatry  in  one;  though  there  be  no 
more  than  a  single  sacred  car,  it  is  a  chariot  of  Jupiter;  any  thing 
of  idolatry  whatever,  whether  meanly  arranged  or  modestly  rich 
and  gorgeous,  taints  it  in  its  origin."  *  So  also  in  the  dramatic 
representations  and  the  combats  generalh\  Moreover  he  urges 
the  Church  to  refrain  from  these  on  the  ground  of  their  immodesty 
and  impurity;  also  because  the  Christian  faith  and  life  are  there 
Christianity  travestied  and  brought  into  public  ridicule.  "We 
travestied.  ought  to  detest  these  heathen  meetings  and  assem- 
blies, if  on  no  other  account  than  that  there  God's  name  is  blas- 
phemed. .  .  .  Shall  you  not,  then,  shun  those  tiers  where  the 
enemies  of  Christ  assemble,  that  seat  of  all  that  is  pestilential, 
and  the  very  superincumbent  atmosphere  all  impure  with  wicked 
cries?"* 

Like  representations  of  the  character  of  the  public  shows  are 
Cyprian's  state-  n^ade  by  C^'piian.  In  his  epistle  to  Donatus  he  draws 
.ments.  r^  fearful  sketch  of  the  immoralities  of  his  time.     "  The 

whole  world  is  wet  with  mutual  Ijlood.  .  .  .  Crime  is  not  only  com- 
mitted, but  taught.  ...  It  is  the  tragic  buskin  which  relates  in 
verse  the  crimes  of  ancient  daj's.  ...  In  the  mimes  .  .  .  adultery 
is  learned  while  it  is  seen;  .  .  .  the  matron  who  perchance  has  gone 
to  the  spectacle  a  modest  woman  returns  from  it  immodest.  .  .  . 
Men  grow  into  praise  by  virtue  of  their  crimes;  and  the  more  he  is 
degraded,  the  more  skilful  is  he  regarded.  .  .  .  The  Judge  sells  his 
sentence;  .  .  .  there  is  no  fear  about  the  laws  when  the  sentence  can 
be  bought  off  for  money;  ...  it  is  a  crime  now  among  the  guilt}^ 
to  be  innocent." '  Equally  with  Tertullian  he  finds  in  all  the 
public  shows  a  gross  idolatry,  and  is  faithful  in  warning  against 
their  contaminating  influences.  The  spirit  of  his  teaching  is  that  of 
his  master.  "  Idolatry  is  the  mother  of  all  the  public  amusements. 
.  .  .  Thus  the  devil,  who  is  their  original  contriver,  because  he  knew 
that  naked  idolatry  would  by  itself  excite  repugnance,  associated  it 
with  public  exhibitions,  that  for  the  sake  of  their  attraction  it  might 

'  de  Spedac,  c.  7.  «  /^^y?.,  c.  22. 

^  ad  Dunat.,  cc.  6,  7,  10. 


REI.A'IION  T.)  Civil.  AND  MIMTAKV  LIFE.  483 

be  lovi'il."  '      He  positively  forbids  not  only  actors   but  teaclicrs  of 
the  histrionic  art  from  communieatiiitf  with  the  Church.    .  j^ 
"For  he  cannot   apjiear  to  have    <;iven  it    (the   actor's   ert    from    the 
art)   up   who  substitutes  others  in   his  jjlace,  and  who,       ^^*^  ' 
instead   of   liimsi'lf   alone,  sii|i])Iics   many  in  his  stead.'"     Cyprian 
recognises  the  hartbiess  of  the  condition  of  such  as  liave  left  lucra- 
tive callings  to  accept  the    faith  of  Christ;    but  the   earnestness 
and    wise   provisions    of    the    Church    for   such    are    clearly   illus- 
trated  in  the  same    connection:     "Hut  if  such  a  one   Relief ofhard- 
alleges  poverty  and  the  necessity  of  small  means,  his  ''•''p- 
necessity  also  can  be  assisted  among  the  rest  who  are  maintained 
by  the  su]»])ort  of  the  Church;  if  he  be  content,  that  is,  with  very 
frugal  but  innocent  food."' 

Tlu'  Apostolic  Constitutions  contain  like  teacliing.  "If  one  be- 
longing to  the  theater  come,  whether  it  be  man  or  woman,  .  ,  . 
either  let  him  leave  off  his  em])loyments,  or  let  him  bt-  rejected."* 
The  decisions  of  the  Councils  are  entirely  harmonious  conciiiary  ac- 
with  this  general  teaching  of  tlie  pre-Constantine  fathers  """• 
and  of  the  Constitutions.  The  Council  of  Elvira  (probably  in  A.  D. 
305  or  30G)  enacted  that  actors  and  soothsayers  should  be  received 
to  baptism  only  on  condition  that  the}-  leave  their  arts,  and  do  not 
return  to  them.  In  case  of  return  they  are  to  be  rejected  from 
the  Church."  Like  action  -was  taken  by  the  third  Council  of  Car- 
thage, A.  D.  397. 

The  un])aralleled  greed  of  the  Roman  populace  for  shows  had 
been  strengthened  by  the  enormous  expenditures  of  Loyg  of  gp^^^ 
some  of  the  emperors,  whose  usurpation  or  vileness  of  tacies. 
character  must  be  liidden  under  a  show  of  public  munificence. 
Probabh^  no  period  of  human  history  presents  an  array  of  trades 
and  callings  to  prop  up  a  failing  faith,  and  to  pander  to  a  vitiated 
taste,  equal  to  that  of  the  emi)ire  <luring  the  first  three  and  a  lialf  cen- 
turies of  the  Christian  era.  J>y  a  law  of  spiritual  life,  as  the  purity 
and  strength  of  faith  declined  the  machinery  of  religion  became 
more  complicated.  The  failure  of  the  religions  in<ligenous  to  Italy 
led  the  peoi)le  to  look  to  the  distant  and  the  unknown   „ 

,     ,  ,  M  1  •     1  Superstition 

for  help;  the  Avild  niflux  of  worshi])s  and  rites  from  the   multiplies  th.» 

most  distant  regions  multiplied  the  numbers  devoted   '^"*^'*' 

to  trades  necessary   to  supply   the  demands  of  every  cultus,  an<l 

'  de  f^pecfac,  c.  4.  "Wliile  lliis  treatise  is  usually  rejrarded  as  of  doubtful  genuine- 
ness, it  is  aniniated  l\v  llie  jrenernl  spirit  of  Cyprian's  works. 

'  nd  Euchrat.,  c.  2.  »  //^/,/  4  Const.  Apostol,  1.  viii,  c.  32. 

*  Canon  62:  "Quod  si  facere  conlia  interdiclum  tentaverint,  projiciaulur  ab  ec- 
clesia." 


484  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 

greatly  added  to  the  enibarrassments  of  the  early  Church.  Prac 
ticers  of  curious  arts,  uiagicians,  diviners,  enchanters,  astrol 
ogers;  minstrels,  harpers,  dancers;  charioteers,  racers,  gladiators, 
curators  of  the  games;  makers  of  amulets,  foi'tune-tellers,  wander 
ing beggars — against  this  untold  multitude  who  directly  or  indirectlv 
were  connected  with  the  prevalent  polytheism,  or  sought  a  liveli- 
hood by  ministering  to  vitiated  tastes,  the  Church  set  its  face  as  a 
Severe  disci-  ^^^t-  Eligibility  to  baptism  required  the  absolute  relin- 
piiiie.  quishment  of  them  all,   and   indulgence  in  them  by  a 

member  of  the  Church  was  visited  b}^  severe  penalties.  The  disci- 
pline of  the  Church  was  strict,  but  oftentimes  it  Avas  unable  to 
stem  the  fearful  tide  of  corruption. 

Another  source  of  temptation  was  the  military  life.    The  relation 

of  the  Church  to  the  bearing  of  arms  was  not  easv  to  be 
Aversion    to  ^  ' 

military  ser-  determined.  Here  also,  as  with  respect  to  public  or 
^'*^'^'  official  business,  the  ])revalent  expectation  of  the  speedy 

coming  of  Christ  exerted  wide  influence.  So  evanescent  and  trivial 
did  the  affairs  of  earthly  governments  appear,  when  contrasted  with 
the  glories  of  the  kingdom  which  Christ  was  to  set  up,  that  the 
Christians  of  the  second  and  third  centuries  regarded  the  policies 
and  activities  of  the  state  as  unworthy  of  their  serious  thought. 
Patriotism  and  loyalty,  the  usual  motives  inducing  subjects  to  bear 
arms,  were  felt  to  a  less  degree  by  men  whose  first  allegiance 
was  due  to  an  invisible  kingdom,  Avhose  sway  would  soon  be  uni- 
versal. Doubtless  also  the  teaching  of  Christ  to  avoid  strife,  to 
forgive  injuries,  to  bless  and  curse  not,  to  do  good  unto  all  men,  to 
resist  not  evil,  cultivated  in  his  followers  aversion  to  arms  and  to 
the  militaiy  life.  It  is  evident  that  Tertullian  was  affected  by  this 
Tainted  with  view,  but  still  more  by  his  abhorrence  of  idolatry.  In 
idolatry.  ^^le  military  life,  as  in  all  the  various  employments  con- 

nected with  the  numberless  religions  of  his  day,  he  sees  the  taint  of 
idolatiy.  The  well  known  picture  of  a  Christian  soldier  taking  off 
the  laurel  chaplet  which  had  been  bestowed  by  imperial  favoui-,  the 
jeering  of  the  multitude,  the  murmur  arresting  the  attention  of  the 
tribune,  the  confession,  "  I  am  a  Christian,"  the  appeal  to  higher 
authority,  the  disrobing  of  the  soldier,  the  thrusting  into  i)rison 
to  await  martyrdom,  Tertullian  sketches  with  loving  interest,  and 
the  course  of  the  soldier  meets  his  thorough  approval.'  This  i)ar- 
ticular  case  leads  him  to  the  discussion  of  the  general  question 
of  the  propriety  or  right  of  a  Christian  to  engage  in  the  military 
life.  "  Shall  it  be  held  lawful  to  make  an  occupation  of  the  sword, 
when  the  Loi-d  proclaims  that  he  who  uses  the  sword  shall  perish 
'  de  Corona  Mil.:  c.  1. 


RELATION  TO  CIVIL  AND  .MILITARY  LIFE.  48.') 

by  the  sword  ?     And  shall  the  son  of  peace  take  jtart  in  tlie  hatth' 

when  it  does  not  become  him  even  to  sue  at  hiw  ?    And   ^j^j^  contrary 

shall  he  npplv  the  chain,  and  the  jirison,  and  the  tor-  t*»  Chrjsi's 
*  1  .1      '  1  ,         1       •  ,    ,1  teaching, 

tare,  and  tlie  })unisnnient,  who  is  not  tlie  avenger  even 

of  his  own  wrongs?  Shall  he,  forsooth,  either  keep  watch-service 
for  others  more  than  for  Christ,  or  shall  he  do  it  on  the  Lord's  dav 
when  he  does  not  even  do  it  for  Ciii-jst  himself':'  And  shall  he  keej) 
guard  before  the  temples  which  he  lias  renounced  ?  Touching  this 
primary  aspect  of  the  (piestion,  as  to  the  lawfulness  even  of  a  mili- 
tary life  itself,  I  shall  not  add  more."  ' 

But  j>laiidy  this  ^lontanistic  principle  could  not  be  made  practical 
in  the  Roman  Empire,  While  the  military  spirit  had  Decadence  of 
greatly  declined  during  the  closing  decades  of  the  repub-  luH'tiry  spirit, 
lie,  and  in  the  fii-st  century  of  the  empii-e  scarcely  a  remnant  of  the 
better  classes  could  be  found  among  the  soldiery,''  there  was,  never- 
theless, a  general  legal  obligation  to  bear  arms.  In  this  state  of 
unpopularity  of  the  militaiy  calling  it  is  evident  that  an  iri-egidar 
anil  unjust  levy  would  tend  to  i)ass  by  the  higher 
classes  and  fall  with  unequal  severity  upon  the  burgess 
population,  from  which  a  large  proportion  of  Christians  had 
been  gathered.  That  many  were  thus  pressed  into  the  army  is  evi- 
dent fi-om  the  testimony  of  Tertullian  liiniself.*  The  continuance 
of  these  in  the  service  was  a  matter  of  necessity,  since  their 
desertion  must  have  brought  upon  the  Church  still  greater  sus- 
picion and  persecution.     Even  Tertullian  regards  the  case  of  those 

who  embraced   Christianity  after  they  had  entered  the 

...  ,.^  J   ,.      .  ,    .         ,         Milder  views, 

military  hie  as  very  delicate,  yet  appears  to  advise  the 

abandonment  of  the  calling,  and  the  acceptance  of  the  consequences.' 
Origen  was  early  inclined  to  s))eak  with  great  severity  res])ecting 
the  projji-iety  of  bearing  arms,  but  afterward  admitted  that  it  might 
be  possible  and  even  honourable.  Also  the  evidence  is  convincing 
that  in  the  reign  of  M.  Aurelius  many  Christian  soldiers  were  in 
tlie  Roman  army,  and  under  Diocletian  high  offices  were  filK'd  l»y 
nK'ml)ei's  of  the  Church. 

The  Apostolic  Con.stitutions  also  certainly  provide  for  the  recep- 
tion of  soldiers  l>y  baptism.    They  were  to  be  examined,   provision    for 
and  taught  to  do  no  injustice,  to  accuse  no  man  falsely,   bapiism. 
and  to  be  content  with  their  wages.*      The   Nicene  decision   has 

'  '/'-  Corona  Mil. :  c.  11.  de  Idol,  c.  19. 

'  Mommscn:   Hist,  of  Rome,  New  York,  1872,  vol.  iv,  p.  581.  M/w/o^..  co.  .17,  -J  2. 

•*  It  liiis  been  charged  by  Gibbon,  and  some  others,  that  TertuIUan  leaclies  the  duty  of 
desertion.   The  passage  usually  cited  ((fc  Corona  ML,  c.  11)  can  hai'dly  bo  so  interpreted. 
*  Const.  AposL,  1.  viii,  c.  'i'2. 


486  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF   CPIRISTIAN  LIFE. 

occasioned  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  its  purport.  It  is  be- 
Decision  of  Ni-  Heved,  liowever,  by  tlie  ablest  commentators  that  the 
cene  council,  twelfth  canon  was  not  aimed  at  the  military  calling, 
but  rather  against  those  who  had  forsaken  it,  and  were  attempting 
to  reenter  it  by  means  of  bribery  or  corruption.  The  whole  con- 
duct of  Constantine  toward  the  soldiery  implies  that  military  life 
was  no  longer  under  the  ban  of  the  Church,  but  was  regarded  as 
permissible. 

The  changed  relations  of  the  Church  to  the  government,  during 
and  after  the  fourth  century,  brought  corresponding  changes  in  the 
opinion  of  the  Church  fathers  respecting  the  lawfulness  of  accepting 
offices  both  civil  and  military.  The  union  of  Church  and  State 
brought  laxity  of  discipline  and  life.  Zeal  which  should  have  been 
manifested  to  maintain  the  high  moral  and  religious  purity  of  the 
Church  was  shown  only  in  the  defence  of  its  orthodoxy.  The 
masses  of  the  heathen  world,  which  became  nominally  Christian 
with  little  change  in  belief  or  life,  caused  discipline  to  decay  and 
the  tone  of  piety  to  decline.  The  subsequent  action,  both  civil 
and  ecclesiastical,  seems  to  be  inspired  by  a  new  spirit.  The  popu- 
larity of  the  ecclesiastical  life,  exempt  as  it  was  from  many  services 
and  disabilities,  and  the  increasing  passion  for  monastic  retirement, 
compelled  the  government  to  guard  itself  against  these  incentives 
to  the  desertion  of  public  trusts,  especially  to  prevent  the  disintegra- 
tion of  the  army  through  withdrawal  of  its  members  in  order  to  enter 
the  less  dangerous  and  toilsome  avocations  of  the  Church.  Hence 
the  edict  of  Honorius  forbade  any  one  who  was  bound  to  the  mili- 
tary life  to  take  upon  himself  any  clerical  calling,  or  think  to  excuse 
himself  from  the  public  service  under  pretence  of  entering  upon  the 
ecclesiastical  life.  With  this  principle  the  canons  of  the  councils 
generally  agreed,  since  they  generally  refused  ordination  to  any  who 
had  entered  a  military  life  after  baptism,  and  in  most  cases  none 
who  had  been  soldiers  were  admitted  to  the  superior  offices  of  the 
Church. 

The  monumental  evidence  is  entirely  confirmatory  of  the  docu- 
Monumentai  mcutary,  and  furnishes  a  very  interesting  comment  on 
evidence.  the  relation  of  the  Church  to  military  life  and  on  the 

proportion  of  Christians  enlisted  in  this  service.  Collections  of  in- 
scriptions, made  at  different  and  widely  separated  parts  of  the 
empii-e,  show  a  great  disparity  in  the  number  of  pagan  and  Christian 
soldiers.  Twenty  years  ago  the  studies  of  Le  Blant  on  the  collec- 
tions of  three  epigraphists,  Reinesius,  Steiner,  and  Mommsen,  which 
were  made  in  a  region  reaching  from  lower  Italy  north  to  the  Rhine 
border,  resulted  as  follows:    Of  10,500  pagan  inscriptions,  545,  or 


RELATION  TO  CIVIL  AND  :\IILITAIIY  LIFE.  4^7 

0.42  per  cent.,  contained  c))itai)lis  of  soldiers;  wliilc  of  4,7:54  C'liristian 
insc-iiptions  only  "20,  or  .55  of  one  ])er  cent.,  contained  any  reference 
to  the  military  life.'  In  Gaul,  as  in  Italy,  Spain,  and  Africa,  the 
title  of  soldier  is  rarely  found  inscribed  on  the  tombs  of  the  Christ- 
ian dead.  While  this  may  be  i)ar(ially  attributable  to  the  aversion 
of  the  early  Christians  to  indul<^e  in  fulsome  descriptions  of  the  busi- 
ness of  the  departed  dead,  no  reasonable  doubt  can  be  entertained 
that  the  fewness  of  such  inscriptions  is  largely  due  to  the  influence 
of  a  reliLfion  wliose  Fouuih-r  taught  sul)mission  ratlier  tiian  resis- 
tance, and  the  fundamental  law  of  whose  kingdom  was  love. 

•  Le  Blaut:  Manuel  d" Epi<jniphit  chrelienne,  etc..  Pari,-*,  18G9,  pp.  15,  16. 


488  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 


CHAPTER  lY. 

CHARITIES  IX  THE  EARLY  CHURCH. 

The  ancient  heathen  world  presented  a  sharjj  contrast  in  the  social 
and  civil  conditions  of  its  peoples.  The  many  slaves  and  clients, 
dependent  upon  masters  and  lords  for  their  suj^port,  tended  to  dim- 
inish tlie  number  of  paupers  who  must  receive  aid  at  the  hands  of 
the  government.  While  the  system  of  slavery  and  clientage  thus 
lessened  the  demands  for  the  practice  of  active  charity, 
heathen  na-  large  numbers  of  the  indigent  were  assisted  at  the  pub- 
'°"^'  lie  expense,  and  many  instances  of  noble  private  gifts 

for  the  relief  of  the  unfortunate  are  recorded  by  the  historians,  and 
are  fully  attested  by  the  surviving  monuments.  In  Attica  Solon 
and  his  successors  had  incorporated  into  their  legislation  the  princi- 
ple that  it  is  the  duty  of  the  state  to  provide  for  its  poor  and  un- 
fortunate; and  very  early  in  the  history  of  the  Roman  Republic  the 
sums  expended  in  the  gratuitous  distribution  of  corn  to  the  people 
constituted  an  important  item  in  the  public  budget.  The  number 
thus  receiving  relief  at  Rome  alone,  at  the  beginning  of  the  empire, 
was  320,000,  or  more  than  one  fourth  of  the  entire  population  of 
the  cit}'.  Under  the  vigourous  policy  of  Julius  Ciesar  this  had 
been  reduced  to  150,000,  but  under  Augustus  it  had  risen  to 
200,000,  and  under  the  Antonines  had  increased  to  the  enormous 
number  of  500,000.  This  gratuitous  distribution  of  corn,  bread,  oil, 
and  salt,  which  began  at  Rome,  extended  to  many  of  the  great  cit- 
ies and  was  probably  practised  even  in  many  of  the  smaller  towns 
of  the  empire.' 

The  writings  of  the  Stoics  had  inculcated  charity.  In  some  of 
Teachings  of  these  are  found  noble  precepts  which  seem  to  rival  the 
thesioics.  most  exalted  teachings  of  the  New  Testament.  The 
fraternity  of  the  race,  and  the  corresponding  duty  of  relieving  the 
Avoes  of  all,  are  sometimes  taught  with  great  distinctness  and  en- 
forced with  much  eloquence.  When  Cicero  says,  "  Nature  ordains 
that  a  man  should  wish  the  good  of  every  man,  whoever  he  may  be, 
for  this  very  reason,  that  he  is  a  man;""  and  Seneca  affirms,  "I 
know  that  my  country  is  the  Avorld,  and  my  guardians   are  the 

1  Mommsen:  IIM.  of  Rome,  vol.  iv,  p.  50L     Leckey:    Op.  cit ,  vol.  ii,  pp.  74,  75. 
*  de  officils,  iii,  6. 


CIIAltlTIES  IN  Tin-:  EARLY  CHURCH.  489 

gods;"'  ami  Luciaii  siiiLjs  of  a  tiinc  when  "tlu'  liiimati  raci' will 
cast  aside  its  weapons,  and  when  all  nations  will  learn  to  love,"''  we 
seem  to  have  in  this  j»hilosoj»hy  a  basis  for  broadest  benevoleiiee  and 
universal  eharity.  Nor  can  it  ])e  denied  that  some  of  the  purest  and 
best  men  of  heathenism  belonijed  to  the  Stoic  seho(»l,  and  were  at 
times  loud  in  their  protests  ai^ainst  injustice  and  cruelty.  Vel  in 
ohis  system  was  recoi^nised  a  principle  which  must  be  fatal  to  higii 
ami  continuous  charity.  The  duty  of  su))i)ressin<'  all 
emotion  would  result  in  the  extinction  or  the  very 
sources  of  true  benevolent  activity.  Indifference  in  the  preseiici*  of 
suffering,  or  the  reckoning  of  every  condition  of  human  experience 
as  unworthy  the  thought  of  the  true  man,  necessarily  carried  with 
it  indifference  to  the  alleviation  of  woes,  and  produced  the  strange 
contradictions  presented  in  the  teachings,  life,  and  death  of  some  of 
the  great  masters  of  this  philosophy. 

The  stress  of  poverty,  as  well  as  the  desire  for  the  jtroinotion  of 
favourite  schemes,  had  resulted  in  the  organization  of  The  clubs  and 
numerous  clubs  and  associations  throughout  the  Roman  KuiWs. 
Empire.  They  were  in  great  variety — social,  political,  industrial, 
and  religious;  yet  in  each  was  found  au  element  of  mutual  aid  in 
case  of  distress.  By  weekly  or  monthly  contributions  of  the  mem- 
bers, and  by  liberal  gifts  from  the  wealthy  whom  they  counted 
among  their  jtatrons,  a  fund  was  secured  which  was  placed  in  charge 
of  curators  to  be  used  for  the  common  benefit.  These  colleij'm  also 
cared  for  the  burial  of  their  members  by  the  apju-opriation  of  a 
given  sum,  usually  dependent  upon  the  rank  of  the  deceased,  a  por- 
tion of  whicli  was  spent  at  the  funeral  banquet,  and  for  the  distri- 
bution of  breail  and  wine  among  the  poorer  members  of  the  guild. 
Such  was  the  Roman  care  for  the  dead, and  for  keeping  alive  their 
memory,  that  the  rich  often  made  large  donations  to  An  element  of 
the  collegia  upon  tlie  special  condition  that  the  anniver-  seinslmess. 
sary  of  their  death  should  be  celebrated  in  a  worthy  manner  by  sac- 
rifices, assemblies  at  the  tomb,  libations,  and  distrilnition  of  money, 
bread,  and  wine  among  those  who  might  be  present  at  the  ceremo- 
nies. So  common  was  it  to  provide  for  the  burial,  and  for  celebrat- 
ing the  anniversary  of  the  <leath  by  ap])ropriate  observances,  that  it 
may  be  called  a  Roman  custom.  It  furnishes  an  explanation  of  the 
building  of  magnificent  tombs  along  the  Appian  Way,  and  of  tlie 
erection  of  convenient  cellrp,  ui)on  sites  sometimes  of  great  extent  and 
costliness,  connecte<l  with  which  were  altars  and  bampieting  halls 
for  holding  the  burial  feasts. 

The  collegia,  especially  the  burial  clubs,  had  a  most  important 
'  ik  vita  beatu,  xx.  '  Fkarnalia,  vi. 


490  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 

influence  upon  the  early  Christian  societies,  and  are  intimately  con- 
influence  of  nected  with  the  history  of  Christian  charities.  The 
?hristiaucha°r^  heathen  inscriptions  plainly  use  language  which  has 
ities.  sometimes  been  supposed  to  be  peculiar  to  the  Church,  as 

brother  and  sister,  father  and  mother,  as  applied  to  members  of  the 
guild,  or  to  founders,  liberal  patrons,  or  chief  officers  of  the  same. 
Doubtless  it  was  wdthin  the  walls  of  the  schola,  or  at  the  gather- 
ings in  the  hired  room  of  some  humble  Roman  tavern,  that  the  vast 
body  of  artisans,  excluded  as  the}^  were  from  all  hope  of  political 
trust  or  preferment,  felt  the  importance  of  individual  life  and  expe- 
rienced the  quickening  power  of  a  common  interest.  This  liberal- 
izing influence  was  doubtless  one  source  of  the  jealousy  of  the  em- 
perors, and  led  to  the  partial  suppression  of  the  meetings  of  the 
guilds.  In  these,  vastly  more  than  in  any  form  of  heathen  worship, 
is  found  a  measurable  resemblance  to  the  methods  and  spirit  of  the 
Christian  Church.  It  has  often  been  remarked  by  students  of  early 
_^      ^     ^       Christianity  that  in  the  Christian  societies  alone,  of  all 

The  Church  a  •'  .  ,  ' 

true  communi-  the  Roman  world,  a  true  community  was  realized.  Both 
^^'  in  the  religious  and  political  life  of  that  period  this  was 

totally  unknown.  The  mass  of  the  citizens  were  valuable  only  as  they 
contributed  to  the  welfare  of  the  state;  and  the  religious  worship, 
supported  by  the  government,  had  less  interest  for  the  masses  of  the 
people  than  had  the  daily  shows  in  the  ami^hitheatre.  The  thought 
of  the  personal  duty  of  charity,  or  of  communal  benefits,  was  foreign 
to  the  pagan  mind.  It  was,  therefore,  impossible  that  either  the  re- 
lief afl^orded  to  the  needy  by  monthly  distribution  of  corn,  or  the  lar- 
gesses of  the  emperors,  or  the  support  given  by  masters  to  slaves,  or 
by  patrons  to  clients,  or  by  the  numerous  guilds  to  their  members 
could  be  of  the  nature  of  a  pure  and  genuine  charity.  Through 
„     ^       ^       each  and  all  was  diffused  the  taint  of  selfishness.     The 

Heathen  char- 
ity tainted  with  largesses  were  at  times  bestowed  to  allay  popular  clam- 
seiflshness.  ^^^^.^  ^j,  ^^  \]{^q.  the  crimes  of  an  ambitious  usurper;  the 
distribution  of  corn  was  often  made  in  order  to  relieve  the  hunger 
of  a  rabble  which  might  otherwise  precipitate  a  bloody  revolution; 
the  monthly  contributions  and  intimate  association  of  the  clubs  were 
for  the  benefit  of  members  of  the  guild  alone.  The  Stoic  philosophy 
failed  when  tested  by  the  adverse  condition  of  the  Roman  world, 
and  its  teachings,  however  noble  in  themselves,  were  inadequate  to 
purify  the  awful  corruptions  of  society  or  alleviate  the  sore  distress 
and  poverty.  In  its  ultimate  analysis  this  philosophy  was  an  edu- 
cation of  pride,  and  tended  to  a  sublime  egotism.'     Its  pantheistic 

1  Conyboare  and  Howsou :  Life  and  Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  6tli  ed.,  New  York,  1 858, 
vol.  i,  p.  368. 


CHARITIES  IX  THE  EAULY  CIHIK  II.  491 

priiu'iples  also  dotractcd  from  the  ditjnity  and  sacrodiicss  of  individ- 
ual iH'int";',  and  ruuM  therefore  furnish  no  solid  ground  for  genuine 
c'harity. 

Christian  charity  was  a  necessary  outflow  from  the  'ulv.i  which 
lav  at  the  very  source  of  the  system,  namely,  the  king-  ^ 
dom  of  God,  which  is  a  community  of  men  who  have  Uon  of  ciirist- 
been  reconciled  to  (Jod  in  Christ,  whose  law  is  a  law  of  ""^  '"^"^' 
love.'  Tills  law  is  tlu'  supreme  rule  of  action  in  this  conununity; 
lience  the  sellish  elenu'nt,  which  tainted  nearly  every  system  of  relief 
in  the  lieathen  world,  is  eliminated,  and  the  charity  is  practiced  in  the 
name  of  Christ  who  came  to  realize  the  kingdom  of  heaven  amonsf 
men.  It  is,  therefore,  done  unto  men  not  simply  to  relieve  from 
present  poverty  and  need,  but  much  more  because  of  their  relations 
to  the  new  kingdom,  which  is  also  to  be  an  everlasting  kingdoTu,  of 
which  each,  however  lowly,  may  be  a  subject.  The  selling  of  all 
that  he  had  and  giving  to  the  i)oor  was  the  condition  imposed  by 
Christ  upon  the  young  rich  man  in  order  that  he  might  become  a 
member  of  this  community,  and  thus  feel  that  he  had  richer  pos- 
sessions in  sharing  in  the  experiences  of  the  whole  body  of  believers. 
Christ's  own  example  is  that  which  he  would  have  his  followers  imi- 
tate. It  is  the  Samaritan's  catholicity  of  spirit  which  receives  his 
special  approval.  He  leaves  the  society  of  his  immediate  family  to 
become  the  friend  of  publicans  and  sinners.  He  vit»lates  the  arti- 
ficial proprieties  of  his  nation  to  instruct  the  woman  of  Samaria  at 
the  well,  or  to  heal  the  afflicted  S^'ropluenician. 

This  broader  s[)irit  and  deeper  significance  of  charity  fouml  ex 
cmpliflcation  from  the  very  beginning  of  Christ's  ]ml»lic  ministry. 
Germs  of  the  Ijcneficent  institutions  which  have  been  to  the  great 
honour  of  the  Church  are  found  in  the  lifetime  of  Christ  in  the 
circle  of  serving  women  surrounding  the  Lord,  a  type  of  the  deacon- 
esses and  of  all  charitable  women,  in  whom  the  history  of  the  Church 
is  so  rich.'' 

What  has  been  said  elsewhere  (?.'.  pp.  405  sq.)  respecting  the 
Cluinh  as  a  family  is  specially  api)licable  to  her  chari-  f^^p  jm„„y  ^j 
ties.  The  apostolic  Church  continued  the  family  idea  beiievei-s. 
which  had  been  so  prominent  during  the  ministry  of  (^hrist.  The 
spirit  of  communion,  flrst  realized  by  the  Church,  explains  the 
exceptional  ))rovisions  made  for  the  early  relief  of  the  poor  and 
needy  disciples.  We  have  already  found  that  the  Lord's  Su])j)er 
and  the  associated  lovefeasts  were  occasions  for  the  most  beautiful 
manifestations  of  the  common*  interest  and  care.     Moreover,   the 

'  Ulilhorn  :   Christian  Cliarity  in  the  Ancient  Church,  New  York,  188.!,  p.  57. 
«Ulilliorn:   Op.  cit.,  p.  70. 


493  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   LIFE. 

institution  of  a  class  of  officers  whose  special  business  was  to  have 
the  oversight  of  funds  which  had  come  from  a  common  offering, 
shows  the  prominence  which  the  work  of  charity  had  assumed  in 
the  apostolic  Church.  This  is  in  no  way  changed,  whatever  theory 
of  the  diaconate  may  be  accepted;  not  even  if  the  management  of 
the  charitable  funds  was  never  entrusted  to  the  deacons,  but  was 
under  the  control  and  direction  of  the  elders  or  bishops.  The  em- 
phasis put  upon  the  idea  of  aid  to  the  poor  saints,  as  members  of  a 
community,  is  in  no  sense  lessened.  As  in  every  other  department 
of  activity,  so  here,  the  spirit,  at  first  prompting  the  early  Christ- 
ians to  a  spontaneous  relief  of  distress,  later  accomplished  its  Avork 
through  a  formal  organization.  The  old  Jewish  law  of  tithing  the 
income  is  nowhere  insisted  upon;  but  the  exhortation  is  to  imitate 
The  true  spirit  Christ's  example,  who  "  though  he  was  rich,  yet  for  your 
of  charity.  sakes  he  became  poor,  that  ye  through  his  poverty  might 

be  rich  "  (2  Cor.  viii,  9).  The  readiness  and  heart}'-  willingness  of  the 
offerings  is  the  test  of  the  religious  character  of  the  charity,  and  of 
its  acceptance  with  God;  he  wlio  gives  grudgingly  is  not  a  Christ- 
ian giver  at  all;  and  the  essence  and  proof  of  religion  is  ministration 
to  the  distressed  (2  Cor.  ix,  7;  viii,  2,  3;  James  i,  27,  et  al.).  The 
same  spirit  is  shown  in  the  repeated  exhortations  to  hospitality  which 
are  found  in  the  New  Testament  writings.  The  frequent  passing  of 
members  of  the  Church  from  one  part  of  the  empire  to  another, 
usually  in  the  work  of  evangelism,  rendered  this  duty  most  pressing. 
Doubtless  in  this  respect  there  was  great  likeness  between  the  con- 
duct of  the  Christians  and  that  of  the  numerous  heathen  clubs,  since 
these  likewise  inculcated  the  duty  of  helpfulness  and  hospitality; 
but,  as  before  stated,  their  aid  was  wholly  confined  to  the  members 
of  the  guild. 

When  the  charities  of  the  Church  are  estimated  in  their  wider 
range,  it  becomes  important  to  study  the  business  and  financial  con- 
dition of  the  empire  during  the  first  two  centuries  of  its  history.  It 
has  been  customary  to  represent  this  as  prosperous  to  an  unusual 
Financial  pros-  degree.  The  evidence  is  convincing  that,  outside  of 
perity.  Rome,  the  proportion  of   citizens  who  were  liable   to 

pinching  poverty  was  less  than  at  the  present  time  in  northern 
Europe.  For  the  most  part  the  taxes  were  not  excessive,  food  was 
generally  abundant,  the  relation  of  labour  to  the  necessities  of  life 
was  more  advantageous  than  in  modern  Europe,  the  prices  of  provi- 
sions were  carefully  regulated  bylaw,  so  that  no  such  rapid  and  dis- 
turbing fluctuations  were  possible  5s  now  result  from  speculation 
and  from  a  system  of  extended  credits.  Friedlander  claims  that 
property  was  less  concentrated  than  at  present;  that  the  value  of 


CIIARITIHS  IX  THE  PIVULY  CIIURfll.  493 

the  larujt'st  t'st;itos  in  tlic  time  of  the  early  emjiire,  even  when  nlaveB 
are  inelu<U'(l  in  the  reckoniiii^,  falls  far  below  that  of  (jn-at  foriunes 
many  private  in«livi<lua!s  in  Kurope  and  America  to-tlay.  '«>«  ""»»  »"«'• 
OmIv  two  i»ersons  of  Rome  are  represented  as  liavini;  a  property 
wi>rth  more  tlian  ^2(),()()(),(»0(»,  and  the  incomes  of  tlie  most  wealthy 
Romans  (hirin«i^  the  first  four  and  a  half  centuries  of  the  empire  are 
tjreatly  excelled  hy  those  of  the  families  of  Rothschild,  Bedford, 
Demidoff,  Astor,  and  Vanderbilt.' 

This  social  and  tinancial  condition  of  the  emjtii-e  durinij^  the  first 
century  and  a  half  of  our  era  must  have  vitally  afrecte<l  p,,^^.^.^fu^  infly. 
the  (piestion  of  the  nature  and  extent  of  Christian  be-  ence  on  cbarl- 
iieticence.  Times  of  i^eneral  prosperity  call  for  the  estab- 
lishmi'ut  of  no  wide-reachin<j;'  chai-ities;  the  spirit  of  the  Church  could 
find  expression  only  in  the  relief  of  isolated  cases  of  need,  while 
its  alms^ivin;^  would  also  be  of  a  strongly  individual  character.' 

l>ut  the  seeds  of  dissolution  had  already  been  planted  in  the  em- 
l>ire.  Hefore  the  middle  of  the  second  century  the  Adverse  influ- 
evils  of  slavery,  the  corresponding  contemi)t  for  labour,  ences. 
the  fearful  extravagance  of  the  nobility,  the  vast  sums  s(piandered 
on  the  ])id)lie  games  and  shows,  the  absence  of  moral  restraint  ex- 
hibited in  the  case  of  divorce,  the  indifference  to  abortion,  infanti- 
cide, and  exposure  of  children,  and  the  fearfully  expensive  and  wasting 
wars,  had  seriousl}^  weakened  the  empire.  From  these  causes  popu- 
lation was  seriously  decreasing,  anil  poverty  set  in  where  a  half 
century  before  had  been  comparative  comfort.  To  ])ay  the  largely 
increased  taxes  many  fine  estates  had  been  forfeited,  thus  concen- 
trating ])roi)erty  into  fewer  hands,  and  bringing  as  necessary  conse- 
quences extravagant  luxury  and  the  oppression  of  the  smaller  traders 
through  excessive  usury.  The  only  means  of  defence  was  in  the 
organization  of  guilds,  which  were  recognised  by  the  state,  and  be- 
came, in  a  sense,  the  servants  of  the  government.  In  these  more 
trying  times  greater  demands  were  manifestly  made  n])on  the  chari- 
ties of  the  Church.  The  teachings  of  the  Christian  fathers  prior  to 
Cyprian  plainly  reveal  the  nature  and  extent  of  these  good  works. 

We  have  already  s])oken  of  the  vollcf/hi,  and  of  the  spirit  which  ani- 
matecl  them.  It  is  imjjortant  to  notice  wlu-rein  the  Christian  Church, 
in  s<»me  respects  so  closeh'  reseml)ling  a  heathen  religious  guild,  <lif- 
fered  from  it  in  its  method  of  relief  of  the  unfortunate.  Certainly  the 
uniform  teaching  of  the  first  two  hundri'd  years  is  togive  f,,,p,^„.,„  j.,,^^. 
to  thosi'  who  are  in  neeil,  without  ean-ful  disci'imination  ity  ih-.muI  and 
as  to  whether  the  recipient  was  a  member  of  the  Church  ^'^"'' 
or  a  heathen.     Justin  Martyr  and  Clement  of  Alexandria  are  in  en- 

'  SUtengeschiclite  Roms,  Bd.  iii,  S8.  11-14.  '  Uhlhoni:    Op.  ciL,  p.  105. 


494  ARCHEOLOGY   OF  CHRISTIAN   LIFE. 

tire  accord  touching  the  clut}^  of  a  common  charity-  Many  passages 
from  these  and  otlier  writers  are  plain  and  positive.  In  the  Shep- 
herd of  Hermas  occurs  this  characteristic  teaching:  "  Practice  good- 
ness; and  from  the  rewards  of  your  labours,  which  God  gives  you, 
give  to  all  the  needy  in  simplicity,  not  hesitating  as  to  whom  you 
are  to  give  or  not  to  give.  Give  to  all,  for  God  wishes  his  gifts  to 
be  shared  amongst  all.  They  who  receive  will  render  an  account  to 
God  why  and  for  what  they  have  received.  For  the  afflicted  who 
receive  will  not  be  condemned,  but  they  who  receive  on  false  pre- 
tences will  suffer  punishment.  He,  then,  who  gives  is  blameless." ' 
This  injunction  plainly  has  reference  to  private  almsgiving,  and 
seems  to  have  no  application  to  that  more  systematic  beneficence 
which  was  bestowed  upon  the  needy  members  of  the  Church 
through  organized  channels.  The  giving  was  spontaneous,  free,  not 
of  their  abundance,  but  from  their  scanty  earnings. 

The  peculiar  organization  of  the  Churches  also  provided  for  sys- 
tematic and  widereaching  charities.     Not  only  were  the 

Also   wide-ex-  ...  .  . 

tended  through  needy  of  individual  congregations  relieved  by  the  obla- 
orgamzation.  i[qyis  offered  at  the  Lord's  Supper,  but  special  collections 
were  made  for  the  relief  of  distress  in  distant  provinces.  Already 
in  the  apostolic  age  community  of  interest  was  shown  b}'  forward- 
ing considerable  sums  of  money,  gathered  from  Avide  districts  of 
country,  to  relieve  the  poor  saints  at  Jerusalem  (Rom.  xv,  25,  26; 
1  Coi\  XV,  1-4).  The  expression  "them  of  Macedonia  and  Achaia" 
seems  to  include  man}^  of  the  most  prosperous  churches  which  had 
been  established  through  Paul's  instrumentality,  and  indicates  the 
nature  and  extent  of  these  offerings.  The  churches  of  the  first  two 
and  a  half  centuries  may  be  regarded  as  so  many  compact  organiza- 
tions for  charitable  work.  Its  oversight  being  entrusted  to  the  bish- 
ops, there  was  an  iramediateness  and  directness  of  relief  which 
otherwise  were  not  possible.  The  close  affiliations  of  the  bishops 
Gifts  easily  con-  with  each  Other,  and  the  system  of  circular  letters  which 
renef^^of  d^s-  ^^^^  heen  adopted,  enabled  the  entire  Church  to  concen- 
tress.  trate  its  gifts  upon  a  single  localitj^  which  had  been  vis- 

ited with  sudden  or  peculiar  distress.  Moreover,  the  association  of 
the  bishop  with  sub-helpers,  as  elders,  deacons,  the  widows  and  the 
deaconesses,  allowed  of  faithful  and  minute  supervision,  and  of  a 
consequent  wise  and  economical  administration  of  the  charities.  It 
is  plain  that  the  deaconesses  had  other  duties  than  those 

DC3.C0nGSS9S- 

of  keepers  of  the  entrances  of  the  church  appointed  for 
Avomen,  or  even  as  assistants  in  baptism,  or  instructors  of  candidates; 
they  were  employed  in  those  works  of  charity  and  relief  where  hea- 
'  Book  ii,  Mandata,  ii. 


CIIAKITIKS  IN    rili:  KAKLV  CIILIUII.  495 

thru  publii'  opiniuu  would  imt  pci-niit  tin-  luvsoiict!  of  tlie  (Umcoms. 
"Onlaiii  also  a  deaconess  wlio  is  faitlilid  and  lioly,  for  tlie  ministra- 
tions toward  women.  For  sometimes  lie  cannot  send  a  deacon,  wlio 
is  a  man,  to  the  women,  on  ae(;ount  of  unbelievirs.  Thon  shalt 
therefore  send  a  woman,  a  (h-aconess,  on  account  of  the  iina-inalions 
of  tlie  bad."'  'I'hns  the  number  and  vai-iety  of  olliccrs  enal>lcd  the 
early  Church  to  reach  all  classes,  and  to  have  comjilete  knowledge 
of  the  pt-rsonal  needs  of  its  members. 

Another  question  which  has  been  earnestly  discussed  is  the  iutlu- 
cnce  of  the  early  Christian  system  of  charities  upon  pan-   inOuence     of 

i)erism  and  self-heli).  It  has  been  char-cd  that  it  fostered  Christian  char- 
'  .  .  "y  <*"  pauper- 

dependence,  and   that    its   ultimate  n'sult  was  to  add  to   ism. 

the  pauper  population.  The  ((ucstion  is  I)csct  with  difficulties,  be- 
cause of  insiithcient  data  from  which  to  fcn-m  a  judi^ment.  The  lack 
of  official  statistics,  with  reference  both  to  the  Roman  government 
and  to  ecclesiastical  activities,  renders  tlie  question  wellnigli  insolu- 
ble. That  jtromiscuous  relief  of  the  poor,  disconnected  from  a  thor- 
o\vj;h  knowleilge  of  the  needs  of  the  beneficiary,  tends  to  helplessness 
and  increasinop  poverty  is  everywhere  confessed.  The  i)resumption 
is  certainly  very  strojig  that  this  defect  could  not,  however,  attach 
to  the  early  Christian  charities.  While,  as  has  been  noted,  a 
u;cnerous  and  helpful  spirit  toward  all  was  clearly  tauij^ht,  the  thor- 
oughness of  organization  and  administration  afforded  the  best  possi- 
ble guarantee  of  worthy  bestownient  of  aid.  First,  accurate  lists 
were  kept  of  those  who  received  stated  assistance,  so  fiuardsapainst 
that  immediate  and  thorough  inspection  was  possible.   "'*"  "■**''^,'^''"'"'^ 

^  I  1  of  self-depond- 

Second,  the  aid  afforded  was  usually  of  the  necessaries  ence. 
of  life.  Third,  the  support  of  such  as  had  abandoned  a  trade,  or 
otherwise  suffered  peculiar  hardship  for  the  sake  of  Christ, was  of  a 
simple  and  inexpensive  nature,  thus  reducing  to  a  minimum  the 
temptation  to  deception  and  fraud.  Fourth,  the  special  pains  to 
have  orphans  of  Christian  ))arents  adopted  by  childless  couples,  and 
trained  in  habits  of  industry,'  was  a  most  beneficent  provision  which 
kept  alive  the  spirit  of  purest  charity,  and  most  eff(X-tually  guarded 
against  the  increase  of  pauperism.  Fifth,  the  solemn  charge  to 
bishops  that  they  be  solicitous  to  aid  the  truly  needy,  but  at  the 
same  time  do  all  in  their  power  to  place  every  body,  so  far  as  possi- 
ble, in  a  conditi<m  of  self-help.  The  language  of  the  Constitutions 
is  noteworthy:  "O  bishops,  be  solicitous  about  their  chariro  to  the 
maintenance,  being  in  nothing  wanting  to  tliem;  e.xhib-  bishops, 
iting  to  orphans  the  care  of  parents;  to  the  willows  the  care  of  hus- 
bands; to  those  of  suitable  age,  marriage;  to  the  artificer,  Avork;  to 
'  Const.  Apost.  I.  iii,  e.  15.  »  Const.  Apost,  1.  iv,  c.  1. 


49G  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 

the  disaLlcd,  commiseration;  to  the  strangers,  a  house;  to  the  hun- 
gry,  food;  to  the  thirsty,  drink;  to  the  naked,  clothing;  to  the  sick, 
visitation;  to  the  prisoners,  assistance;  .  .  .  to  the  young  man,  assist- 
ance that  he  may  learn  a  trade,  and  may  be  maintained  by  the  advan- 
tage arising  from  it,  .  .  .  that  so  he  may  no  longer  burden  any  of  the 
brethren ;  .  .  .  for  certainly  he  is  a  happy  man  who  is  able  to  support 
himself,  and  does  not  take  up  the  place  of  the  orphan,  the  stranger, 
and  the  widow."  '  These  considerations,  among  many  others,  would 
seem  to  show  that  the  methods  of  the  Christian  Church,  prior  to  the 
rise  and  prevalence  of  monasticism,  were  well  calculated  to  keep  alive 
a  genuine  charity,  and  foster  a  spirit  of  independence  and  self-help. 
Probably  the  times  of  persecution  and  '  of  public  misfortune 
,    .,.        afforded  the  occasions  for  the  most  impressive  exemi)li- 

Opportumties  ^         .  ^ 

for  Christian  fication  of  the  Christian  law  of  love.  \\  hile  the  perse- 
chanties.  cutions  of  the  Church  were  for  the  most  part  local,  and 

grew  out  of  a  peculiar  combination  of  circumstances,  they  were 
often  sharp  and  peculiarly  afflictive.  The  suffering  arose  from  the 
confiscation  of  property,  from  its  ruthless  destruction  through  pop- 
ular outbreaks,  from  loss  of  business,  and  often  from  exile,  imprison- 
ment, or  death  of  those  who  were  the  natural  guardians  of  families. 
The  records  and  the  inscriptions  alike  tell  a  story  honourable  to  the 
heroism  and  to  the  patient  sacrifice  of  the  Church.     In  the  Decian 

persecution,  which  proved  so  disastrous,  those  who 
npersecu  ions.  ^^^^.^  ij^nished  to  the  mines,  or  immured  in  prisons 
in  Carthage,  were  tenderly  cared  for  by  the  whole  body  of  be- 
lievers. Cyprian  is  most  earnest  in  his  words  and  labours  to  re- 
lieve the  wants  of  such  as  were  under  special  temptation  to  aposta- 
sy. Persons  cast  into  prison  on  account  of  their  faith  were  visited, 
and  supplied  with  necessarj^  provisions.  The  unfortunate  men  who 
were  condemned  to  the  mines,  and  who  were  compelled  to  submit 
to  the  cruelty  of  harsh,  unfeeling  masters,  were  not  forgotten  by 
the  sympathizing  Church.  The  deeper  the  misery  and  the  greater 
the  peril  the  more  brightly  shone  the  light  of  charity,  and  extraor- 
dinary care  was  bestowed  upon  those  whose  lot  was  peculiarly  trying. 
The  charities  at  such  times  were  generous  and  methodical.'' 

So,  too,  in  times  of  great  public  misfortune.  During  the  third 
intimpsofpub-  century  the  empire  was  visited  by  a  series  of  fearful  ca- 
lic  misfortune,  lamities,  in  which  the  contrast  between  Christian  and 
heathen  charity  was  made  most  conspicuous.     The  fatal  pestilence 

which  appeared  in  different  districts  dissolved  all  nat- 
art  ap;e.      ^^^^^  ^.^^     j^  Carthage  there  was  a  general  panic.     "All 
were  shuddering,  fleeing,   shunning  the   contagion,   impiously  ex- 
1  Const.  Apost.,  1.  iv,  c.  2.  ^  Cyprian :   Ej^ist  xxxvi,  ad  Clerum. 


CHARITIES  IN  TlIK   KAULV  CIiriK'II.  4'J7 

posintjf  tlieir  own  frii'iKls,  as  if  with  exclusion  of  tlif  person  who  was 
sure  to  (lie  of  the  j)la<;ue  one  eouhl  exehide  death  also.  .  .  .  No  one 
regarded  any  tliin<if  besides  his  eruel  <^ains.  .  .  .  No  one  did  for  an- 
other what  he  hinisi'lf  wished  to  experienee."  '  The  biographer  of 
Cyprian  sj)eaks  of  his  exhortations  in  the  midst  of  the  ))estilenee: 
that  the  Christians  should  not  suoeour  their  own  ]»relliren  alone,  but 
all  alike;  that  this  was  the  Father's  nii'thod,  and  the  chiMien  must 
be  like  the  Father.^  In  conformity  to  this  spirit  the  Christians  lal- 
lied  to  assist,  some  by  their  money,  many  more  by  their  labours,  in 
earing  for  the  sick  and  burying   the   dead,  until   the   calamity  was 

staved.     Like  scenes  were  witnessed  in  the  midst  of  the 

.,  .,  T   •  n-,1      1  ,.  T^-  •  1  I"  Alexandria, 

pestilence  at  Alexandria.      1  he  letter  ot  Uionysius,  then 

bishop,  as  found  in  P]usebius,  gives  a  most  graphic  picture  of  the 
<lifference  of  tlie  behaviour  of  Christians  and  heathen  in  the  midst  of 
this  awful  visitation.  "They  (the  Christians)  took  up  the  bodies  of 
the  saints  with  their  open  hands,  and  on  their  bosoms,  cleansed  their 
eyes  and  closed  their  mouths,  carried  them  on  their  shoulders,  and 
composed  their  linibs,  embraced,  clung  to  them,  and  j»repared  them 
decently  with  washing  and  garments;  and  erelong  they  themselves 
shared  in  the  same  otlices.  Those  that  siirvive<l  always  followed 
those  before  them.  Among  the  heathen  it  was  just  the  reverse. 
They  both  rei)elled  those  who  began  to  be  sick  and  avoiiled  their 
nearest  friends.  They  would  cast  them  out  into  the  roads  iialf  dead, 
or  throw  them,  when  dead,  without  burial,"  etc'  These  deeds  of 
mer(!y  and  of  charitable  relief  wci'e  found  in  all  departments  of 
activity,  and  the  teachings  and  i)ractiee  of  the  Church  were  such  as 
to  profoundly  impress  the  most  stubborn  opponents. 

Few  can  (b)ubt  that  the  nature  of  Christian  charities  was  changed 
both  bv  the  conflict  with  Montanism,  and  by  the  growth  „_.  ,  ,  . 
of  the  principle  of  the  merit  of  good  works  which  liad  vers*' to  ciirist- 
takcn  firm  root  in  the  Church  by  the  middle  of  the  third  '"'*  '"""^y- 
century.  With  all  its  wild  extravagance,  Montanism  was  also  a  pro- 
test against  the  {)revailing  laxity  of  discipline,  and  the  easy  morals 
which  had  begun  to  rob  the  Church  of  her  greatest  etliciency.  In  so 
far  Montanism  contained  a  valuable  element.  Hut  in  the  attempt  to 
purify  the  Church  by  simple  discipline  lay  a  radical  error.  In  merely 
withdrawing  from  the  world,  in  forbidding  any  commingling  with 
sinful  humanity,  in  regarding  all    things   forbidden  which   are   not 

exnresslv  allowed,  ^lontanism   was   introducing  into  the 
.,,',•,  .  ,.  ,  •       •    ,  ,  •    ,         Mciritanism. 

C  iiurch  wliat  is  contradictory   to   tlie   piiiiciples  wliicli 

Christ  had    most  clearly  inculcated.     The    lofty  exclusiveness   of 

this  heresy  savoured   of  a  spiritual  i)ride,  and   wouhl  se|)arate  its 

•  Vi/a  Cypriani,  c.  0.  *  Ibid.,  c.  10.  ^  Eusehius:  Jlist.  EccL,  1.  7,  c.  22. 

32 


498  ARCHEOLOGY  OF   CHRISTIAN   LIFE. 

votaries  from  a  fallen  world  which  it  was  the  real  mission  of  Chris- 
tianity to  restore.  In  its  conflict  with  this  stubborn  heresy  the 
Church  passed  beyond  the  sober  mean  into  the  opposite  extreme.  In 
the  attempt  to  meet  the  social  and  intellectual  forces  of  the  empire, 
and  bring  them  into  subjection,  the  strictness  of  discipline  was  re- 
laxed, and  the  Church  became  more  and  more  conformed  to  the  preva- 
lent spirit,  until  she  was  too  often  content  with  the  mere  ceremonial 
Doctrine  of  without  the  inspiring  spirit  of  worship.  The  growing 
good  works.  strength  of  the  doctrine  of  good  works,  which  finds  ex- 
pression in  Origen  and  Cypi-ian,  and  the  substitution  of  a  special 
priesthood,  whose  functions  were  of  peculiar  sanctity,  for  the  doc- 
trine of  the  priesthood  of  all  believers  who  were  each  and  all  called  to 
a  high  and  holy  calling,  tended  to  tarnish  the  charities  of  the  Church. 
No  longer  was  the  simple  love  of  Christ  the  inspiration  of  Christian 
beneficence;  but  the  motive  of  personal  advantage  to  the  giver  in- 
troduced into  the  work  of  the  Church  that  selfish  element  which  had 
tainted  the  charities  of  the  heathen  guilds.  Thus  the  gifts  which  had 
before  been  so  bountifully  bestowed  by  individuals  were  now  left  to 
the  care  of  the  Church  officiary,  and  almsgiving  was  now  practised 
for  the  benefit  which  might  inure  to  the  donor.  Also  the  transition 
from  the  simple  congregational  episcopacy  to  the  more  formal  and 
stately  diocesan  government,  tended  to  confound  pure  charity 
with  a  kind  of  perfunctory  service  which  was  delegated  to  chosen 
•otticials  who  must  deal  with  masses  rather  than  with  individual 
sufferers. 

The  recognition  of  the  Church  by  the  State  was  a  most  important 
fact  in  the  historv  of  Christian   charities.     Constantine 

Influenceofun-  -  .      .  „    , 

ion  of  Church  had  become  convinced  of  the  superiority  of  the  work  of 
and  stale.  ^j^^  Church,  and  had  largely  added  to  her  available  re- 
sources. As  the  chui-ches  became  more  magnificent,  and  public  wor- 
ship more  stately  through  the  use  of  imposing  liturgies,  so  the  means 
for  beneficent  M'ork  were  greatly  multiplied.  But  this  increase  of 
the  wealth  of  the  Church  was  at  the  expense  of  the  State.  The  finan- 
cial condition  of  the  empire  was  deplorable.  Industries  were  in  a 
state  of  decline.  The  later  retirement  of  multitudes  to  the  monastic 
life  withdrew  an  immense  productive  force  from  society,  and  the  fur- 
ther exemption  of  the  Church  properties  from  taxation  added  to  the 
burdens  of  the  remaining  citizens.  Resistance  to  the  inroads  of  the 
barbarian  tribes  brought  a  further  strain  upon  the  tottering  empire, 
while  in  the  track  of  these  invading  hordes  Avere  ruin  and  appalling 
want.  The  opportunities  for  the  charitable  work  of  the  Church  thus 
multiplied  on  every  hand.  Nor  were  the  means  wanting.  Immense 
sums  were  poured  into  her  treasuries,  but  these  were  largely  in  the 


CIIAKITIES  IN  THE  EAKLV  CHURCH.  490 

form  of  alms,  and  dkl  not  come,  as  before,  from  the  free  Decay  of  pure 
oblations  made  at  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Sui)|)er.  •"''"rules. 
The  deeay  of  spiritual  life  caused  the  churches  to  be  unvisited  by  the 
masses  of  the  i)eople,  so  that  in  the  writini^s  of  the  great  leaders  and 
preaclicrs  are  found  bitter  complaints  that  the  eucharist  was  neg- 
lected for  the  sake  of  the  circus  oi'  the  >iU'atre,  an<l  that  the  oblations 
were  greatly  dimijiished. 

The  theory  that  the  property  of  the  Church  is  for  the  good  of 
the  poor  was  still  recognised,  and  many  of  the  high  officials  gave 
all  their  j)rivate  fortunes  into  iier  coffers.  The  constantly  strength- 
ening doctrine  that  almsgiving  ranked  with  fasting  and  prayer 
as  a  means  of  salvation,  and  had,  therefore,  a  highly  meritorious 
power,  further  addetl  to  the  resources  available  for  Church  charities. 
Nor  was  the  Church  an  unfaithful  steward.  A  new  species  of  char- 
ities, in  the  form  of  hospitals, aj)peared  <luring  the  reign  Rise  of  bospi- 
of  Constantine.  The  exact  time  of  their  origin  is  not  '*''*• 
known ;  but  the  presum])tion  is  strong  that  the  establishments 
ordered  by  Julian, during  his  attempt  to  restoie  heathenism, were  in 
imitation  of  what  had  already  become  familiar  to  the  Christians. 
It  is  certain,  however,  that  from  the  last  half  of  the  fourth  to  the 
sixth  century  great  numbers  of  these  charities  were  founded,  and 
were  the  means  of  alleviating  the  distresses  of  multitudes  of  the 
poor  and  impotent.  They  spread  from  the  east  to  the  west,  where 
they  at  first  seem  to  have  been  much  fewer,  and  to  have  been  held 
in  lower  esteem.  So  numerous  and  varied  were  the  hospitals  in 
the  Eastern  Empire  that  special  legislation  was  required  for  their 
regulation  and  control.  Though  sometimes  the  centres  of  fearful 
immoralities,  they  often  furnished  opportunities  of  labor  for  worthy 
men  and  women,  and  were  places  of  refuge  for  the  unfortunate  in 
the  chaotic  times  succeeding  the  downfall  of  the  Empire. 


500  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CllltitSTIAN  LIFE. 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  RELATIONS  OF  THE  EARLY  CHURCH  TO   EDUCATION  AND  GEN- 
ERAL CULTURE. 

What  were  the  intellectual  training  and  attainments  of  "  the 
The  culture  of  Twelve,"  and  of  Christ's  immediate  disciples,  it  is  diflS- 
the  apostles.  g^l^  iq  determine.  It  has  been  quite  common  to  repre- 
sent them  as  obscure  and  unlettered  fishermen,  or  common  toilers 
who  belonged  to  a  despised  province,  were  unacquainted  with  human 
philosophy,  and  were  untouched  b}^  the  current  discussions.  Some 
facts  of  the  gospel  history,  and  some  expressions  of  Christ  and  of 
Paul,  seem  to  justify  this  view.  "  For  ye  see  your  calling,  breth- 
ren, how  that  not  many  wise  men  after  the  flesh,  oi)  ttoXXol  oocpoi 
Kara  oaQKa,  not  many  mighty,  not  man}^  noble,  evyevelg,  are  called. 
But  God  has  chosen  the  foolish,  ra  /iojpa,  things  of  the  world  to  con- 
found the  wise,  rovg  ao^ovg,''''  etc.  (1  Cor.  i,  2G-28).  This  expression 
would,  however,  imply  that  some  of  "  the  called  "  were  of  another 
»,  .  .     type:   and   in   the  history  of  the  apostolic  Church  are 

Some    ofHcials      "^  ^      .  "^    .  .   . 

were  Christ-  mentioned  a  few  men  of  high  position,  both  in  the  em- 
^*"*'  pire  and  in  the  Jewish  Church,  who  had  accepted  Chris- 

tianity (Acts  xiii,  12;  xviii,  8;  xxii,  3;  Rom.  xvi,  23).  While  the 
Gospel  was  indeed  "good  news"  to  the  uneducated,  the  low-born, 
and  the  obscure,  who  felt  the  need  of  a  deliverer,  it  should  not  be  too 
hastily  inferred  that  the  first  called  apostles  were  necessarily  illiter- 
Couid  read  the  ^^^-  The  frequent  appeals  of  Christ  to  the  law  show 
'^^-  that  his  apostles  were  familiar  with  and  able  to  read  it. 

Josephus  and  Philo  agree  in  saying  that  great  importance  Avas 
attached  to  the  rendliKj  of  the  law.  The  noted  expression  of  Jose- 
phus, "If  any  one  should  question  one  of  us  concerning  the  laws,  he 
would  more  easily  repeat  all  than  his  own  name,"  shows  that  his 
further  statement  must  be  true,  that  "  from  our  first  consciousness 
we  have  them,  as  it  were,  engraven  on  our  souls." '  He  fre- 
quently mentions  the  zeal  manifested  by  the  Jews  in  the  instruction 
of  their  children  in  the  law,  and  claims  that  Moses  commanded  to 
teach  them  in  the  elements  of  knowledge,  that  they  might  walk 
according  to  the  holy  statutes,  and  not  transgress  them.     At  the 

'  Apion,  ii,  18 


» 


RELATIONS  TO  EDUCATION  AND  (JKNEIIAL  CULTURE.     r.Ol 

;i<l\n'iit  of  (Mirist,  Sfliools  li:ul  hern  foiiiKlt'd  by  tlu'  Jew-  S(ti.M>ls  in  thn 
isli  (•omnimiilk's  for  tlu'  instnu-lion  of  the  c-hildrcii  in  iini^^tcM^i. 
the  elements  of  knowledge;  but  the  ultimate  object  of  tlu-si-  was  to 
teach  the  law.  The  purpose  of  the  elementary  Hchool  was,  there- 
fore, to  prepare  the  pupils  to  redd  it,  since  great  stress  was  laid  upon 
the  reading  in  contradistinction  from  mere  oral  instruction.'  The 
further  diay  of  children  to  keep  the  Sabbatli,  to  observe  the  great 
fasts,  to  join  in  the  prayers  in  the  family  worship  and  at  the  table, 
and  to  attend  the  national  festivals,  necessarily  furnished  invaluable 
opportunities  for  a  knowledge  of  the  law,  and  for  familiarity  with 
the  national  history. 

The  education   thus  carefully  begun   was  continued  by  means  of 

the  services  of  the  synagogue.     This  becomes  more  ini-   ThesynaRogue 
*     ,  ^     '    ,  •  as    an    cduca- 

portant  from  the  fact  that  the  synagogues  were  prinia-  ^j,,,,^,  ^^^^^^^^^_ 
rily  places  for  religious  instruction,  and  not,  in  the  strict  tion. 
sense  of  the  term,  for  worship.  Hence  Philo  calls  them  "  houses  of 
instruction,"  where  the  law  and  its  sacred  observance  were  incul- 
cated. The  further  fact  that  in  the  smaller  towns,  where  the  Jew- 
ish element  was  largely  in  excess,  tl»e  town  senate  probably  united 
in  themselves  both  religious  ami  civil  authority,  would  add  to  the 
importance  of  the  synagogues  as  educational  institutions.  More- 
over, the  free  method  of  conducting  the  services  in  these  places  of 
meeting  must  have  been  a  further  means  of  stimulating  thought  and 
of  disseminating  knowledge.  While  there  was  a  chief  officer,  dpxi- 
avvdyojyo^,  who  cared  for  the  general  order  of  services,  preaching, 
and  prayer,  no  officials  were  appointed;  any  one,  even  minors,  might 
read  the  Scriptures,  and  every  adult  member  of  the  congregation 
was  competent  to  lead  in  prayer  and  expound  the  lessons.  On  Sab- 
bath days  the  ruler  of  the  synagogue  was  accnistomed  to  invite  sev- 
eral, generally  not  less  than  seven,  to  take  part  in  the  reading,  thus 
increasing  the  number  of  interested  partakers  in  the  service,  and  of 
persons  who  were  able  to  pronounce  the  sacred  text;  while  either 
the  readers  themselves,  or  some  competent  members  of  the  congre- 
gation, accompanied  the  reading  with  a  continued  translation  into 
the  Aramaic,  which  was  the  dialect  understood  by  the  bulk  ot  the 
common  ))eople. 

The  importance  which  is  attaclied  to  teaching  in  the  writings 
of  Paul  is  pertinent  to  an  iiKpiiry  respecting  the  tik- i.-achinff 
degree  of  intelligence  among  the  early  Christians.  It  f""''t''>"- 
is  interesting  to  notice  the  emphasis  which  is  laid  ujmn  this 
function,  6i6daKeii\  StfiaoKakia,  in  the  writings  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament. By  Paul  it  is  mentioned  with  prophecy,  ministering, 
>  V.  Shiirer:   The  Jewish  People  in  Uie  Time  of  Jesus  Christ,  vol.  ii,  div.  ii,  p.  60. 


502  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 

exhortation,  giving,  and  ruling  (Rom.  xii,  6-8).  Teaching,  6t- 
daoKaXia,  is  elsewhere  (1  Cor.  xii,  28)  third  in  tlie  enumeration  of 
special  charisms,  outranking  even  miracles,  dwa-iisig,  gifts  of  heal- 
ing, helps,  governments,  and  diversities  of  tongues.  This  is  not  to 
be  accounted  as  merely  the  opinion  of  an  apostle  whose  oppoi-- 
tunities  for  understanding  contemporary  thought,  both  Jewish  and 
Christ's  meth-  P^g3,n,  had  been  exceptional,  but  rather  it  is  in  accord 
**^-  with  the  method  of  Christ  himself,  whose  ministry  was 

largely  a  ministry  of  teaching.  Wiiether  going  about  all  Galilee 
(Matt,  iv,  23;  Luke  xiii,  10),  or  through  all  Jewry  (Luke  xxiii,  5), 
or  sitting  daily  in  the  temple  (Matt,  xxvi,  5;  John  vii,  14),  or  ad- 
dressing his  more  immediate  disciples  on  the  deeper  meaning  of  the 
law  (Matt,  v,  2),  or  in  the  more  astounding  miracles  which  he 
wrought,  or  in  the  foremost  place  given  to  teaching  in  the  great 
commission,  Jesus  everywhere  recognises  the  prime  importance  of 
instructing  men  in  regard  to  the  truths  pertaining  to  his  kingdom. 

Closely  connected  with  this  is  the  character  of  the  epistles  which 
Exalted  char-  the  apostles  addressed  to  the  various  churches  respect- 
apottoitewrit-  "^S  doctrines  and  duties.  It  must  be  recollected  that 
ings.  most  of  these  letters  were  written  to  infant  societies 

within  a  generation  from  the  crucifixion  of  Christ,  that  they  were 
addressed  to  men  and  women  who  may  represent  the  average  cult- 
ure of  the  Church,  before  it  was  compelled  to  adjust  itself  to  the  new 
conditions  wliich  persecutions  or  imperial  patronage  afterward  cre- 
ated. It  is  true  that  the  great  body  of  the  matter  of  these  epistles 
is  truth  of  an  eminentl}^  practical  character,  easily  understood,  and 
well  suited  to  establish  the  community  of  believers  in  faith  and  all 
holy  living.  But  when  we  study  some  portions  of  Paul's  letters  to 
the  Romans,  to  the  Galatians,  and  to  the  Corinthians,  or  the  epistle 
to  the  Hebrews,  we  are  confronted  with  discussions  of  some  of  the 
most  aljstruse  problems  of  religious  philosophy,  to  whose  interpreta- 
tion the  best  minds  of  the  Christian  centuries  have  been  devoted. 
The  profound  teachings  of  this  apostle  respecting  the  relation  of  the 
Jewish  economy  to  the  kingdom  of  heaven  among  men,  the  failure 
of  natural  religion  to  bring  salvation,  the  bondage  of  the  fallen  man 
to  sin,  the  relations  of  law  to  grace,  the  justification  of  the  soul  by 
faith,  the  subtle  truths  pertaining  to  the  resurrection  body,  and  the 
final  triumph  of  the  redeemed  man,  must  be  accounted  among  the 
most  important  and  difficult  themes  which  can  engage  human 
thought.  Peter  speaks  of  some  things  in  these  letters  as  "  hard  to 
be  understood,  dvovorjra,  which  they  that  are  unlearned,  ol  dfiaddg, 
and  unstable  wrest,  as  they  do  also  the  other  Scriptures,  unto  their 
own  destruction"  (2  Pet.  iii,  16).     But  it  is  not  presumable  that  ai/ 


iiKLATio.Ns  TO  KDUcvriox  AM)  (;i:ni:i{al  culture.    r)0:» 

a})o.sLk'  would  write  in  lamj^uaij^e  not  capable  of  hi'iii<^  apju'i'ciated 
eitluT  by  tlu'  mass  of  (ho  discipU's,  or  by  those  who  had  special 
diri'c'tioM  of  tiu'ir  relis^ioiis  education,  tlius  dcfeali>i;f  the  very  pur- 
pose of  the  epistles.  Hence  we  are  h'(l  to  believe  that  in  the  apos- 
tolic Church  there  must  have  been  a  lair  proportion  of  men  and 
WiMuen  to  whom  the  deej)er  and  more  abstruse  discussions  of  Paul 
were  not  only  inteHigil)le,  but  were  the  means  of  moral  and  relij,'ious 
edification. 

In  the  examination   of  a  question   respeetin«i;  wdiich  so   little  evi- 
dence survives,  the  Christian  idea  of  the  familv,  and  the     „ 

'  .  .  ,•  '  Till!  Clirlsti;in 

sacred  duty  of  care  for  children,  to  which  reference  has  duty  to  tiie 
elsewhere  been  made  (iJook  IV,  (Oiap,  i),  must  not  be  '"""'>• 
omitted.  The  effect  of  Christianity  was  the  awakening  and  (piick- 
eninu:  of  the  intellectual  and  moi'al  powers.  With  new  views  of  duty 
and  destiny  came  new  motives  to  care  for  the  young.  'I'iie  very  at- 
mosphere of  the  Christian  houseliold  was  redolent  of  influences  most 
truly  stimulating  and  ennobling.  The  mother  nourished  tlii'  child, 
the  community  care<l  for  the  orphaned.  The  simplicity  of  tastes,  so 
uniformly  inculcated  by  the  Christian  fathers,  turned  the  thoughts 
from  the  merely  outward  and  accidental  to  the  spiritual  and  essen- 
tial. The  family  education  must,  therefore,  have  been  of  extrvme 
importance,  and  had  its  root  in  tlie  very  genius  of  the  Christian  sys- 
tem. The  duty  to  behave  toward  each  other  in  a  manner  mutually 
helpful  and  saving,  because  each  belonged  to  a  family  with  God  as 
father,  was  solemn  and  imperative,  thus  furnishing  the  necessary 
conditions  of  the  truest  and  fullest  education. 

For  nu'rely  secular  education  the  Christians  of  the  first  and  sec- 
ond centuries  depended  u)H)n  heathen  schools.  These  xhe  secular 
were  accessible  to  those  who  could  pay  a  moderate  juice  schools. 
for  instruction,  since  the  calling  of  a  common  teacher  in  the  second 
century  was  regarded  as  one  of  great  toil  and  of  very  limited  in- 
come. Liberal  emperors  h:id  encouraged  education,  and  numerous 
schools  had  been  estabiisluMl  under  their  auspices.  Julius  Ca-sar 
had  attracted  many  Creek  teachers  to  Rome,  where  instruction  in 
the  language  was  greatly  coveted,  and  Augustus  became  a  liberal 
patron  of  ])olite  learning.  In  the  second  century  Antoninus  Pius 
ha<l  provided  for  the  establishment  of  schools  in  all  parts  of  the  em- 
pire, sustaining  at  the  public  expense  ten  teachers  of  medicine,  five 
rhetoricians,  and  five  grammarians  in  the  largest  cities;  seven  teach- 
ers of  medi(Mne,  four  rhetoricians,  and  four  grammarians  in  those  of 
medium  population;  and  live  teachers  of  medicine,  three  rheto- 
ricians, and  three  grammarians  in  the  smaller  towns.'  While  these 
•  KriedlanUer:   Bd.  i,  s.  281. 


504  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 

provisions  were  entirely  inadequate  to  satisfy  the  public  needs,  they 
nevertheless  encouraged  the  citizens  of  the  empire  to  greater  efforts 
Education  de-  for  the  care  of  their  children.  But  the  interest  in  edu- 
ciiaing.  cation  was  already  declining.     There  had  been  a  marked 

decadence  since  the  beginning  of  the  first  century.  The  military 
and  civil  service  had  fallen  more  and  more  into  the  hands  of  the 
low-born,  and  thus  the  need  of  culture  as  a  preparation  for  public 
life  was  felt  to  be  less  urgent.  In  the  West  a  vicious  pronunciation 
became  increasingly  prevalent,  and  many  proofs  of  growing  illiter- 
acy and  vulgarity  are  still  preserved  in  the  literature  and  in  the  in- 
scriptions. It  is  said  that  while  quD9stor,  Hadrian,  during  the  read- 
ing of  an  address,  was  derided  by  the  senators  on  account  of  his 
blunders  in  the  use  of  the  language,  and  that  M.  Aurelius  was  not 
understood  when  he  gave  commands  in  Latin,  because  his  elegant 
pronunciation  was  entirely  foreign  to  his  officers.' 

The  feelings  of  the  Christians  respecting  the  attendance  upon  the 
^    ^  pagan  schools  were  various.     It  was  impossible  for  their 

in^nts  of  the   children  to  gain  the  elements  of  a  secular  education  else- 

ribtians.  where,  since  the  condition  of  the  first  Christians  forbade 
the  establishment  of  separate  schools.  The  slender  testimony  extant 
leads  to  the  conclusion  that  Christian  parents  were  accustomed  to 
patronize  the  heathen  teachers.  Yet  the  early  fathers  are  perplexed 
Tertuiiian's  with  the  problem.  Especially  Tertullian  recognises  the 
views.  serious  embarrassments  felt  by  both  pupils  and  school- 

masters, lie  sees  in  the  teaching  of  the  schools,  as  in  other  kinds  of 
business,  the  taint  of  idolatry.  He  discriminates,  however,  between 
teaching  and  learning  the  heathen  literature.  "  Learning  literature 
is  allowable  for  believers,  rather  than  teaching,  for  the  principle  of 
learning  and  of  teaching  is  different.  If  a  believer  teach  literature, 
while  he  is  teaching  doubtless  he  commends,  while  he  delivers  he 
affirms,  while  he  recalls  he  bears  testimony  to,  the  praises  of  idols 
int-u'spersed  therein.  .  .  .  But  when  a  believer  learns  these  things, 
if  he  is  already  capable  of  understanding  what  idolatry  is,  he  neither 
receives  nor  allows  them;  much  more  if  he  is  not  yet  capable."* 
He  therefore  hesitates  to  condemn  the  patronizing  of  the  heathen 
schools  b}''  the  Christian,  because  "  to  him  necessity  is  attributed 
a!-"  an  excuse,  because  he  has  no  other  way  to  learn."'  Cyprian  is 
firm  in  enforcing  the  differences  between  Christian  and  heathea 
morality;  *  and  it  is  clear  from  the  taunts  of  Celsus  that  in  his 
day  there  was  a  wide-spread  inattention  and  even  repugnance  to 
heathen  learning  among  the  Christians. 

'  Friedlander:    Op.  cit,  Bd.  iii,  ss.  352   353. 

^  dti  Idol.,  c.  10.  3  jiid^  i  ad  Anton,  c.  16. 


RELATIONS  TO  EDUCATION  AND  GENERAL  CULTURE.      505 

The  t'arlk'st  I'diuMtioiial  institution  in  tlie  Cliurch  was  the  cate- 
cluuiKMialt'.  Tliis  was  not  inti-ndotl  for  cliiMicn  only,  tiio  catechu- 
but  Tor  all  who  would  ho  adniiltod  to  lull  nii-nihiTship,  ""»;"i'i«- 
and  to  a  coniplete  enjoyment  of  Church  privileges.  l*riinarily  this 
had  reference  to  instruction  in  the  principles  of  the  Christian  f:iith, 
and  it  is  prohaLle  that  little,  if  any,  strictly  secidar  education  was 
at  first  coiini'ctcd  with  it.  The  bishops  regarded  it  as  incuinbciit 
upon  tiu'iii  to  care  tortile  t  iMiiiiiin"  ot'  their  flocks  in  the  principles  of 
their  icliL!;ion;  vet,  from  some  of  the  works  which  have  been  preserved, 
it  is  evident  that  the  discussions  sometimes  involved  the  highest 
problems  which  can  engage  human  attention, — the  doctrines  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  the  Incarnation,  Divine  Providence,  the  last  Things, 
etc.  From  this  it  may  be  safely  inferred  that  the  hearers  must  liave 
passed  far  beyond  the  stage  of  elementary  training,  and  were  able 
to  discuss  and  master  these  high  themes.  The  acceptance  of  Chris- 
tianity by  some  men  well  versed  in  the  pagan  philoso- 
phy  led  tlie  earliest  apologists  to  employ  (irreek  learning  Greek  learn- 
in  the  defence  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  Christian  sys-  "^* 
tern.  Such  was  Justin  Martyr,  who,  after  conversion,  devoted  his 
powers  to  the  preparation  of  Apologies  for  Christianity,  addressing 
both,  as  now  ai)|)ears,  to  Antoninus  Pius,  one  of  the  most  cultivated 
emperors  of  the  century.  His  thought  and  method  are  distinctively 
Greek.  Christianity  is  the  highest  reason,  and  he  who  lives  in  con- 
formity to  reason  is  a  Christian.  Whatever,  therefore,  is  rational 
is  Christian,  and  whatever  is  Christian  is  in  accordance  with  the 
best  reason.  He  even  goes  so  far  as  to  declare  that  all,  in  every  dis- 
pensation, who  have  thus  lived  in  conformit}'  to  the  deepest  reason, 
are  Christians  in  every  thing  1)ut  name.  Justin  thus  endeavours  to 
reconcile  the  Christian  system  with  the  best  teaching  of  the  Platonic 
philosophy,  and  is  the  first  one  of  the  fathers  to  suggest  the  method 
for  the  harmony  of  reason  and  revelation,  and  for  the  use  of  (4reek 
learning  in  the  Christian  schools. 

The  most  famous  catechetical  school  was  that  of  Alexandria, 
which  had  a  succession  of  noted  teachers  who  deeply  in-  xiie  sw-hooi  of 
fluenced  the  theology  of  the  Clmrch.  \Vhilc  tradition  Alexandria, 
ascribes  its  founding  to  St.  Mark,  its  first  authentic  teat  her  was 
Panticmis,  who  tlourished  about  A.  [).  IHO.  He  was  succeeded  by 
a  long  line  of  instructors,  of  whom  Clement  and  Origen  were  the 
most  conspicuous.  This  school  was  not  for  children;  rather  it  was 
after  the  type  of  the  schools  of  the  Jewish  rabbis  and  of  the  Greek 
philosopln'i's.  It  was  a  i)lace  of  iiupiiry  an<l  discussion.  The  room 
or  hall  stood  open  from  morning  to  night,  and  ])robably  all  who 
wished  had  free  access  to  the  master.     In  addition  to  conver.sations. 


506  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 

and  free  question  and  answer  to  any  who  miffht  come, 
Its  method.  .  .     i  i  •  r      xi 

there  appears  to  have  been  a  progressive  course  lor  those 

who  desired  more  systematic  training  in  the  doctrines  of  the  Christ- 
ian religion.  This  is  suggested  by  the  treatises  of  Clement  and  Ori- 
gen.  They  seem  to  have  been  arranged  on  the  plan  of  a  progressive 
unfolding  of  the  truth,  and  a  growing  experience  of  its  saving 
power.'  Since  this  school  was  free  of  charge  for  tuition,  it  was  vis- 
ited by  multitudes  of  both  men  and  women,  and  became  the  means 
of  instructing  many  thoughtful  pagans  in  the  fundamental  doctrines 
of  Christianity.  Especially  under  the  direction  of  Origen,  who  at  a 
later  period  devoted  his  entire  attention  to  advanced  instruction, 
were  eminent  heathen  persuaded  of  the  truth  of  Christianity,  who 
also  made  valuable  gifts  to  the  school.  Prominent  among  these  was 
Ambrosius,  a  Gnostic,  who  contributed  a  valuable  library,  and  pro- 
moted the  exegetical  studies  of  Origen  by  the  aid  of  copyists,  read- 
ers, and  secretaries.  In  connection  with  theology  and  philosophy, 
rhetoric  and  mathematics,  physics  and  astronomy,  and  even  gram- 
mar and  music,  were  taught. 

But  the  attempt  of  the  Alexandrian  theologians  to  reconcile 
This  fraught  the  supernaturalism  of  the  Gospel  with  the  pagan  phi- 
with  dangers,  losopliy  was  attended  with  peculiar  dangers.  Not  only 
did  the  Christian  teachers  encounter  the  purer  and  nobler  principles 
of  Platonism,  but  the  eclecticism  of  the  Neo-Platonic  school,  and 
the  bewildering  syncretism  of  the  Jewish  and  Christian  Gnosticism. 
The  earnest  desire  of  Origen  to  reconcile  these  conflicting  elements, 
within  and  without  the  Church,  led  him  to  embrace  some  extrava- 
gant doctrines  which  had  but  slender  scriptural  authority,  and  to 
originate  an  allegorical  method  of  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures 
whose  threefold  sense,  literal,  moral,  and  spiritual,  might  lead  to 
conclusions  as  untenable  as  the  wildest  vagaries  of  Gnosticism. 

At  a  very  early  date  an  important  institution  was  established  at 
The  school  of  Antioch.  This  differed  somewhat  from  the  catechetical 
Antioch.  school  of  Alexandria,  inasmuch  as  it  was  not  under  the 

direction  and  official  oversight  of  the  bishop,  but  was  rather  a  col- 
lection of  cloister  schools,  inside  and  outside  the  city,  for  the  special 
training  of  the  monks  and  clergy.  Their  curriculum  of  studies  was 
much  narrower.  Instead  of  philosophy  and  nearly  the  whole  round 
of  human  knowledge,  as  taught  at  Alexandria,  the  schools  of  Anti- 
och were  almost  exclusively  engaged  in  the  study  of  the  Scriptures. 
The  eminent  teachers,  Doi'otheus  and   Lucian  of  Samosata,  intro- 

'  Notice  especially  the  difference  of  teaching  in  Clement'^  Cnhortatio  ad  Gnvcos, 
Pcedagogus,  and  Stromaia.  These  progress  from  the  cieniouts  of  a  Cliristian  life  to 
the  more  advanced  stages  of  tliought  and  experience. 


RELATIONS  TO  EDUCATION  AND  GENERAL  CULTURE.  507 

diicc'd  a  more  just  and  rational  interpn-tation,  and  became  the 
instructors  of  some  of  the  ablest  bishops  of  the  C'hureh.  Also 
at  Kdessa,  Ciusarea,  Nisibis,  etc.,  were  tlonrishini;  schools,  whose 
inHiu-nce  upon  the  tliought  and  doctrines  of  the  Church  was  most 
important. 

The  recoi^nition  of  the  Church  by  C/onstatitine  brono;ht  no  immedi- 
ate chantje  in  the  feelini'  of  the  leadini'  fathers  respecrtini'   „ 

»  ?  .  .  Mori"    favour- 

heathen  philosophy,  or  in  relation  to  the  propriety  of  pa-  auu-  (.pinion  of 

..•1,1  11  rpi  •         1  1       i         •  1  paL'iin  culiure. 

troniziiio^  heathen  schools.  1  liere  is  abundant  evidence  ^ 
that  some  of  the  mostdistinguishedChristian  theoloLfiansof  the  fouitli 
and  Hfth  centuries  received  much  of  their  traiiiini^  under  paijan  mas- 
ters. The  education  of  Jerome,  Augustine,anil  Chrysostom,as  well  as 
tliat  of  Gregory  Nazianzen  and  Hasil  with  Julian  in  the  schools  of 
Athens,  is  illustrative  of  the  opinion  of  the  best  Christian  families 
respecting  the  excellent  discipline  of  the  heathen  teachers.  Never- 
theless, there  is  noticed  a  feeling  of  t!ie  imj)ortance  of  a  distinctively 
Christian  education  under  the  diri'ction  of  the  Church.  IJy  the  mid- 
dle (»f  the  fourth  century  this  conviction  had  greatly  strengthened, 
and  the  Christian  teachers  had  bt'come  so  numerous  and  iiiHuential 
as  to  direct  the  attention  of  the  Emperor  Julian  to  these  schools, 
which  were  regarded  by  him  as  most  serious  hinderances  to  his 
efforts  to  restore  the  ))agan  religion.  The  attem])t  to  remove  these 
teachers  from  the  public  schools,  and  its  iiiHuence  on  the  develop- 
ment of  a  distinctive  Christian  poetry,  have  been  elsewhere  traced.' 
The  further   effect  was   to    develop   a   theory  of  education  which 

mav  be  v>roi>erlv  denominated  Christian.     Its  chief  ele- 

^11^  _  AC'hnstiantlie- 

ments  are  found  in  the  writings  of  Chrysostom,  but  it  is  oiy  of  ediua- 
more  completely  systematized  by  IJasil.  Both  these  '  '"' 
fathers  placed  a  very  high  value  upon  education.  "  Do  not  attiiupt 
to  make  your  son  a  mere  orator,  but  train  him  in  Christian  wisdom. 
Every  thing  depends  upon  character,  not  upon  words;  this  alone 
will  make  him  strong  in  the  kingdom  of  God,  and  secure  for  him 
the  trui'  riches.  Do  not  be  over  cart'ful  respecting  his  language,  but 
purify  his  heart.  I  do  not  say  this  to  hinder  you  from  giving  your 
son  a  literary  training,  but  to  guard  against  expending  all  energy 
and  thought  on  this  alone."  Such  is  the  wise  advice  of  Chrysf)stom 
to  Christian  parents.  Placing  a  high  estimate  upon  the  p„vv,.r  of  ex- 
influence  of  example,  he  exhorts  parents  and  guardians  tt"'i''''- 
to  see  to  it  that  their  children  and  wards  are  placed  under  teachoi*s 
whose  pure  lives  will  in  themselves  be  the  best  etlucating  power. 
"  MtU'h  of  the  evil  in  children  comes  from  our  neglect,  from  the  fact 
that  we  have  not  from  the  tirst  inculcated  the  fear  and  love  of  God. 

'  V.  Book  I,  cliiip.  viii. 


50S  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 

We  interpose  no  objection  to  the  son's  attending  the  theatre,  and 
make  no  effort  that  he  visit  the  church;  if  one  now  and  then  is 
found  at  the  public  services  it  is  more  as  an  amusement  than  for 
purposes  of  worship."  By  Chrysostom  the  mother  is  regarded  as 
the  best  teacher,  and,  next  to  her,  the  cloister  schools  are  the  most 
important  means  of  Christian  education. 

Basil  shows  about  an  equal  enthusiasm  for  Greek  culture  and  for 
Basil's  teach-  ^^^^  monastic  life.  "  The  Christian  must  seek  the  treas- 
i"K-  ures  of  the  life  to  come.     To  this  life  the  Scriptures  are 

designed  to  lead  by  instructing  us  in  the  deep  mysteries  of  the  faith. 
But  in  order  to  understand  these  our  powers  must  be  cultivated  by 
every  possible  means — by  intercourse  with  the  poets,  the  orators, 
the  gramiTiarians,  and  with  every  one  who  may  give  us  insight  into 
the  deeper  truths  pertaining  to  the  kingdom  of  God."  The  princi- 
ples which  Basil  formulated  for  the  government  of  the  monks  in 
their  schools  contain  much  of  permanent  value. 

The  teachings  of  Jerome  respecting  the  value  of  pagan  writings 

were  still  more  influential.     Notwithstandino^   his   ex- 
Jerome  s   par-  .    .  .  .      .  ... 

tiaiity  for  cias-  treme  asceticism,  the  influence  of  his  early  training  is 
SIC  wn  ings.  manifest  in  his  own  studies,  and  in  the  high  value  which 
he  places  upon  the  literature  of  pagan  antiquity.  His  severe  strict- 
ures on  the  ecclesiastics  of  his  day  for  neglecting  the  study  of  the 
Scriptures,  and  for  passing  their  time  in  reading  low  comedies  and 
love-songs,  cannot  be  construed  as  condemning  the  study  of  tho 
best  heathen  classics,  since  even  after  his  retirement  to  Bethlehem 
he  established  a  school  in  connection  with  the  monastery,  and  gave 
instruction  in  grammar  and  in  the  Roman  poets.'  The  later  views 
of  Jerome  were  influenced  by  his  ardent  devotion  to  the  monastic 
life,  and  probably  by  his  alarm  at  the  fearful  decadence  of  faith 
and  morals  throughout  the  empire.  His  views  respecting  the  edu- 
His  later  se-  cation  of  daughters  are  characterized  by  excessive  se- 
verity, verity,^  and  his  condemnation  of  high  Church  officials, 
who  instruct  their  sons  in  the  heathen  authors  and  in  low  comedy 
at  the  neglect  of  the  teachings  of  the  Church,  is  most  unsparing.^ 

The  contributions  of  Augustine  to  the  work  of  education  were 
Auffustine's  many  and  valuable.  His  own  training  had  been  most 
views.  thorough;  and  while  in  some  of  his  writings  he  regrets 

the  time  wasted  in  reading  the  trivial  and  debauching  works  of  pa- 
gan authors,  he  elsewhere  recommends  the  classics  for  the  valuable 

'  ;;.  Ebert:    Gv^chkhte  der  Christlicli-lateinischen  Literatur,  s.  182. 
-  V.  Sclimidt:   Dla  Get>chkhte  der  Erzithung  und  des   Unterrichts,  Colhen,  1863,  ss. 
136,  137. 

^  V.  Com.  in  Ephes.  vi,  4. 


RELATIONS  TO  EDUCATION  AND  (JENEHAL  ("ILTCHK.     509 

truths  tlic'iviii  found,  wliicli  arc  in  ac-conl  with  the  ("hristiun  system, 
and  iIk'  study  of  the  rlu'toricians  for  the  biMictits  i'.\|»t"ii('ncc'd  in  lit- 
tin<x  the  preacher  for  liis  work. 

In  the  West  the  destructive  barbarian  invasions  liad  almost  com- 
pletely annihilated  the  public   institutions   which   had 
:'..-,,,'  ,  ,  i:iT.-ot.s  of  the 

been  maintained   by  the   ii;overnment;  hence  the  stand-    bariiariaei    U\. 

ard  of  education  became  low  in  the  extreme.  Insteatl  '"""*• 
of  the  imi)erial  schools,  the  cathedral  schools, under  the  diiedioii  of 
the  bish()|)s,  then  undertook  the  traininuf  of  the  youth.  The  i^eiieral 
result  was  a  further  inattention  to  the  works  of  i)agan  authors,  a 
growing  distrust  of  secular  learning,  and  a  narrow  and  inadequate 
training  in  most  of  the  monastic  institutions  of  the  West.  "Sci- 
ence became  tlie  servant  of  theology,  and  thereby  lost  its  freedom 
and  independent  activity."  '  The  inscriptions  of  the  iifth  and  sixth 
centuries  reveal  the  growing  illiteracy.  Their  wide  departure  from 
classic  forms,  the  many  gross  errors  in  orthography,  the  interchange 
of  labials,  etc.,  the  inattention  to  graiiiinatical  laws,  the  l>arbarous 
commingling  of  Greek  and  Latin  characters  and  words,  furnish 
painful  evidence  of  educational  and  literary  decadence.* 

In  the  Byzantine  Empire  and  in  the  Oriental  Churcb  the  culture 

and    training   were    largely    inHuenced    by    theoloirical 
1  I  i' -1         1  1  •  ,-      1  Eiliioaiion  In 

tliought,  while   the   education   of   the  masses   was  far     the   Eastern 

below    what    the    liberal    provisions    of    the   emperors     ^"''"'■'^"• 

should  have  realized.     The  doctrinal  controversies  and  the  fierce 

rivalries  of  factions  <liverted  attention   from  the  care  of  the  people. 

The  schools  and   libraries  supported  by   the  imperial  government 

bad  been  professedly  reared  on  classic  and  Christian  foundations, 

but  the  old  Greek  spirit  had  de)>arted,  and  Christianity  had  degen- 

erate<l  into  a  lifeless  form.      The  grandest  service  done  by  the  later 

Oriental  Church  was  to  preserve  the  pagan  classics  and  the  ancient 

works  of  art,  which   at  a  later  period  w^ere  to  be  most   important 

aids  in  the  revival  of  learning  in  Western  Europe. 

'  Scliraidt:    Op.  ciL,  s.  115. 

*  See  tlic  iiisciiptions  contained  in  Plates  iii,  iv,  v,  vi,  vii,  viii  and  tlieir  tran.'slation 
in  Appondi.T.  These  will  supply  a  most  valuable  comment  on  the  condition  of  lit- 
erature and  education  for  tlio  third,  fourth,  fiftli,  and  si.xth  centuries. 


510  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

CARE  FOR  THK  DKAD  IN  THE  EARLY  CHURCH. 

From  time  iniineiiiorial  the  peoples  from  whom  the  converts  of 
the  early  Church  were  drawn  had  shown  careful  thought  for  their 
dead.  They  manifested  deep  interest  in  the  repose  and  destination 
of  the  soul,  and  maintained  a  close  relationship  between  the  living  and 
the  departed.  The  Old  Testament  Scriptures  contain  many  touch- 
ing accounts  of  the  anxiety  of  the  Jews  relative  to  the  places  of 
their  sepulture.  The  embalming  in  the  case  of  Jacob  and  Joseph, 
the  cari-ying  of  Jacob  to  his  home  to  be  buried  in  the  cave  of  the 
field  of  Machpelah,  the  grievous  mourning  for  seven  days,  are  indi- 
,      ^-   u    •  ,   cations  of   burial   customs   which  seem   to   have   been 

Jewish    burial  .  i  i     i     •  <>     i 

customs.  widely  observed.     The  washing  and  embalmmg  of  the 

body,  the  winding  in  a  cloth,  the  wrapping  about  with  linen  bands, 
the  covering  of  the  face  with  a  napkin,  the  use  of  costly  spices,  etc., 
are  found  in  the  account  of  the  burial  of  Christ.  To  have  this  care 
for  the  dead  was  the  sacred  duty  of  the  living.  To  remain  un- 
buried  was  considered  the  most  dreadful  calamity;  hence  the  most 
fearful  curse  pronounced  upon  the  violators  of  God's  law  is  that 
their  bodies  shall  be  left  a  prey  for  the  fowls  of  heaven,  or  as  filth 
in  the  streets,  or  as  dung  in  the  fields  (Psa.  Ixxix,  2;  Jer.  ix,  22; 
XV  i,  4).  Even  enemies  and  executed  criminals  received  burial 
before  sunset.  The  custom  of  burial  feasts  seems  to  have  been 
quite  common  among  the  Jews  (Deut.  xxvi,  14;  Jer.  xvi,  V;  Hos. 
ix,  14;  et  al).  The  lamentations  for  seven  and  even  thirty  days, 
the  rending  of  the  garments,  the  scattering  of  dust  and  ashes  upon 
the  head,  were  common ;  yet  the  law  interdicted  certain  excessive 
exhibitions  of  grief,  because  of  their  connection  with  the  practices 
of  the  heathen  nations  around  them  (Lev.  xix,  27,  28;  Deut.  xiv,  1). 
Burial  Avas  the  almost  universal  custom  among  the  Hebrews. 
Burial  and  not  Only  in  exceptional  cases  was  burning  practiced,  and 
burning.  i^\Q\\  then  the  bones  were  to  be  gathered  and  interred. 

That  burning  was  abhorrent  to  the  Hebrew  mind  appears  from  the 
fact  that  it  was  adjudged  a  punishment  to  be  visited  upon  those 
who  had  been  guilty  of  heinous  crimes  (Lev.  xx,  14;  xxi,  9).  Since 
the  law  regarded  the  dead  body  as  a  source  of  ceremonial  defilement, 
the  places  of  burial  were  somewhat  removed  from  the  dwellings  of 


CAHH  VO\{  TIIK   DKAI)  IN  THE  EARLY  CIirKCUI.  511 

the  liv  iii<;.  While  tht-iv.  was  a  i-ciiK'tcry,  or  ithice  of  public  inte'rment, 
there  was  ever  a  great  desire  among  the  Jews  to  gather  the  deeeasetl 
inemhers  of  the  family  into  dose  proximity;  this  is  seen  from  the 
fact  that  "to  be  gathered  to  his  fathers"  is  e<|uivalent  to  one's 
death  and  burial.  Ih  iice,  even  after  the  dispersion,  the  Jews  strove 
to  liave  separate  cemeteries,  and  this  desire  measurably  continues  to 
the  i)resent  (hiy. 

The  location  and  form  of  the  grave  depended  upon  circum- 
stances. Frequently  in  Palestine  the  numerous  natural  grottos  in 
tlie  limestone  rock  aflForded  a  place  of  sepulture,  either  by  hewing 
out  s]>aces  in  tlie  face  of  the  rock,  or  by  making  perpendicular  ex- 
cavations. Three  kinds  of  graves  liave  been  distin-  Three  kinds  of 
guislied  by  investigators:  tlie  body  was  either  laid  upon  graves. 
a  bendi  or  slielf  liewn  out  of  the  rock,  over  wliich  an  arch  was  con- 
structed, or  jilaced  in  a  box-like  cavity  made  in  the  wall,  or  laid 
away  in  an  excavation  in  the  floor  of  the  grotto.'  The  marking  of 
these  places  of  sepulture  by  momnnents  of  a  costly  and  artistic  nature 
was  not  common  among  the  early  Hebrews.  A  few  ac-  jp^ish  monu- 
counts  of  the  erection  of  a  stone  or  pillar  are  met,  and,  ""'nt^- 
in  later  times,  of  monuments  possessing  some  artistic  merit,  also 
some  attempts  at  ornamentation.  This  is  especially  noticeable  in 
the  Jewish  catacombs  upon  the  Appian  Way  in  Rome.  In  these 
are  galleries  and  cliambers,  and  some  attempts  at  artistic  adorn- 
ment l)y  painting,  and  the  incorporation  into  the  monuments  of 
elements  which  are  plainly  heathen,  thus  showing  that  the  Jews 
of  the  dispersion  were  more  ready  to  admit  into  tlieir  art  ))rinciples 
which  were  interdicted  during  their  independent  national  life. 

Among  the   (xreeks  there   was  an  etpial  care    for  the  dead.     In 

Athens,  by  statutory  provision,  one  seeking  to  fill  high  ])ublic  oHice 

must  first  show  that  he  had  been  guilty  of  no  neglect   ,;r,.p|j     ^p„(|. 

with  respect  to  the  burial   of  his  parents.     The  refusal   ""-'"'• 

of  enemies  to  permit  the  burial  of  those  who  had  fallen   in  battle 

was  terribly  avenged.      When  the  body  could  not  be  secured,  it  was 

regarded  as  a  duty  to  erect   some  monument,  and  over  any  corpse 

found    in    the    way    at    least    a   liandful    of   earth   must  be   strewn. 

The  preparation  of  the   body   for  burial   was  somewhat  similar  to 

that    i)ractice(l   by  the  Jews.       To  close    the   eyes,   to   wash   and 

anoint  the  body,   to   array  in    white    garments,  and   to  bedeck   it 

with    flowers    and    wreaths   were    the    usual    iiractices   „   ^ 

,  nil  •  ^"^^     hiirylnp 

among  the  (Treeks.      1  he  mode  of  se])ulture  differed  at    ami     buniiDK 

different  periods  of  their  history.     In  the  historic  jieriod    ^^*^  '^''' 

burial   was  most   usual,  although   burning  was  also  practiced.      In 

'  V.  Toblcr:    GolgoUia,  a.  201.  Wilson:  Picturesque  Palestine,  pp.  95.  96. 


512  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 

Sparta  alone  cremation  was  common,  and  this  only  during  the 
period  of  Roman  rule.  On  sanitary  grounds  burning  was  instituted 
for  a  season,  but  when  the  extraordinary  circumstances  passed 
away  the  return  to  burying  was  quite  general.  Also  burning 
was  practiced  in  case  of  soldiers  who  had  fallen  in  battle  on  distant 
fields,  in  order  that  their  ashes  might  be  more  easily  transported 
to  their  native  country. 

A  common  burial-plat  was  used  only  by  the  poor;  the  rich  or 
Individual  well-to-do  citizens  had  sei)arate  tombs  either  along  the 
tombs.  most  public   streets,    or   in    grounds  ornamented   with 

trees  and  works  of  art.  The  tomb  was  usually  of  the  nature  of  a 
chamber  of  sufficient  size  to  admit  the  friends,  and  the  body 
was  laid  upon  a  shelf  of  masonry.  The  Greeks  wrought  out  their 
sarcophagi  with  equal  pains  on  every  side,  whereas  the  Romans 
only  cared  for  the  front  and  ends  :  this  shows  that  the  Greek  sar- 
cophagus occupied  a  position  in  the  centre  of  the  burial-chamber, 
while  the  Roman  was  designed  to  be  placed  against  the  wall.  The 
I)urpose  of  the  Greeks  seemed  to  be  to  disarm  death  of  its  terrors, 
Cheerfulness  ^^  ^^^'  ^^  possible,  by  placing  in  the  tomb  objects  Avhich 
attempted.  were  most  familiar  and  dear  to  the  deceased  while 
living,  or  b}^  decorating  the  burial  chamber  with  various  orna- 
ments, as  vases,  lamps,  weapons,  etc.  The  numerous  elegant  vases 
found  in  Greek  graves  now  constitute  a  special  department  of  art 
history.  The  decorations  of  the  monuments  themselves  were  chiefly 
in  plastic;  sometimes,  especially  in  case  of  cenotaphs,  painting  was 
used.  The  subjects  treated  in  these  works  are  chiefly  taken  from 
the  popular  mythology.  They  sometimes  represent  the  rutliless- 
ness  of  death  in  robbing  us  of  our  treasures,  as  when  the  Hai-pies 
are  sculptured,  but  generally  they  are  of  a  more  cheerful  charac- 
ter, and  express  the  leading  thought  of  the  Greek  mind  that  the 
design  of  a  monument  is  to  keep  alive  the  memory  of  the  dead, 
rather  than  to  point  to  a  hereafter,  and  to  describe  the  state  of  the 
departed. 

The  Romans  regarded  burial  as  a  thing  rightfully  due  to  all.  Even 
criminals  who  had  been  put  to  death  were  to  be  cared  for  by  the  sur- 
Roman  cus-  viving  members  of  the  family,  and  in  case  of  those  who 
toras.  ]iad  fallen  in  battle  for  their  country  the  state  took  the 

])lace  of  the  family,  and  j^rovided  for  their  decent  sepulture.  This 
concern  is  also  manifested  in  the  fact  that  the  living  were  careful 
to  purchase  plats  and  erect  appropriate  tombs,  and  to  make  testa- 
mentary provision  for  keeping  alive  their  memories  by  the  yearly 
celebration  of  the  burial  feasts.  Rich  patrons  prepared  places  of 
common  sepulture  for  clients,  freedmen,  and  slaves,  and  it  was  con- 


CAKE   FOli  Till-:   I)1:AI)   in    rilK   KAKI.V   CIUKCII. 


51J 


sidered  a  severe  puiiisluneiit  to  lU-prive  these  persons  of  tlie  jirivile^e. 
The  indigent  classes  and  small  traders  also  organize<l  themselves  into 
clubs,  c<)Ue</!a,  for  social  or  other  jmrposes,  but  they  were  chiefly 
concerned  for  the  a))])ro|»riati'  l)uii;d  of  the  di'ceased  members. 
The  legal  ]>r()visions  for  the  pi-ott'c-lioii  of  tlic  irraves  j^.^,.,,  ,,r„vis- 
onlv  embodied  the  averaLje  Roman  si'iitimeiit.  Kvery  '""''• 
spot  where  a  body  was  buriod  was  ju(1lcc<1  sacred.  Tiie  boundaries 
of  the  cemeteries  and  of  the  individual  tombs  were  carefully  de- 
fined. The  area  was  regarded  as  inalienable,  ])ass:iig  to  the  heirs  in 
perpetuity.  The  removal  of  the  dead  was  rorlt'd.K'ii,  and  only  by 
express  pennissi(»n  could    this    l)e    eifected.      The  violation  ami  rob- 


.  \'S.  111.— A  Roman  rolumhariuin. 

bing  of  graves  and  the  mutilation  of  monnments  were  visited  with 
most  severe  penalties,  and  many  inscriptions  indidge  in  fearful  ex- 
ecrations of  those  who  may  jjrofane  the  toml^s.' 

The  method  of  disposing  of  the  dead  varied  at  different  jieriods 
of  Roman  history.  From  numerous  considerations  it  is 
evident  that  l)urial  was  the  early  Koman  custom.  In  tlu'  uon  and  bum- 
law  of  the  Twelve  Tables  both"  inhumathm  and  burning  «"«  p'-^""--*'^- 
are  recognised.  This  double  practice  continued  into  the  im])erial 
period,  but  cremation  had  doubtless  been  promoted  by  the  growing 
desire  for  display  on  the  one  hand,  and  by  the  certainty 
that  thus  a  member  of  a  collet/ in  in  would  have  an  urn  in 
the  colunibarhna.   The  Roman  columl)arium  (Fig.  14 1),  so  named  from 

'  For  examples  on  Christian  tombs,  v.  p.  256,  n.  3. 
33 


Columbarlum.1 


514  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 

its  resemblance  to  a  dove-cote,  consisted  of  a  building  in  whose  in- 
terior walls  were  parallel  rows  of  semi-circular  niches,  in  which  were 
placed  the  cinerary  urns.  The  arrangement  in  successive  rows  and 
sections  permitted  the  gathering  of  the  ashes  of  the  members  of  a 
familv  or  of  a  club  into  close  proximity,  and  the  eas}^  identification 
of  their  place  of  sepulture.  Over  the  niches  were  the  names  of  the 
deceased,  either  upon  plates  or  sculptured  in  the  wall,  and  words  as 
"  Eutuchii,"  "  Pancratii,"  etc.,  indicated  the  sodality  to  which  they 
belonged.  Cremation  never  became  a  universal  practice  among  the 
Romans.  Under  the  Antonines,  on  the  contrary,  burial  was  very 
frequent,  and  in  the  third  and  fourth  centuries  it  became  quite 
common  among  the  best  families  of  Rome. 

The  provision  of  the  Twelve  Tables,  that  nobody  should  be 
Sepulture  out-  l*iii''^6d  or  buried  within  the  cit}^  walls,  was  reenacted 
side  the  city  with  even  greater  stringency  in  the  imperial  period. 
This  led  to  the  custom  of  arranging  the  graves  along 
the  most  frequented  streets  outside  the  city  gates,  thus  keeping 
alive  the  thought  of  the  dead  by  placing  their  tombs  Avhere  they 
could  be  viewed  by  the  passing  multitudes.  Thus  oj)portunity  was 
also  given  to  gratifj^  the  growing  desire  for  luxury.  Since  the  Ro- 
mans avoided,  so  far  as  possible,  a  common  cemetery,  but  aimed  to 
be  grouped  into  families  or  sodalities,  the  building  of  imposing 
tombs  along  the  highways,  and  the  careful  decoration  of  the  areas, 
were  the  natural  i-esults  of  the  attempt  of  the  great  families  and  col- 
legia to  rival  each  other  in  magnificent  display.  The  tombs  af- 
Monuments  on  f <^i"<l^^^  the  best  examples  of  Roman  art,  hence  the  Via 
main  streets.  Appki  and  the  Via  Latina  became  the  favorite  drives 
of  the  Roman  nobility.  Nor  was  this  practice  confined  to  the 
capital.  The  excavations  at  Pompeii  reveal  a  like  arrangement  in 
a  comparatively  small  provincial  town.  These  have  brought  to  light 
the  street  leading  from  Pompeii  to  Herculaneum.  It  {v.  Fig.  142) 
proves  to  be  the  Via  Appia  of  Pompeii,  since  it  is  bordered  with 
tombs  in  the  best  art  of  the  period,  not,  indeed,  equalling  in  magnif- 
icence the  gorgeous  mausoleums  of  Rome,  yet  clearly  illustrating 
the  Roman  conception  of  the  use  of  mortuary  monuments.  Such, 
briefly,  Avere  the  burial  customs  of  the  peoples  from  whom  early 
Christianity  gained  its  converts.  It  is  presumable  that  here,  too, 
as  in  other  questions  which  have  come  under  examination,  the  new 
religion  would  not  so  much  create  absolutely  new  customs  as  adopt 
those  at  hand,  and  give  to  them  a  deeper  significance  in  accordance 
with  the  clearer  revelations  of  truth  which  were  vouchsafed  by 
-Christ  to  his  Church. 

The  Christians  shared  the  common  desire  to  care  for  their  dead. 


cxiiE  FOK  riiK  i)i:ai)  IX  Tin-:  kaklv  church.        r,ir, 

Christian  care  Wliik'  tile  caily  C'lirisliiiii  litciutiiri'  furiiislies  no  formal 
lorihedead.  treatise  on  ilu-  nu'tlio«l  of  l)uiial,  tlu'  scattered  notices 
are  so  numerous  as  to  leave  no  doubt  as  to  the  Christian  practice. 
In  common  with  the  non-Christian  peoples,  they  regarded  the  neglect 
of  the  dead  with  special  horror.  This  is  clearly  seen  from  the  fact 
that  the  refusal  of  the  civil  authorities  to  deliver  to  their  friends 
tlie  bodies  of  those  who  hail  suffered  martyrdom  was  felt  to  be  a 
matter  of  peculiar  hardship.' 

There  seems  to  have  been  in  the  minds  of  some  of  the  Church  an 
apprehension  that  the  appropriate  burial  of  the  body  was  neces- 
sary in  order  to  a  share  in  the  resurrection;  this  greatly  added  to 
the  affliction  felt  when  the  ashes  of  friends  were  widely  scat- 
tered.    So  greatly  disturl»e(l  were  maiiv,  thai  the  Christian  teachers 


Fig.  143.— A  Street  of  tombs  iejidinR  from  Herculaneum  (Jate,  Pompeii. 

were  constrained  to  correct  this  false  notion  by  carefid  instruction 
respecting  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection.  Nevertheless,  the 
Church  insisted  upon  decent  burial  wdienever  possible,  and  strongly 
condemned  neglect  of  this  sacred  duty."  The  importance  attaching 
to  Christian  burial  is  also  illusti*ated  by  the  system  of  penitential 
discipline.  Interment  in  Christian  cemeteries  was  absolutely  re- 
fused to  unbelievers,  and  those  under  the  ban  of  the  Church  looked 
with  peculiar  horror  upon  their  exclusion  from  the  common  resting- 
place. 

'  V.  Eiiscbins:  flist.  EccL,  1.  v,  c.  1,  wlicrc  tlie  account  of  the  persecution  in  Lj'ons 
and  Vicnne  is  given,  and  the  casting  of  tho  ashes  of  the  martyrs  into  the  Rhone. 

"  This  is  exemplified  in  the  conduct  of  the  Alexandrian  Christian*  during  the  fear- 
ful pestilence  in  that  city,  to  which  reference  has  elsewhere  been  made. 


516  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CIIRISTI.VN  LIFE. 

The  Christians  buried  their  dead,  never  burned  them.  It  is  plain 
,  ,       ,.  that  this  practiee  was  intiuenced  by  their  faitli  in   the 

Inhumation  .  '■  -^ 

and  not  burn-  resurrection,  as  well  as  b}''  the  fact  that  they  shared  the 
'°^'  common  belief  of  antiquity  that  man   could  have   no 

separate  spiritual  existence  independent  of  corporeal  substance.  In 
most  respects  the  Christians  accepted  the  common  methods  of  pre- 
paring the  dead  for  burial,  but  a  notable  diiference  is  seen  in  the 
The  family  f3.ct  that  while  the  Roman  sei:)arated  the  classes,  or  at 
idea  preserved,  most  allowed  only  members  of  the  same  family  or  so- 
dality to  be  buried  near  each  other,  the  Christian  burial  places 
recognised  no  such  distinctions.  All  classes  of  the  Christian  societ}'- 
perpetuated  after  death  that  fellowship  Avhich  they  had  realized 
while  living.  This  is  noticed  more  especially  in  the  West,  while 
in  the  East  and  in  Egypt  single  graves  were  usual. 

The  earlier  view,  that  the  Christians  were  compelled  to  find  secret 
Nosficrecynec-  p'^ces  for  the  interment  of  their  dead,  has  been  shov/n 
essary.  ^^   |)g    quite    erroneous.       At    first    they    were  looked 

upon  by  the  government  as  only  a  particular  school  of  the  Jews  ; 
hence  they  shared  all  the  privileges  and  immunities  which  had 
from  time  to  time  been  granted  to  the  Jews.  Their  burial  places 
were,  therefore,  adjudged  equally  sacred  with  others.  At  a 
later  period,  when  the  distinction  between  Jews  and  Christians 
was  more  clearly  recognised,  the  latter  were,  at  Rome  especially, 
looked  upon  as  one  of  tiie  many  collegia,  banded  to- 
gether for  special  objects,  but  most  of  all  to  care  for 
the  decent  burial  of  their  fellovv-nrjiubers.  Such  burial  clubs  were 
specially  encouraged,  and  were  granted  areas  in  which  their  dead 
could  be  interred,  and  where  pro{)er  cellar  could  be  built  for  the 
celebration  of  the  funeral  feasts.'  It  is  only  in  harmony  with  tlie 
Roman  reverence  for  the  dead  that,  while  many  of  the  collegia  were 
suppressed  from  political  considerations,  the  burial  clubs  were 
never  disturbed. 

The  origin  of  the  catacombs,  at  Rome  and  elsewhere,  was  most 
simple  and  natural.     Like  other  burial  clubs  the  Christ- 

Orisrin  of    the    .       ^  . 

Roman  cata-  lans  obtained  an  area  wiucli  was  devoted  to  sacred  pur- 
combs,  poses,  and  the  excavations  below  that  area  were  begun 
and  increased  as  the  Church  multiplied.  The  entrance  to  the  cata- 
combs was  usually  well  known.  No  concealment  was  necessaiy, 
since  the  law  judged  all  burial  areas  sacred.  It  has  been  satisfac- 
torily established  that  among  the  Roman  Christians  of  the  first  and 
second  centuries  were  persons  of  social  position  and  Avealth,  who 

'  Under  Alexander  Severus,  about  A.D.  2:)0,  the  Cliristians  of  Rome  were  granted 
the  privileges  of  a  burial  association,  coUegium  f-oievaticium. 


CARE  Foil  TllK   1)1:A1)   IN   THE  EAKLV   (111  RCII. 


r,17 


gave  1.111(1  for  pmitoscs  of  C'liristiaii  burial.  Tlic;  ceiiK'ti'iy  thus 
fouu.h'J  would  take  tlic  uaiiK'  of  its  chief  [tatroii.  It  is  bclifvud 
that  the  lifrounds  on  which  luost  of  the  Koniau  catacombs  were  ex- 
cavated orii>;iiially  belouijed  to  ]»rivate  persous,  who.se  names  would 
in  themselves  afford  partial  protection  atjainst  abuse. 

'I'he  entrance  to  tiiem  was  usu;illy  by  an  excavation  in  the  side  of 
a  hill,  or  by  a  staircase;  in  that  to  Santa  Domitilla  (Fig.  1-13),  these 
are  combini'(l.  For  buiial  purposes  narrow  passages  Description  oi 
from  two  and  a  lialf  to  four  feet  wide,  and  from  seven  to  catacombs. 
ten  feet  higli,  were  made  in  the  soft  tufa  rock,  in  the  faces  of  which 
rectangular  cavities,  eacii  large  enough  to  reci-ive  a  body,  were 
hewn.  These  ran  lengthwise  of  the  passages,  and  may  be  likened  to 
so  many  sjielves  upon  which  bodies  might  rest.     {Several  rows  or  tiers 


*-*^: 


V\^.  1 1).— The  entranci'  to  Santa  Domitilla  at  Home. 

of  graves,  lociili,  sometimes  as  many  as  seven,  rose  one  above  an- 
other (Fig.  144).  As  the  <U'mands  for  space  increased,  from 
the  main  corridors  side  aisles  were  constructed,  thus  makint,'  a  com- 
plicated net-work  of  passages  which  none  but  the  iiiiti.ited  were 
able  to  tlireatl.  In  some  of  the  catacombs  these  aggri'i^ate  several 
miles  in  length.  The  accompanyini;  jtlan  (Fig.  145)  of  a  portion  of 
the  Catacomb  of  St.  Agnes,  at  Kome,  will  enable  the  rea<ler  to  form 
some  conception  of  the  com])Iexity  of  the  system.  Besides  the 
multiplicity  of  aisles,  the  capacity  of  the  catacombs  was  furtlier 
enlarged  by  excavations  at  different  levels,  thus  forTning  several 
stories  {piam),  in  sotne  cases  as  many  as  five,  eonimunieating  with 
e.aeh  other  by  staircases  cut  in  the  rock  ;  in  each  story  Extent  ofcata- 
was  a  like  compK-xity  of  ])ass;iges.  Thus  the  entire  combs. 
area  was  honeycombed  with  graves  to  the  depth  of  from  twenty 


518 


ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 


to  forty  feet.    The  number  of  Christian  catacombs  already  explored 
at  Rome  is  fifty-four.    It  is  impossible  to  state  the  aggregate  length 


Fig.  144.— A  gallery  witb  tombs,  inscriptions,  and  symbols. 

of  the  passages,  or  the   number  of  the  dead  therein  interred.     It 
has,  however,  been  estimated  that  there  are   between   three   and 


Fig.  145.— Plan  of  a  part  of  the  Catacomb  of  Santa  Agnese,  Rome. 

four  hundred  miles  of  these  narrow  streets,  which  contained  from 
five  to  six  millions  of  graves. 


CARE  FOR  TIIi:  DEAD  IN  THE  EARLY  (  IIIRCII. 


51 'J 


Tlu'  iiuIIkmI  of  C'liristiaii  luirial  dilTi-ml  from  that  of  the  hcatlu-n, 
in  tliat  the  hitler  aUowed  tlie  boilv  to  be  in  view,  while      tho  ftrave 
the-  former  closed  the  grave,  londus,  with  a  shib  of  marl.U'       <^^"««-'*'- 
caref.illy  set  in  cement.     This  praclire  of  the  Chnstums  came  from 
the  fact  that  the  catacombs  were  ofien  visite.l,  and  the  emiivnuu 
fro.Ti  the  (lead  bodii's  must  be  i^niarded  ao;ainst.     At  the      ^.^^^^^^^^^ 
intersections  of  tlie  main  passa-v-ways,  rooms  ot  consul- 
erable  dimensions  were  formed,  wliich  often  became  the  burial  places 
of  noted  fa.nilies,  or  of  persons  of  peculiar  sanctity.     These  were 
sometimes  eidarged  and  decorated  with  paintings  in  fresco,  or  adorned 
with   sculptured   sarcophagi.     Sometimes,  also,  a  doorway  led  into 
an  independent  chamber  or  succession  of  chambers,  cubicduni,  cabt- 
cula,  which  seem,  for  the  most  part,  to  have  been  family  vaults. 
The'  size  and  arrangement  of  these  rooms  woul.l  suggest  a  place 
for  the  trathering  of  a  familv  to  keep  the  funeral  feasts,   ^.^^^   ^^  j,„ 
rather  than  a  common  meeting  for  the  celebration  of  PirbUc      v^•or- 
the  eucharist.    There  can   be   little   doubt   that  during 
times  of  severe  persecution,   when   Christians  were   forbidden  to 


L 


Fig.  14ii.— An  arcojoliuiu  from  the  catacombs. 

visit  the  cemeteries,  the  entrances  to  the  catacombs,  which  were 
before  well  known,  were  concealed,  and  the  larger  chambcis  were 
sometimes  used  for  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  Hut  the 
limited  space  in  these  rooms  forbids  the  supposition  that  the  cata- 
combs could  have  been  used  as  i)laces  of  assembly  for  ordinary 
worship  by  the  large  numbers  of  Christians  in  Koine. 

The  tombs  were  of  different  sizes  and  forms,  according  to  the  abil- 
ity of  the  family  or  the  prominence  of  the  deceased.  The  ordinary 
form  was  the  shelf,  hewn  into  the  face  of  the  rock.  At  times  tombs 
were  built  up  with  oasonry  and  covered  with  slabs  of  marble,  as 
may  now  be  seen  in  some  modern  churches.  Again,  an  arche.l  recess 
was  excavated,  and  then  a  vault  was  hewn  in  the  rock  bih.w  to  re- 
ceive one  or  more  bodies,  which  were  separated  from 
each  other  by  partitions  of  stone.  This  form  of  toml> 
was  called  arcosolium  (u.  Fig.  146). 


Arcosollum. 


520 


ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 


To  naturally  light  all  these  intricate  windings  was  evidently  im- 
possible.    From  some  frescos  which  have  been  presei'ved  it  is  seen 

..  ^,  ^       that    the   fossores,  or  those  who    excavated    the   cata- 

How  lighted.  "^  ' 

combs,  worked  by  the  light  of  torches  or  lamps.  This 
must  have  been  the  usual  method  of  pursuing  their  laborious  task. 
But  for  tlie  ])urposes  of  ventilation,  as  well  as  of  lighting  the  larger 
rooms  which  were  used  for  special  services,  shafts  were  extended 
through  the  soil  to  the  surface.  These  were  called  liunlnaria  (y.  Fig. 
147).  When  the  location  of  the  catacombs  must  be  concealed,  these 
were  small,  but  in  times  of  peace  to  the  Church  they  were  much 
enlarged. 

The  many   miles  of  subterranean  passages  hewn  out  of  the  tufa 


Fig.  147. —The  section  of  a  ohaniber  and  a"  lii.tiinarium  in  the  Catacomb  SS.  Marcellino  e 
Pietro,  Rome. 

rock,  the  millions  of  bodies  laid  away  with  tenderest  care  in  these 
natural  sarcophagi,  whose  enclosing  plates  of  marble  were  inscribed 
with  words  and  symbols  indicative  of  the  former  faith  and  present 
happiness  of  disciples  who  wait  the  voice  of  their  Lord  to  awaken 
them  to  eternal  life,  must  continue  to  be  the  never-ceasing  wonder 
of  the  Christian  scholar,  and  remain  as  the  most  impressive  example 
of  the  religious  care  of  the  early  Christians  for  their  dead.  If  we 
Theology  of  Cannot  speak  of  "The  Church  of  the  Catacombs,"  w^e 
the  catacombs,  ^.j^j^  speak  with  entire  truthfulness  of  a  *'  Theology  of 
the  Catacombs,"  which  may  be  formulated  from  the  evidences 
herein  contained. 

While    the    Roman    catacombs    are    more    extensive    than    any 
elsewhere   found,   those   of    Naples,  Milan,   Syracuse,  Alexandria, 


C^UiE  FOR  THI-:  I)1:aI)  in  TlIK  KAKLY  CllUliClI. 


521 


etc.,  likewise  contain  nuuiy  ultjccts  wliicli  have  jiruved  of  great 
valtU'  in  the  study  of  early  Cliristian  art,  life,  an<l  doctrine.  As 
before  said,  it  was  tlie  most  usual  cusioni  of  the  Eastern  churches 
to  use  single  and  isolatcil  tonihs.  'I'he  discoverii's  of  di'  Tombs  of  Cen- 
Vogiie  have  denioiist  ratrd  a  (•((lulilion  of  great  prosjier-  I'^ii^yria. 
ity  aujong  the  eliurehes  of  Central  Syria  during  the  fourth,  fifth, 
ami  sixth  centuries.  Many  of  the  single  monuments  are  elegant 
and  imposing,  while  the  entrances  to  some  of  the  cemeteries  have 
features  reminding  us  of  the  Roman  catacombs.  Fig.  14H  is  a 
view  of  the  exterior  of  a  tomb  at  El-Barah,  Central  Syria.'  The 
exterior  somewhat  closely  resend>les  that  of  the  Catacomb  of  Santa 
Domitilla  (Fig  14;i)  ;  but  the  interior  consists  of  a  single  chandler, 
in  which  separate  sarcophagi  art'  placed  in  arcosolid  hewn  in  the 


^ 


.Wm 


i??-*^ 


\r  -*^  '-Vw 


Fij;.  14->.— Exit-rior  view  of  rock-hewn  tombs  at  El-Barah,  Centnil  Svria. 

face  of  the  rock.  They  generally  lack  the  passages  so  usual  in  the 
Roman  catacombs,  and  more  resemble  the  cubicula.  The  number 
of  these  subterranean  tombs  in  Syria  is  very  great,  and  they  further 
confirm  our  imj)ression  of  the  scrupulous  care  of  the  Christians  for 
their  dead. 

The    teachings    of    the   symbols   and   inscii]»tions   has   elsewhere 
been  treated;"  also  the  marked  res('ml)lance  of  many  of      ^     .    , 

'  .  •  Conclusions. 

the    heathen    and    Christian    burial    customs  has    been 
noted.     Hut  as  in  the  case  of  s^'mbolism,  sculpture,  ])ainting,  and 
architecture,  so  here,  where  the  Church  used  such  elements  as  were 
not  contaminated   with  idolatry,    she  gave  to  them    a  deeper  sig- 
nificance through    the    revelation  of   life    and    immortality    in  the 

(iospel. 

'  V.  <le  Vonri'ie:   Syrii'  Cf.ntral''.  ]>l.ite  70,  no.  2,  imd  vol.  i,  ji.  107. 
'  V.  Bonk  I,  cli.ip.s.  li.  iii,  vi,  and  vii. 


ADDENDA 


I. 

GLOSSARY. 


Abacus:  The  crowning  plate  of  ilic  cap- 
ital of  a  cuKimii. 

Abraxas  Gems:  Applied  to  a  class  of 
objects,  bcariii<j  tulisniai'.ic  symbols, 
supposed  to  liavo  been  prepared  by 
the  Gnostics. 

Agape  :  The  love-feast  of  the  early  Chris- 
tians. 

Alje:  Small  rooms  adjoining  tiie  atrium 
in  a  Roman  house. 

Alto-uemevo:  Applied  to  sculptured 
figures  which  stand  out  prominently 
above  the  general  plane  of  tlic  block 
in  which  they  are  cut,  and  to  which 
they  are  attached.  Opposed  to  bass- 
reliefs,  or  basso-relievo. 

Ambo:  a  desk  from  which  the  readers 
(lectores)  read  the  gospels  and  epis- 
tles. The  pospel  ambo  stood  on  the 
south  side,  and  the  epistle  ambo  ou 
the  north  side. 

Ampull.e:  Blood-phials  found  in  tiie 
cataciimbs. 

Anaphoka  :  The  second  or  main  part  of 
a  liturgical  .service. 

AxTiPHONARiUM:  A  scrvicc  bookcontain- 
iui;  ilie  music,  cliants,  sentences,  etc. 

An'TII'IIOny  :  A  responsive  hymn  or 
ciiaiii. 

Apse:  The  semi-circular  recess  in  which 
a  building  icrnnnates,  usually  cov- 
ered by  a  half  dome. 

AiiciiiTKAVE:  The  lirst  member  of  an 
entablature,  which  rests  immediately 
upon  tiie  supporting  columns  {v.  Kn- 
talilatiire). 

AiicosoLiCM  :  .\pplicd  to  a  grave  in  the 
face  of  I  lie  rock  over  which  an  arched 
recess  is  hewn. 

Area:  TIio  groundplat  allowed  by  the 
Roman  ;;overnin«iit  to  the  c^lk'jia 
for  tiie  burial  of  their  dead,  and  for 
the  erection  of  suitable  buildiiii;s  fur 
the  celebration  of  the  memorial 
feasts. 


Athii'm:  The  chief  room  in  the  Roman 
iiouse. 

Baptistery:  A  room  or  building  where 
the  rite  of  baptism  is  administered. 
Sometimes  it  was  a  room  in  a  cliurch, 
sometimes  a  detached  building. 

Basilica:  A  spacious  hall  for  public 
business.  Afterward  applied  to  a 
Christian  church  of  a  certain  type, 
of  one,  throe,  or  five  naves. 

Bema  :  In  Byzantine  architecture  the 
name  of  the  clianccl. 

BiBLiA  Pal'peul'.m  :  "  Books  for  the  Poor," 
generally  applied  to  illustrated  leaves 
of  the  Bible,  or  to  Bible  scenes,  by 
which  religious  instruction  might  be 
given  to  the  illiterate. 

Bulla:  A  small  tablet  of  metal  or  ivory 
attached  to  a  chain  and  worn  around 
tlio  neck.  Slaves  wore  leather 
bulla;. 

Bvzan'tixe  Architecti-re:  The  style 
of  arcliitecture  developed  in  the 
Byzantine  Eini)ire  from  about  A.  D. 
328  to  A.  D.  145:5.  First  period 
prior  10  A.  I).  562;  second  period 
from  .\.  D.  562  to  the  eleventli  cen- 
tury; third  period  from  the  eleventh 
century  to  the  coiKpiest  of  Greece 
by  the  Turks. 

Capen'OE:  The  fall  of  the  voice  in  read- 
ing, especially  in  reading  poetry. 

Calippic  Cycle:  one  of  seventy-six 
years. 

Cantiiarus:  A  fountain  in  llie  vestibule 
of  a  Christian  church. 

Cantillation:  Singing  as  a  recitation  or 
chant. 

Capital:  The  head  or  crown  of  a  column 
or  pilaster.  Kach  style  of  archi- 
tecture had  its  distinctive  capital. 

Catacomrs:  Subterranean  vaults  or  ex- 
aivations  used  for  burial  purposes. 


531 


GLOSSARY, 


Cathedra:  The  chair  of  a  higii  official, 
as  bisliop  or  teacher. 

Cella:  An  enclosed  space  in  a  hyp^ethral 
temple,  where  stood  the  altar.  Also 
applied  lo  a  recess  in  a  church,  and 
to  a  building  in  whicli  burial  (easts 
were  held. 

Censer:  A  vessel,  to  wiiich  chains  are 
usually  attached,  in  which  incense  is 
burned  in  public  service. 

Ceramics:  The  science  of  pottery. 

Chalice:  Tlie  eucharistic  cup. 

CHARiSii :  An  exiraordinaiy  gift  con- 
ferred on  the  priniiiive  Christians,  as 
the  gift  of  miracles,  of  tongues,  etc. 

Chromatic:  In  nnisic  a  scale  cons'isting 
of  thirteen  intervals.  eigJii  scale 
tones  and  five  intermediate  tones. 

Ciborium:  a  domed  covering,  supported 
b}^  pillars,  rising  above  the  high  altar. 

Collegium:  An  association,  a  guild,  a 
club,  a  fraternity. 

Colonnade:  A  series  of  columns  at  regu- 
lar intervals. 

Columbarium:  A  place  of  sepulture 
where  the  urns  cnnlaining  the  ashes 
of  the  dead  were  placed  in  niches, 
resembling  a  dove-cote 

Compluvium:  The  opening  ui  the  roof  of 
a  Roman  house. 

CoNFESSiO:  A  space  beneath  the  high 
altar,  wiiere  relics  or  a  sarcophagus 
might  be  jilaced. 

CORO>fA :  Applied  to  the  jeweled  halo  en- 
ciicling  the  liead  of  a  saint  or  of 
Christ. 

Crypt:  A  vault  beneath  a  building,  or  a 
pori.ion  of  a  catacomb. 

Cubiculum:  a  sleeping  or  lodging-room 
in  a  Roman  iiouse;  also  a  burial 
chamber  in  the  catacombs. 

Cupola:  The  convex  roof  of  a  building, 
either  circular  or  polygonal. 

Cl'RSIVE:  When  applied  to  inscriptions 
it  means  running  writing,  or  where 
the  letters  are  joined  together. 

Diatonic:  In  music,  a  scale  consisting  of 
eight  sounds  with  seven  intervals,  of 
wliich  five  are  wlujle  tones  and  two 
are  semitones. 

DiPiNTi:  Inscriptions  painted  in  colours, 
as  red,  or  with  coal,  etc. 

DiPTVCii :  Any  tiling  folded  together 
twice.  Applied  to  tablets  of  metal 
or  ivory  covered  witii  wax,  used  b}' 
the  ancients  for  writing  with  a 
stylus. 

Dlscipli.va  Arcani:  Privileges  enjoj-ed 
oiilj-  by  rho.se  who  had  l)een  initiiited 
into  the  inner  mysteries  of  a  school 
or  society. 


Dome:  Literally,  a  cathedral;  more  prop- 
erly a  cupola,  spccitdly  used  in  Byz- 
antine architecture. 

Dominant:  In  music,  the  note  on  which 
tlie  recitation  was  made  in  each  psalm 
or  canticle  tune. 

ENiL-iRMONic:  The  musical  scale  which 
Was  used  by  the  ancient  Cireeks. 

Entablature:  The  portion  of  a  building 
which  is  immediately  supported  by 
columns;  it  consists  of  architrave, 
frieze,  and  cornice. 

Epigraphy:  The  science  of  inscriptions. 

Kpithalamium  :  A  wedding  song  or  hymn. 

ExEDR^:  V.  Cella.  Also  applied  in  Byzan- 
tine archil ecture  to  the  recesses  on 
either  side  the  higli  altar  which  were 
occupied  by  the  deacons. 

Extra-mural:  Situated  outside  the  walls 
of  a  town. 

Facade  :  The  front  view  or  elevation  of 
a  building. 

Font:  The  vessel  containing  the  conse- 
crated water  to  be  nsed  in  baptism. 

Forjiative  Arts:  Those  fine  arts  which 
appeal  to  the  eye,  as  sculpture,  paint- 
ing, and  architecture,  in  distinction 
from  those  arts  wliich  appeal  to  the 
e-.'.r. 

Fossores:  Literally,  diggers.  Applied  to 
a  class  of  men  who  prepared  the 
graves  for  the  burial  of  Christians. 

Fresco:  A  paintint>'  executed  in  mineral 
or  earthy  pigments  upon  fresh  or 
wet  plaster  w;ills. 

Frieze:  Tlie  middle  member  of  the  En- 
tablature: it  lies  between  the  archi- 
trave and  the  cornice.  Its  character 
depended  upon  the  style  of  architec- 
ture. 

Glyptics:  The  science  of  engraving  on 
precious  stones. 

Graffito:  A  rude  inscription  or  figure 
scratched  upon  a  soft  rock  or  stuc- 
coed surface. 

Gy.vec^um:  The  portion  of  a  church  edi- 
fice for  the  exclusive  use  of  w(nnen. 

Hexameter:  In  poetry,  having  six  feet 
to  the  line  or  verse. 

Hieroglyphics  :  The  sacred  writings  of 
tlie  Egyptians.  Now  applied  to  any 
writing  whose  key  is  obscure  or  un- 
known. 

Harmonics:  The  science  of  mus'cal 
sounds. 

Ichthus  Monuments:  Those  which  bear 
the  name  or  figure  of  the  fish. 


GLOSSARY 


525 


Im;'I.I'VII"M:  a  dcprc-ssion  or  pistorn  in 
tlin  ll.)()i-  (if  :i  Koniiii  Imhi-;c  to  nv 
ceivo  the  rain  liilling  Uironjili  llie 
annplariuin. 

In  SiTi;:  M'-iiinn  Ills  nro  saiil  to  l)e  in 
situ  when  lliey  uccMip}-  ilieir  oriirinal 
position,  or  have  not  been  disturLnnl. 

Labmsi'M:  Tlic  atandaid  of  Constmiine 
thrtdroa'  in  whicli  the  ^  snpplaiiled 
the  i{():nan  caple. 

LfiCTOitiUM:   V.   A  Ml  bo. 

LocULUS:  A  crave  hewn  in  tlie  faco  o\' 
thn  rofU  in  the  caiaconibs. 

LuN'ETrE:  A  s(>inic'ii\Mihir  sp  co  above  a 
sqii  ire  window,  or  an  orifice  for  ad- 
nii<-i()n  of  liuiit. 

r.YRio:  Applied  to  poetry  which  is  ap- 
propriate for  singing. 

Maimoi.atuy:  Tiio  cnllns  or  worship  of 

tlie  Virgin  Mary. 
MAi{\!oi{Aitii:    Tlie    Roman    workers    in 

ni irbln. 
M  \i;s()i.i-:i:m 
Mkdm.ijon  : 

liiriires 


.Vn  imposing  toinb. 
A  circular   lablot   on   wliich 
iro    scnlpt'ircil,    paintcil,    or 
wroiizlii  ill  mosaic. 
MEroNic   (Jyclh::    A    cvcle   of   nineteen 


wliicli  mimicry  is  the 


years. 

Mime:  A  pliy  in 
main  action. 

MixiAVfU  .:  An  illustrated  or  illumi- 
nated iiiann-cript;  jn-obably  so  called 
tVoai  painting  the  rubrics  and  initial 
leitcr-i  with  red  lead  {minium). 

Mi.ssA  Caii:ciil;.\ii:x<)1!UM:  The  services 
at  which  the  calecliumens  were  al- 
lowed to  be  present  in  company  with 
the  fully  inili.iied  mcinliers. 

MIS.SA  Fii);-.i.ii:m:  The  service  whicli 
only  t!ie  I'lilly  initiated  could  attend, 
especially  the  Kucharisr,. 

MoxOLiTii :  .\  cohiiun  consisting  of  a  sin- 
gle ctoiie. 

MoxocuvM:  A  combination  of  letters  or 
forms  symbolizing  some  naaie  or  fact. 

MoNL'.MKVT:  Any  seiisnon.s  object  de- 
signed to  perpetuate  tiio  memory  of 
a  person  or  event. 

Mosaics:  Oniaineiitil  work  resulting 
from  inlaying  small  i)ieces  (les^err), 
nsnally  cul>c.s,  of  glass,  stone,  etc.. 
nuu-h  used  by  tiic  anc  ents  in  pave- 
ment-', and  by  the  Christians  in  the 
apses  and  triumphal  arches  ol' 
chiirclics. 

Mosque:  The  sacred  building  of  the  Mo- 
hammedans. 

MURAI, :  Pertaiiiinir  to  a  wall;  as  mural 
painliii'.r.  that  upon  the  wall  of  a 
cburcli,  cutucoiub,  cic. 


Xaos:  Properly  n  letnplo.  Applied  to 
the  sacred  interior  of  a  church. 

Nartiie.x  :  The  portico  of  the  Byzantine 
ciinrch. 

Nave:  The  part  of  a  cliurch  building  in 
which  the  general  congfogalion  as- 
sembled, usually  lyimr  west  of  the 
choir.  Tli(!  inleiior  area  of  a  church 
may  be  divided  into  three  or  live 
naves   by   longitudinal    rows  of   i  ol- 

lllllllS. 

XiciiE:   A  recess  in  a  w.all  to  receive  a 

statue,    bust,    or    other    oniamcntal 

object. 
Ni-MBls:      The     circle     encircling     the 

head  ol' saints;  called  also  a  corona, 

when  jeweled. 
NisAX:    The   tirst   inontli  of  the   Jewish 

year,  beginning  in  March. 
Xf.M.E:   Marks  accom])aiiyii:g  the  ancient 

musical  notation,  who.se  meaning  has 

not  been  satifaeioiily  deiermined. 
XuMis.MATics:  The  science  of  coins  and 

mCLials. 

Octave:  In  music,  the  inierval. 

(Jixus:   A  recess  in    ilie  rear  part  of  the 

peristyle  of  a  llomaii  h  'ii.se. 
Orantes:    The  tecliiucal    term    used  for 

figures  found  in  catacombs,  standing 

with  extended  aiin-»   in  the  atlitudo 

of  prayer. 
Oratory:   A  building  for  prayer. 

Pal.eoGRAPIIY  :  The  science  of  decipher- 
ing ancient  inscrii'lions  and  writings. 
Pal.eoxtoi.ogy:  The  science  of  organic 

remains. 
Pallicm:    The    outside    loose    garment 

worn  by  the  Uoinaii-'. 
Paxto.M1.Me:   A  play   in  which  the  plot  is 

revealed  by  aciion.  and  noi  liy  wirrds. 
Peristyle:  A  coin   or  sipian-  enclosed 

by  a  colonnade:  sometimes  it  applies 

to  the  colonnaiic  its'lf 
Pilaster  :   A  square  half  cohimu,  usual!}' 

projecting  from  the  f:\ee  of  the  wall, 

for  purposes  of  strength  or  firnameiit. 
Pix,   Pi.xis:    An    ivDiy     box.     generally 

pl;ic('d  ii|>oii   tin-  altar  to  contain  the 

coiisecr.ited  eliments  in  the   eucha- 

rist. 
Plagal:  In  ancient  music,  applied  to  the 

lour  modes   added    by   (Jregory   the 

(ireat. 
PRESinxEitiLM :    The     portion     of    the 

church    reserved    for   liie  officiating 

clergy. 
PitOAXAPiioRv :    Tl:e    first    portio:i   of  a 

liturgical  service. 
I'sai.ter:  As  used  in  the  early  Church, 

ihe  Book  of  Psalms. 


536 


GLOSSARY. 


QUARTO-DECIMANIANS :  Those  in  the  early 
Churcli  who  celebrated  the  Christian 
passover  uuiformly  on  the  14th 
Nisan. 

Regula  Fidei  :  A  rule  of  faith. 

Rhythm  :  In  poetry  is  the  division  of  the 
lines  or  verses  into  parts  by  im- 
pulses and  remissions  of  the  voice. 
In  music,  a  periodic  recurrence  of 
the  accent. 

Rotunda  :  A  round  building  usually  cov- 
ered by  a  dome. 

Sanctuarium  •  The  space  within  the  apse 
wliero  stood  the  altar  and  tlie  sacred 
furniture  was  kept.  The  space  set 
apart  for  the  officiating  clergy. 

Sarcophagus:  A  stone  coffin,  usually 
covered  by  a  stone  slab  or  lid,  which 
was  carefully  cemented  to  it. 

Schola:  A  building  in  which  the  ancient 
clubs  or  guilds  were  accustomed  to 
meet. 

Spandrel:  The  space  between  the  arches 
and  entablature  in  a  basilica;  or 
"  the  space  included  between  the 
upper  arch  of  a  window  or  door  and 
the  square  outer  molding  which 
form  a  frame  thereto." 

Spheagistics:  The  science  of  seals. 

Swastika  :  A  form  of  the  cross  often  found 
in  India  (v.  Fig.  15,  lower  form). 

Tablinum:    a   recess   in    the  atrium   of 

a  Roman  house. 
Tessera  :  Small  cubes  of  glass  or  marble 

used  in  mosaic  work. 
Tetrachord:  In  ancient  music  a  series 

of  four  sounds,  the  first  and  last  of 

which  constituted  a  fourth.     The  ex 


tremes  were  fixed ;  the  others  might 

vary. 
Thrust:    In    architecture,  the   outward 

pressure  exerted  upon  walls,  etc.,  by 

a  superincumbent  mass. 
TiTULi:   Inscriptions,  properly  so  called. 
Transept  :  The  portion  of  a  church  which 

intercepts    the    main   nave    at  right 

angles,  forming  a  cruciform  structure. 

It   was  usually  of  nearly  the  same 

lieight  as  the  main  nave. 
Tribune:  v.  Apse. 
Triclinium:   The   dining  or   banqueting 

room  in  tlie  ancient  Roman  house. 
Triumphal  Arch:  In  a  basilica,  the  arch 

spanning   the   opening  leading  from 

the  main   nave  to  the  apse.     When 

a     transept    was    introduced    there 

miglit  be  more  than  one  triumphal 

arch. 
Tunic:  The  undergarment,  reaching    to 

the  knees,  worn  by  both  sexes  of  the 

Romans. 

Uncial:  A  term  descriptive  of  a  kind  of 
writing  sharing  the  qualities  of  cap- 
itals and  cursive  writing.  It  in- 
clines to  cliange  the  angular  outline 
of  the  capital  to  the  rounded  outline 
of  the  cursive. 

Vaulting  :  The  arched  surface  of  a  ceil- 
ing, receiving  different  names  from 
the  character  of  the  curve. 

Yerd-antique  :  A  kind  of  green  por- 
phj'ry:  sometimes  applied  to  a  mot- 
tled green  marble. 

Vestibule:  A  hall  or  ante-room  from 
which  the  main  room  of  a  building  is 
entered. 

Vestibulum  :  v.  Vestibule. 


NAMES  OF  ClILKCUES  A.NU  CATACOMBS.  537 


II. 

ITALIAN  CHCRCHES  AND  CATACOMBS  WITH  EQUIVALENT  ENGLISH 

NAMES.' 


Santa  Agnese,  Catacomb  of. 

Cuiacomb  of  St.  Agnes. 
S<in(a  A'jwsefuori  le  mnra,  Clnircli  of. 

(jliurch  of  St.  Agues  outside  tlic  city  walls. 

S'ln  Akssandro,  Cemetery  of. 

Cemetery  of  St.  Alexander. 

San  Ambrorjio,  Church  of. 

Clnirch  of  St.  Ambrose. 
San  Andrea  in  Barbara,  Cluirch  of. 

Church  of  St.  Andrews  in  Barbara. 
San  Apollinare  in  Classe,  Cluirch  of. 

Churcli  of  St.  Apollinarius  at  the  port  of  Classe. 

San  Apollinare  Xuovo,  Cliurch  of. 

New  Cliurch  of  St.  ApoUiuarius. 
San  Bernardo  a  Termini,  Church  of 

Cliurch  of  St.  Bernard  at  the  Limits. 
San  Calisto,  Catacomb  of. 

Catacomb  of  St.  Calixtus. 

San  Ckmente,  Cluirch  of 

('hurch  of  St.  Clement. 
Sanfa  Constanzia,  Church  of 

Cliurch  of  St.  Constantia. 
SS.  Cosmos  e  Damiano,  Cemetery  of. 

Cemetery  of  Sts.  Cosmas  and  Damianus. 
Santa  Croce  in  Germakmme,  Church  of. 

Church  of  the  Holy  Cross  iu  .Torusaleiu. 
Santa  Domiiilla,  Catacomb  of 

Catacomb  of  St.  Domiiilla 
San  Francesco,  Cluirch  of. 

Church  of  St.  Francis. 
San  Gennaro  dei  Poveri,  Church  of 

Church  of  St.  .lanuarius  for  the  Poor. 
San  Giovanni  Ecan'jelista,  Church  of. 

Church  of  St.  John  the  Kvangclist. 
San  Giovanni  in  fonte,  Church  of. 

Cliurch  of  St.  John  (the  Baptist)  by  the  font. 
San  Giovanni  in  Laterano,  Church  of 

Church  of  St.  John  in  the  Laterau. 

'  This  Ust  Is  (riven  for  the  benefit  of  surh  readers  as  may  not  be  familiar  with  Italian,  or 
may  not  have  enjoyed  the  opportunity  of  visiting  these  spots. 


528        NAMES  OF  CHURCHES  AND  CATACOMBS. 

Santa  Lucina,  Catacomb  of. 

Catacomb  of  St.  Lucina. 
San  Lorenzo^  Church  of. 

Churcli  of  St.  Lawrence. 
San  Lorenzo  fuori  le  mura,  Church  of. 

Church  of  St.  Lawrence  outside  the  city  wall.s, 
San  Marco,  Church  of. 

Church  of  St.  Mark. 
Santa  Maria  in  Cosmedin,  Church  of. 

Church  of  St.  Mary  in  Cosmedin. 
Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  Church  of. 

Church  of  St.  Mary  the  Greater. 

Santa  Maria  delta  Botonda,  Church  of. 

Cliurcli  of  St.  Mary  of  tiie  Rotunda. 

Santa  Maria  delta  Sanita,  Chnrcli  of. 

Church  of  St.  Mary,  the  lieallhgiving. 
Santa  Maria  in  Trastavere,  Church  of. 

Church  of  St.  Mary  in  district  of  Traslavere. 
SS.  Nazario  e  Celso,  Church  of. 

Church  of  Sts.  Nazarius  and  Celsus. 
San  Nicola  in  Carcere,  Cluirch  of. 

Church  of  St.  Nicholas  by  the  prison. 
San  Faolo  faori  le  mura,  Chiu'cli  of. 

Church  of  St.  Paul  outside  the  citj^  walls. 
SS.  Pietro  e  Marcellino,  Catacomb  of. 

Catacomb  of  Sis.  Peter  and  Marccllinus. 
San  Pietro  in  Vincolo,  Church  of. 

Church  of  St.  Peter  of  the  Fetters. 
Sa7i  Pietro  in  Vaticano,  Church  of. 

Church  of  St.  Peter  in  the  Vt.tican. 
San  Ponziano,  Catacomb  of. 

San  Pra^teskiJo,  Cemetery  of. 

Santa  Pi-isciUa,,  Catacomb  of. 

Santa  Pudenziana,  Church  of. 

San  Sisto,  Chapel  of. 

San  Siefano,  Church  of. 

Colli  di  Sto  Stefano,  Basilica  of. 

San  Vitale,  Church  of. 


Catacomb  of  St.  Poiitianus. 

Cemetery  of  Prtetextatus. 

Catacomb  of  St.  Priscilla. 

Church  of  St.  Pudentia. 

Chapel  of  St.  Sixtus. 

Church  of  St.  Stephen. 

Basihca  of  St.  Stephen  on  the  hills  (in  Tivoli). 

Church  of  St.  Vital. 


TRANSLATION    OF   INSCKIPT.U>Nyi. 


52» 


TRANSLATION  OF  THE 


III. 

USSCRIPTIONS  FOUND 
THE  PUTFS.' 


IN  THE  TEXT  AND  IN 


PaOB 

67. 


67. 
67. 
96. 

14:5. 


253. 


254. 


255. 


2r)6. 


Victoria  Coiistantini  Aug. 

Victory  of  Coiistiintine  Augustus 
(or  the  Great). 
Hoc  sigiio  victor  cris. 

Intliissigntliovi  slialt  be  conqueror. 
Feit'cM  TcmporCs  Reparatio 

A  restoration  of  the  iiappv  age. 
DN  IlIY  XPS  Dl<:i   FILIV'^S-Do/wi- 
N?M  IIIffYf  XP/froc  DKI  KILIVS. 

TIh'.  Lord  Jesus  Clirist,  Son  of  God. 
IVS.iii.s  B.VSSVS  Vir  Clnrissimn.s 
QVI  ViXIT  AXNIS.  XLII.  .MKX,  II 
KV  IPSA  PRAKFECTVHA  VKBI. 
NEOFITVS  IIT  AD  DEVM.  vm 
KALendd'i  HKPTemhri  KVSEBIO 
ET  TPATIO  COnsuUhug. 

Junius  Bassus,  of  patrician   ratik, 
wiio  lived  forly-lwo  years  and  two 
months.    In  the  vory^-carin  which 
he  became  prefect  of  tlio  city,  a  neo- 
phyte, he  went  toGodon  tlie  8th  be- 
fore the  kalends  of  September,  Ku- 
sebiusaiid  Hypaiius  being  consuls. 
'  Hie  jacet.     *IIic  requiescit..     *Hic 
jacet  in  nomine  Christi.     •*  Hie  requi- 
escit in  pace. 
Here  lies.     Here  reposes  or  rests. 
Here  lies   in  the  name  of  Christ. 
Here  rests  in  peace. 
'  In  pjice.     ^  'Ef  dpi/VTi.     '  Vivas  in 
Deo.     ••  Vivas  in  jetcrnum. 
In  peace.    In  peace.    Mayest  tliou 
live    in    God.      Mayest  thou  live 
forever. 
'  Diis  Mai;il)us.     '  Diis  ifanibus  sa- 
crum.    *Ofo/f  KarnxOovioi^. 

To  the  gods  of  the  lower  world. 
Sacred  to  the  gods  of  the  lower 
world.  To  the  gods  of  the  lower 
world. 
'  fiapai  Tara  fi>iTTJp  bv6ei^  oi^dfarof. 
'  Domus  ;ctcrna.     '  Perpetua  sedes. 

Uejoice,  O  mother  dear,  no  one  is 
immortal.      The     eternal     homo. 
The  everlasting  habitation. 
Tlie  eternal  home. 


25G  n.  '  Adjuro  (vos)  Yiri  ?iancli  omnes 
Cliris/iaiii,  et  te,  cnste  (coslodo) 
beat!  Juliani,  Deo  et  tremenda  die 
jndicii,  ut  liiuic  sopuichrum  nunqnm 
ullo  tempore  violetur,  sed  conserve- 
twr  u.sqne  ad  tinem  mundi,  ill  prosini 
sine  impedimenta  in  vita  redire, 
cum  venorit  que  judiwiturus  est 
vivos  et  mornios.  .  .  . 

I  adjure  you  all,  0  holy  Christ- 
ians, and  thee,  0  keeper  of  the 
happy  .Julian,  by  God,  and  by 
tiio  fearUd  day  of  judgment,  that 
this  tomb  may  never  at  any  time 
be  violated,  but  may  be  guarded 
even  to  the  end  of  the  world, 
that  I  may  without  hinderance 
return  to  life,  when  he  shall  come 
and  judge  the  living  and  the  dead. 

*  Male  pereat,  insepulius  jaceat,  non 
resnrgar  cinn  Juda  partem  habeal, 
siquis  sepuichram  hunc  violaveril. 

If  any  one  siiall  violate  tlii.s 
tomb,  let  him  miserably  perisii, 
let  him  lie  nnl)uried,  let  him  not 
rise  again,  let  him  have  his  por- 
tion with  the  Jew! 

'  Perire.     ■•  Vita  privalus. 
To  perish.     Deprived  of  life. 
257.      '  Vale,  liave  or  avc,  salve,  ;t'**'pe. 
Farewell. 

'Spiritus  tnus  in  pace. 
Thy  spirit  in  peace. 

'Pax"  lib!. 

Peace  to  the". 

■•  In  pace  domini. 

In  the  peace  of  the  I^ord. 

'  Pax  tecum. 

Peace  be  with  tliee. 

*  Vivas,  vives,  vivis. 

Mavcst  thou  live. 
■•  Vivas,  vives,  vivis  in  Christo,  m 
Deo,  in  gloria  Dei,  in  Domino  Jesu. 
etc. 

Mayest  thou  live  in  Christ,  in 
G(hI,  in  the  glory  of  God,  in  the 
Lord  Jesus  ('hrist,  etc. 


•  These  translations  are  made  for  thf  Vwn(»fit  of  those  who  are  not  familiar  with  the  classical 
lanRuaRt's.  .Some  of  Ihi'  texts  are  fraRmeiitary,  some  quite  Indistinct,  an<l  oth<'i-s  of  doubtful 
ineanlnjf.  Soine  are  characterized  hy  Incorrect  cirthojfraphy,  others  hy  very  wide  <ieparture  from 
classical  construction,  and  still  others  by  a  barbarous  comiulnglinK  of  (in-ek  and  Latin  charac- 
ters and  words,  v.  p.  SSI. 
34 


o30 


TRANSLATION   OF   INSCRIPTIONS. 


INSCRIPTIONS  IN  PLATE  III. 


No. 
1. 


10. 


12. 
113. 


17. 


19. 


Severs,  in  Deo  vivas. 
Severa,  mayest  tliou  live  in  God ! 

Florentius  iu  pace. 
Florenlius  iu  pence. 

MoixTVf  i^uv  eJvoiJ)(yev  Atg)  Kai  ttj  yvweKi. 
Moses  (?)  while  living  erects  this 
to  Auis  (?)  and  his  spouse. 

Aureliiis  Casttis  m.  VIII.  Fecit  filio 

suo  Antonia  Sperantia. 

Aurelius  Castus  (innocent  ?)  eight 
months  old.  Anionia  Sperantia 
erects  this  to  lier  son. 

Vipas  (vivas?)  Pondz  (?)  (Pontius  ?) 

in  ajferuo. 

Pontius,  mayest  thou  live  for- 
ever. (?) 

BiipaTiuvg  NiKaropag  Aai^apitj  Kat  lov- 

Airi  Kai  OvTfai/LLT/KOV  (w  ?)  <pi?uov^  (o(f  ?) 

bene    merenles.     Obi^wi^   .    .    .    octa 

.  .  .  uga. 

Beratius  (Veratius  ?)  Nioatoras  to 
Lazarus  (?)  and  Julia  nnd  Onesima- 
cus  (Onesimus?)  well  -  deserving 
friends.  (?)  They  died  on  the  eighth 
(day  ?  month  ?)...? 
A  barbarous  combinaiion  of  Greek 
and  Latin. 

Sabinus  co)/jngi  sna3  Coelcrine,  bene- 

merenti  qux.  vixit  annis  LV  Mensibus 

VI  Biehus  XV.     In  pace. 

Sabinus  to  his  well-deserving 
spouse,  Celerina,  who  lived  55 
years,  6  months,  and  15  d:iys.  In 
peace. 

ApTEfiiaiog  B(V)ivKevTiai  avvjiiu).     'Ev 

eiprjvri. 

Artemisios  to  his  wife  Vincentia. 
In  peace. 

A  fragment  whose  reading  must  be 

conjectural. 

Sabinaqne  (c'e)vixie  (t)  Annis  XXVI  M 

ensibus  V. 

Sabina  who  lived  26  years  and  5 
months. 

Qui  vixit  ansis  (nis)  Villi  .  .  .  ti  in 

pace. 

Who  lived  9  years  ...  in  peace. 

Varonius  Fillumenns  Varroniaj  Foti- 

niie  fiilite  suie  fecit. 

Varonius  Filumenus  made  this 
(tomb)  to  his  daughter,  Varonia 
Fotina. 

UlGTO^  EK  TTlffTUV,  Zuffi/uog    ev()afieK£Lfl£ 

Zi]aaq  ereaiv  (i.  /J.rj.a.  k.  £.. 

A  believer  of  believers,  Zosiraus, 
here  lies,  having  lived  2  j-ears,  1 
montii,  25  days. 


No. 
22. 


24. 

26. 
27. 


43 


45. 


47. 


Marcus  Aurelius  Ammianus  fecit 
sibi  et  conjuj(gr)i  suiB  Corneliae  rufe- 
rati  (?)  bene  combenientibus. 

Marcus  Aurelius  Ammianus  made 
(this  tomb)  for  himself  and  his  wife 
Cornelia   (ruferali  ?)   having   lived 
iiappily  together. 
"  Domna,"  witli  the  anchor,  implies 
the  death  of  the  departed  in  hope  of 
the  resurrection. 
Rufinfe  in  Pace. 

To  Rntina  in  peace. 
Agape  qna3    vixit   a.nms-^-'V-^-Mensi- 
&ti5+II+diebz<?+XXII.      Irene   quae 
vixit    auui-s +  111 +  m  +  YlI  +  dieh  lis  + 
V  + Julius  urbanus  pater  +  fecit. 
To    Agape    who   lived  5  years,   2 
montlis,   22  days.     To  Irene   who 
lived  3  years,    7   months,  5   days. 
Julius  Urbanus,  the  father,  made 
(this  tomb.) 
+  Vtt(?)  Lucius  Bene  Merent. 
(?)  Lucius,  well-deserving. 
Lucilla  in  pace. 

LuciUa  in  peace. 
Roman?;s  Sabinus. 
A  fragmant  of  uncertain  meaning. 
Petrus  —  Paidns.  —  Aselln(io)    bene 
merenti    qui    vicxit    annn(is)    sex, 
mesis  (niensibus)  octo   dies   (diebus) 
XXIIL 

Peter  .  .  .  Paul  ...  To   Asellus, 
the    well-deserving,  who    lived   6 
years,  8  montlis,  23  days. 
Victoria   qu;e   vixit    cum  Virginium 
suum    annos(is)    XIII    menses  (ibns) 
duo  dies(ebus)  XXII.  deposita  nonn. 
kalendas  Augustas.     In  pacse(e). 
Victoria  wlio  lived  with   her  ims- 
band  Virginius  13  years,  2  months, 
22  days.     Buried  the  ninth  before 
the  kalends  of  August.     In  peace. 
(Barbarous  Latin.) 
In  pace  (above)  VII.  M.  .  X.  D.  V.D. 
on  side. 

In  peace.     7   months,   10  days.  (?) 
Depositus  est  Januarius  III  I  Idas  Sept 
qui  vixit  ann(is)  11,  m.  XL.     In  pace. 
Januarius     was     buried     on     the 
fourth  of  the  Ides  of  September, 
who  lived  2  years,  1 1  months.     In 
peace. 
A  fragment — not   capable   of   being 
translated. 
Severa;  virgini  qua  vixit  ann. 

To  the  virgin  Severa  who  lived  (?) 
years. 


TRANSLATION   OF    INSCUIPTIONS. 


i:!l 


INSCRIPTION'S  IN   PLATK  IV 


10. 


11. 
14. 


15. 
IG. 


17. 


18. 


Parcntes  filio  Axuiijfio  bene  nuMcnti 
in  pace  qui  vixit  annis  VI.  in.X  D* 
Vositu.i  V 1 1  KnleuiULs  Octobris. 

The  pareiiLs  to  Axiiiiciiis  wcll-de- 

serviiijr,  in  pence,  who  lived  (i  years 

1 0  inontlis.     Buried  on  tlie  seventh 

before  tlie  kalends  of  October. 

?  V  I'alendas  .Jnlia«.     Leo  (ni)  bene 

nierenti   i|ui    vi.vit  aniiu.s  (is)   XXVI 

dies(ebtis)  XXX. 

Tiie  tirst  part  a  fragment.       The 
last  runs.  To  Leo,  well-deserving, 
who  lived  2(5  years  ."SO  days. 
EA?uvng  Kai  ii'refja  Ev(j!/iii(f)  yAvuvruri.) 

Tf/UlTa  £TU)V  t.  M.  //j. 

Kllinns  and  Otera  to  the  very 
precious  Kusel'iiis  who  died  at  7 
years  and  12  monllis. 

DG\wsitiis    Entropies   VII    Kale/i(/c(.« 

Ociobris. 

Entropius  buried  tlie  seventh  be- 
fore the  kalends  of  Otober. 

Anrelia  Scrice  qujc  vixit  annw  XXXI 

monsis  HI  D.itbu.s  XVI.     Fecit  .\u- 

relins  Primus  co»/jugi  suiB  dulcissime 

(to)  bene  nierenti  in  pace. 

Anrelia  Serica.wiio  lived  :{1  years. 
3  montiis,  16  days.  Anrelius  Pri- 
mus erected  (this)  to  his  most  pre- 
cious spou.se,  well  deserving.  In 
peace. 

Lucinia  .1<]lldoraad  Deo  data,  in  pace, 

IIH  Idsis  Mar.   Annorom.  (•')     Bene 

merenli  in  pace  Frairi.  (?) 

Lucina  .-filidora  given  to  God  in 
peace  the  fourih  of  the  Ides  of 
March.  ? 

Alexandra  in  pace. 
Alexandra  in  peace. 

Severe  bene  merenli  fecerunt  parcntes 

in  pace  qw.c  vixit  aiiiio  ?  d\rl/i/M  XX. 
To  Severa  well-dcsci  viug  the  pa- 
rents erect  {i\\\^)  in  peace  who 
lived  years  ?  20  days. 

A  Fragment. 

Januariic  conjngi  bene  nierenti  qune 

vixit  ?  aiinis  X.X. 

To  JanuMria  the  woU-deserving 
wife  who  lived  ?  .  20  years. 

Klis-j-et-|-Xicioria  parcntes  (iili:c  Hen 

merenti  i\\ue  vixit  aii/(/.v  II   mcusibtis 

iii. 

Elis  and  Victoria,  the  parents, 
to  the  daughter  well-de.serving  wlio 
lived  2  3-ears  .!  iiionihs. 

KristituH   et    Felicia   parcntes   Felici 

filio  dulcissimo  bene  meronti  qui  vixit 


26. 


31. 


G.-). 


aiinis  XI III  mensia  VJI  dies  XVIII. 

To  in  pace. 

The  paretit.s,  Kristilus  and  Feli- 
cia, to  Felix  the  dearest  and  well- 
deserving  son,  who  lived  14  years, 
7  months.  18  days.     Tlico  iu  peace. 

Lucifer  paU-r  hliie  Ursa;  bcnemercnt(0 

qwH  vixit  an/i(v  III  (\iebus  XXI. 
Lucii'er   the  father  to  the  daugli- 
ter  Ursa,  well-cleserving,  who  lived 
;{  years.  21  days. 

Bibbeo  v(b)ene  merenti. 
To  Hil)beus  well-deserviug. 

Flavia  hie  posila. 
Flavia  here  buried. 

Phocina. 

Aelia    lJ(V)ictorina    posiiit    Aureliic 

Pn>l)a-. 
yVA'ui   Victnrina    placed    (thi.s)    to 
.Vurolia  Proba. 

Africane   le   in  ?   Maximiiuis  ei  tu  ? 

cni.  vit.  annos  III  m  VII  et  ? 

0  AlVicanus  tlieo  in  ?  Maxiininus 
and  thou  ?  who  livtd  .'!  years  7 
months  and  ? 

?  ;e  l)enf-    merenli     lili;e    dulcissiiiKP 

qu;e  vixit  anil.  XXIF  inensis   Xi   liies 

XVII IL  deposila   die   IIll    Kalen(l..s 

Maias.  in  pace.  Parentis  fecernnt. 
?  to  the  well-deserving  and  most 
precious  daughter  who  lived  22 
year.s,  11  nionih.s  19  days.  Buried 
on  tiic  fourth  liefore  the  kalends 
of  M;iy.  In  peace.  The  parents 
erected  (this  monument). 

Asnrus+In  i>(ace)  vixit  an.  VII. 
Asurus  in  peace  lived  7  3'ears. 

Vixit  anis. 

He  lived  years.  ? 

A  Fragment. 

A  Fragment. 

Firmia  Vietora  que  vixit  aunis  LXV. 
Firniia  Victoria  who  liveii  (if)  years. 

Anrelio  Felio  qui  b(v)  ixit  cum  con- 

jugio    bone    tuemorie   b(i)ixit   annos 

Iv.     Raptns  eterne  domiis  XII   Kal. 

Januarins.  (Barbarous  Laiin.) 
To  Aurelius  Fcliiis  who  lived 
with  his  spou.se  well  reriiembcred 
55  years.  Snatched  to  his  eternal 
home  the  twelfth  before  the  kalends 
of  .laniiary. 

Eleutherio  in  pace  depositus  III  Kal. 

Jan. 

To  Klenilieriiis  in  peace.  Buried 
the  third  before  the  kalends  of  Jan- 
uary. 


533 


TRANSLATION   OF   INSCRIPTIONS. 


INSCRIPTIONS  OF  PLATE  V. 


No. 
1. 

2,  3. 

4. 


5«. 


Decessit 

He  has  departed. 
DeposiUis.    Buried.    Sepultus.     Bur- 
ied. 
Ka-adeatg  <Pn6iavrjc. 

Burial.     Phadlaiies  (?) 
Ma?-co    Aurelio.       Aw^untorum.,     lib- 
erto.     Proseneti  a  cubiculo  Aii,2:ms?«. 
proourulori   tiies;uirorum   \)roc2irato7-i, 
patrinioni'  ]^rocuraturi  viiiorum  ordi- 
nate ;i  divo  Cortimod  ■  in  castrensc  pa- 
trono  piissimolibtrti  beiiemerenti  sar- 
copliagum  de  siio  adoruaverunt. 
To    Mai'cus  Aurelius    Proseiies,  a 
freedman  of  tlie  Aiio:nslii,   of  tlie 
cubiculiim  (?)  of  the  emperor,  the 
keeper  of  the  treasury,  overseer  of 
the  paternal  estate,  superintendent 
of  tlie  gifts,  keeper  of  tiie  wines, 
appoint<"d  by  tlie  divine   Commo- 
dus  in  charge  of  the  camp ;  to  their 
patron  mosi  pious  and  well-deserv- 
ing,   his    freednieii,    of  then'   own 
means,  have   adorned   this   sarco- 
phagus. 
Prosenes  receptus  ad  Denm.  V.  Non  ?  ? 
Reqrediens  in  .  .  .  nrbe  ab  expedi- 
tionibus  scripsit  Ampelius  Yihertus. 
Presenes    being   leceived    to    God 
on  the  fifth  of  the  Nones  .  .  .  Ampe- 
lius,  his  freedman,  returning  to  the 
city  (?)  from  his  expeditions,  wrote 
(this  inscription). 
Aurelia  dulcissima  filia  qua3  de  seculo 
recessit  vixit  annis  X  V  •  Mcnsilms  illl 
Severo  et  Quintii  o,  Coss. 

Amelia  a  much  beloved  daughter 
who  has  departed  this  life  lived  15 
years,  4  months,  Severns  and  Qiiin- 
tinus  being  consuls. 

aev  iT(ff)  i)  rrapa  7'/{/.iepag)  ly  hoar/asv 
i]fi[Epaq)  ifi,  TsAevTa  'irpola  K(a/.n'(W) 
Mai{iJv)  (T?.)TTt(f)  Kai  TlovTiaviovn  [aroic;) 


' Avp{T/?uog)  'Eavdiaq  narr/p  tekvu-jIvkv- 

Tep(j)  (puTOQ  Kai  L,ur]q. 

Heraclitus,  the  well-beloved  of 
God,  having  lived  almost  8  years 
and  13  day.*,  being  sick  12  days, 
died  on  the  11th  before  the  Kal- 
ends of  May,  Ulpius  and  Pontianns 
being  consuls.  Aurelius,  the  father, 
held  this  child  more  dear  than  light 
and  life. 
9.    Acliad  ...  am  possuti  .  .  .  XlII  Kai. 

Aug.  'EmUiano  II  et  Aquilino  Cons. 

Dorm  it. 

A  broken  inscription ;  the  last 
reads:  the  thirteenth  before  the 
kalends  of  August,  Emilianus  the 
second  time  and  Aquilinns  being 
consuls.     He  sleeps. 

1 0.  'ZenTifj.iog-  npa(/ref 7a)ro(f)  Kai  K  • . . . . 
6  doii/lof  •  Tov  {f)£o)v  a^tug  .  .  .  6v  fiET- 
avorjca.  Kav  u6e  goi  vTzepaTTjca  aai  ev- 
Ka(pi(f)T7j(7u.  TO)  ovofiaTt.  GOV  na{p£ihKe) 
T7JV  ipv;^(>iv)  (r)w  Oeg).  rpiavra  Tpiu{v) 
.  .  .  ef  fiTivuv. 

Septimius  Pretextatus  (?)  and 
...  a  servant  of  G(  d  (having  lived) 
worlliily.  I  cannot  repent  myself 
to  have  thus  served  thee,  and  I 
render  thanks  to  thy  name.  He 
gave  his  soul  back  to  God  at  33 
years  and  6  monihs.     (?) 

11.  'Evhe(ol)p{e)itu'  ovpavia  OvyaTTjp- 
'Upudpq-  (?) 

Miives-t  thou  have  good  passage 
to  heaven  0  daughter  of  Heroda.  (?) 

12.  ApfiEvia-  ^TjXiKiTag-  Alia-  Fr/yiva. 

Armenia  •  Felicitas  •  CElia  •  Re- 
gina. 

13.  Januara  co(n)jugi  bene  merente(i) 
Gorgono  magisiro*  primo     (?) 

Januara  to  her  well-deserving 
husband  Gorgonus,  the  master. 

14.  Lenntina  {t)n  Deo  pax. 

Leontina  in  God  peace. 


INSCRIPTIONS  OF  PLATE  YL 

BEING   CKIEF'I.Y   OF  DOCTRINAL    IMPORT. 


Vidua  P  (?)  bel'cissmia  !  In  Deo  vives. 

0  widow  most  fortunate!    Mayest 

thou  live  in  God! 
Ursina  vibes  Deo. 

Ursina,  mayest  thou  live  in  God! 
'Evrvxtg  ^uTEpiy  gvuHhj  KaAuq  t)  ^tu- 
fiEVT)  tnoiT/aa  ^7)  ev  Qeg). 


Eutychis  to  Sotcrie    my  compan- 
ion   well    honoured   (?).      I    have 
made    (this).     May    she    live    in 
God. 
Fortnnata  vives  in  Deo. 

Fortiinata,    mavest    thou    live    in 
God! 


TRANSLATION  OF    INSCHII'TloNS. 


58» 


No. 

f).  M  E  M  ? 

Uliilius  (Vitulius  ?)  Callijidiiis  semper 
ill  Deo  vivas'  dulcis  uiiiiiia. 

Viluliiis  Ciiliigoiiis.  iimycsL  tlioii 
ever  live  in  God,  sweet  spirit. 

6.  FuiisliiiJi  (liiicis  bibas  in  iK-u. 

Sweet  Faustina,  niayest  tboii  live 
in  God! 

7.  Vihas  in  deo.  feci     Qui  ? 

Mayest  tiioii  live  in  God.  I  have 
made  (liiis).     ?     ... 

8.  Bono  altjiie  (?)  dulcissimo  co//jiioI 
Castoriiio  qui  vixit  auni.s  LXI  meii.si- 
bus"  V"  lij'w  X.  Benemereiiti  uxor 
feeit.     Vive  in  Deo. 

To  lier  dear  and  well  beloved 
husband,  Castoriniis,  who  lived  Gl 
years,  5  months,  10  days.  To  Iiira 
well-deserving  the  wife  erects(tliis). 
Live  thou  in  God! 

9.  Lucida  in  I)eu>«.  B(V)ixit  annuo*  XL 

Lucida  in  God.  She  lived  11  years. 
10  D.  P. 

Lucifere  co/ijugi  dulcissime  omneii 
(m)  dulcitudinem  cum  luctu  maxime 
(o)  nijirito  reliquit  .  .  .  et  meruit  ti- 
tuhim  inscribi  lit  qnisque  de  fratribus 
legeret  roget  deiiw  ut  sancto  et  iuiio- 
centi  spiritoad  deuin  su>eipiatur.Qu(ie 
vixit  aniios  XXII  me/w.-s  Villi  dies 
Vl. 

D.  P.         (?) 

To  Lncil'era  the  dearly-beloved  wi(o 
who  left  to  her  husband  in  the 
deepest  sorrow  all  plea.saiuness  and 
who  deserves  that  this  epit:ipli 
should  be  inscribed  that  whoever 
of  the  brothers  shall  read  may  lie- 
seech  God  that  with  a  saintly  and 
sinless  spirit  slie  may  be  received 
to  God.  Who  lived  22  years,  9 
months,  6  days.' 

11.  Pactum  (?)et  lidellism(?)aput(?)dcnm 
et  pro  spirito. 

The  translation  is  not  easy  on 
account  of  the  Inigmentury  charac- 
ter oftlie  inscription. 

12.  Bolosii  dens  tibi  rcfugcret  qiiaj  vixit 
annos  XXXI  recessit  die  XIII  kal 
Oclobres. 

O  Bolosa  (Volosa  ?).  may  God  re- 
fresh thee!  Who  livedst  31  years. 
Siie  departed  on  the  13th  before 
the  kalends  ot  October. 

13.  Amerimnus  llufitiic  eonjngi  carissime 
bene  merenti  spiritum  tuum  Dens  rc- 
rel'rigerel. 

Amerimus  to   Rnfina  liis  precious 


18. 


19. 


wife,  well-de.serving.     May  God  re- 
fresii  thy  s[)irit! 
llefrigera  dens  animai/i  Horn.  (?) 

Refresh,  O(iod,  ihe  spirit  of  lloin(?) 
Lais  cum  pace  .  .  .  ispiritusin  bonum 
((uescat.     (Barbaric  Latin) 

Lais    with  peace,   liiat    thy   spirit 
may  rest  well. 
A  Fragment. 
Uegiiia  vibas  in  domino  Zesii. 

kegina,    mayest   thou    live  in  the 
Lord  Jesiis  I 
Bibas  in   Christo  Constantia  in  pace 
QiiML-  vi.\it  annos  LV  (?)  fecit  (?)  bene. 
Ma  vest  thou  live  in  Christ!     ("on- 
stanlia  who  lived  in  peace  ,'jb  (?) 
years,  (made  this)  ? 
Suscepla  Colouica  in   ^  quui  requi- 
evil  vixit  aim  XI  dep  in  Nov. 

Colouica    who  rested  in  peace  re- 
ceived in  Ciirist.  She  lived  40  years, 
liaving  been  Buried  iu  Novemljer. 
In  ^  A.selu3  D  ? 

In  Christ  Aseliis     ? 
.  .  .  Erre  recepit  corpus  Livi  ...  X 
decern  et  qiiaterque   binos   hie  .  .  . 
cslersos  teire  solutus  anima  Christo 
reddita  e-t. 

This  is  too  fragmentary  to  fiir- 
nsh  a  key  to  the  sense. 
Mime  bonitatis  adque  iiieniitabili.v 
saiictiiatis  totiiis  castitatis  rari  exen 
(m)i)li  fLMiiiiKtc;  cast«e  bon«e  b(v)it;u  et 
pielate  iu  omnibus  gloriosrfe  Braiiifw* 
dignitati,  quae  vixit  aiiiio'  XXXI II 
qiicE  sine  lesione  animi  mei  \\x\t  uic 
cum  annos  XV  liliosauiem  procreavit 
Vll  ex  quibus  si  (e)  cu/«  /t;ibct  donii- 
nuin  IlIIII. 

To  a  female,  of  admirable  good- 
ness, and  of  inimitable  saneiny, 
of  entire  purity  a  rare  example, 
chaste,  of  good  and  pious  life,  re- 
nowned in  all  tliing.s,  to  Braitia 
Digiiitas  who  lived  33  }'ears,  wlio 
without  vexation  of  my  spirit  lived 
with  me  15  j-ears.  She  liore  7 
sons,  (i  of  who.n  she  has  with  the 
Lord.  (?) 
B(V)ictorina  in  pace  et  in  ^  . 

Viciorina  in  peace  and  in  Christ. 
Anima  diilcis  incomparabili  tiiio  i\ui 
vixit  annis  ■  XVII  nou  X"  meritus 
vilam  redil((/it  in  pace  domini. 

A  sweet  spirit!  To  an  iiieoin- 
paraljle  son  who  lived  less  than 
1  7  3'ears.  Worthy  ho  gave  back  his 
life  in  the  peace  of  the  Ljrd.  (?) 


'  There  has  be"n  miioh  dlfTerence  of  opinion  relative  to  the  reading  and  InterprclHtlon  of  tins 
iDscriplion.    Some  prefer  to  read  iu  the  vocative  ibe  upeuiuif  name,  and  uuderatuad  rcliquislL. 


534 


TRANSLATION   OF   INSCRIPTIONS. 


No. 

25.  Mereuti  •  te  cam  pace  ?  A  frag- 
ment. 

26.  A  fragment. 

27.  ^ipTfVTj  T1J  '^XV  ^'^^  o'^vxokEi. 

Peace  to  ijiy  spirit,  0  Xucholis! 

28.  4>cAovfiEvij  £v  tiprjvy  gov  to  nvev/ia. 

Philomena,  thy  spirit!  in  peace! 

29.  Eipr/vr/  aov  ry  ^vxv  "ii^oifif/. 

Peace  to  thy  spirit,  0  Zosimus. 

30.  Agape  vibes  in  elernum. 

Agapa,  mayest  thou  live  forever! 

31.  Ma/cus  piier  iunocens  •  esse  jam  in- 
ter innocenti(e)  s  coepisti  ^am  stau(b) 
ile(i)s  tiv  (b)  i  liiec  vita  est  guam  te 
laetum  exeipe(i)t  mater  eclesiee  de 
hoc  mimdo  revertentem  comprema- 
tiir  pectoruui  genitus.  o6strualur  He- 
liis  oculorum. 

Marcus,  thou  innocent  boy,  thou 
hast  already  begun  to  be  among 
the  blameless.  How  permanent  is 
that  life  which  now  is  thine!  How 
the  mother,  the  Church,  receives 
thee  returning  joyful  from  this  life, 
tliat  the  sighings  of  tlie  heart  may 
be  suppressed,  that  the  weeping  of 
the  eyes  ma}'  be  stayed. 
D  .  Mm  .  .  Sacrum  XL. 

32.  Leopardum  in  pacem  cum  spirita 
sancla.  acceptum.  emnte  abeatis  in- 
uoci(e)nt<=>m  posuer  .  .  par  .  .  .  Q  .  . 
Ann.  Vn  •  men  .  .  VII. 

Sacred  to  the  gods  of  the  lower 
renhn.  (XL?)  Leopardus  received 
in  peace  among  the  sacred  spirits, 
hold  ye  him  as  innocent.  (?)  The 
parents  placed  (this  inscription). 
Who  lived  7  years,  7  months. 

33.  Spirita  saiicta=: sacred  spirits. 

34.  A  fragment  whose  reading  is  conjec- 
tural. 

35.  Maximianus  Saturnina  dormit  in  pace. 

Maximianus  and  Saturnina  sleep 
in  peace. 

36.  Suscipe  terra  tuo  corpus  de  corpore 
sumta  retAer  cot  baleas  bibificante 
A  sic  Gregorini  iim  truber  in  pace 
tutalur  in  pace  pa  .  u  .  iter  cum  ejus 
Piperusa  jugali  ejus. 

Receive,  O  earth,  a  body  taken 
from  thy  body. 

Thus  of  Gregory  in  peace  together 
with  his  spouse  Piperosa.  (Tiie 
whole  readmg  is  doubtful.) 

37.  Vivere  qui  prestat  morientia  semina 
terite  solvere  qui  potuit  letalia  vin- 
cula  inortis  .  .  Depositus  Liberianus 
HI  Idus  AugustOrS  qwestas  in  pacem. 

He  who  can  cause  tlie  dying 
germs  of  earth   to  live,  who  can 


break   the   fatal   chains  of  death 
.  .  Liberianus  buried  the  third  ol 
the  Ides  of  August.     Mayest  thou 
rest  in  peace! 

38.  Hie  mihi  semper  dolor  erit  in  sevo  et 
tuum  b(v)eiierabilem  vultiun  liceat 
videre  sopore  coiijunx  Albana  qu«e 
mihi  semper  casta  pudica  relicium 
me  tuo  gremio  queror  quod  miiii 
saiictuu!  te  dederat  divinitus  autor  te- 
lictis  tuis  jaces  in  pace  sopore  merita 
resurgis  temporalis  tibi  data  requeiio. 
Quae  vixit  annis  XLV  men  .  .  V  (?) 
dies  XIII  do?-?mt  in  pace  fecit  Cyri- 
acus  maritus. 

Here  there  will  ever  be  to  me 
grief  during  my  life,  and  it  may  be 
permitted  lo  see  in  dreams  tiiy  ven- 
erated countenance,  0  my  spouse, 
who  wast  ever  to  me  chaste  and 
modest.  I  sorrow  that  1  am  sep- 
arated from  Thy  embrace,  since  the 
Divii.e  author  had  given  thee  to 
me  as  something  sacred.  Having 
left  thine  own  thou  liest  in  the 
peace  of  dreaming.  0  worthy  one, 
tiiou  shalt  arise.  The  repose  given 
thee  is  only  temporary.  Who  lived 
45  years,  five  months,  13  day."?. 
She  sleeps  in  peace.  Tlje  husband, 
Cyriacus,  made  (tliis  monument). 

39.  D  M.  S. 
Florentius  filio  suo  Aproniano  fecit 
titulum  benemerenti  qui  vixit  annum 
et  menses  nove??i  dies  quinque  cum 
sol  do  a(?)matus  fuisset  a  majore 
sua  et  vidit  hunce  morti  constitum 
esse  petivit  de  seclesia  ut  fidelis  de 
seculo  .  .  .  recessisset. 

Sacred  lo  the  Manes. 
Florentinns  made  this  inscription  to 
his  well-deserving  son,  .\pronianus, 
who  lived  a  j'ear,  9  monllis.  and 
5  days,  and  si»ice  he  had  been 
greatly  beloved  b}'  ids  ancestor 
and  saw  that  he  was  appointed  unto 
death,  he  besought  the  Church  that 
he,  a  faitliful  one,  miglit  retire 
from  this  life.  (?) 

40.  A  very  fragmentary  inscription. 

41.  Simphlcio  benemerenti  qui  vixit 
annis*  II"  et  post  adceptione??.. 
sua??i  dies-  XXVI-  dep  .  .  V  nonas 
Feb  .  .  in  pace  .  .  acrius  qui  vixit 
ann  .  .  XII  filio  suo  fecit  in  pace. 

To  Simplicius  (?)  well-deserving 
who  lived  51  years,  and  after  liis 
acceptance  26  days.  Buried  on 
the  fifth  of  the  nones  of  February 
in  peace.  (?)  made  this  for  his  son 
who  lived  1 2  years.     In  peace. 


TUANSLATKJN    OF    INSCUIPTK^NS. 


535 


TRANSLATION  OF  IXSCHirTlOX.S  OX   I'LATK  VFI. 

INSCKIPTIOXS   OF    I'OI'E    DAMASUH. 


No. 

1.  Fainu  n-ft-ri.  saiiclo.s  diidiiiii  relulissc 
pareules  A^iiein  cum  lii^ubrcs  c;iiiui.s 
t.iil)a  coiicrepnisSL't  iiiiiiicis  f^ivmiiim 
snbito  ligiiisse  puollaiii  spoiilo  Inicis 
enlcas.'^e  miiia.s  rul)ioiii(iMe  tyianiii 
iircro  cum  tlammis  voluisso  iiuljilc 
corpus.  virib/(-v  iM(m)  mcM.sum  paivis 
.superasso  limorem  nudaque  prot'usutii 
criucm  per  membra  doiii.sse  r.e  Do- 
mini temi)lurn  t'acies  peritiira  vidciet ' 
0  venerauda  milii  sanctum  dccus 
alma  piidoris  nt  I)am;isi  prccibitv 
favoas  prccor  inclyta  martyr. 

Report  say.s  lliat  wiion  slic  had 
recently  been  snatched  away  from 
Jicr  parents,  when  the  trumpet 
pealud  forth  it-t  terriljle  clangor, 
the  virgin  Agnes  suddenly  loft  the 
breast  of  her  nurse  and  willinsrly 
braved  the  threals  and  rage  ot  the 
tyrant  who  wished  to  have  her  no- 
ble form  i)nrned  in  llamtis.  Though 
of  so  little  strength  she  checked 
lier  extreme  fear,  and  covered  her 
nnde  members  with  her  abuuilant 
hair  lest  mortal  eye  might  see  the 
temple  of  the  Lord.  0  llum  dear 
one,  worth}'  to  be  venerated  by  me ! 
0  sa^Tod  dignity  of  modesty  !  Be 
thou  favour;'.  I  lie,  I  beseech  ihee,  0 
illustrious  martyr!  to  the  prayens 
of  Dainasus! 

2.  0  semel  aique  iterum  vero  de  no- 
mine Feli.x  que  intemerata  fide  con- 
tempto  principe  mundi  confessus 
Ciiristum  coelestia  regna  petisti. 
O  vere  preiiosa  tides  cognoscite  fra- 
tres  qua  ad  ctelnm  victor  pariier  pro- 
peravit  Adauctus.  Presbyter  his  ve- 
rus  Damaso  rectoie  jubentecomposuit 
tumulum  sanctorum  limina  adornans. 

O  thou,  once  and  again  appropri- 
ately named  Feli.v  !  and  with  a  faitli 
inviolate,  defying  the  prince  of  tiie 
world  and  confessing  Christ,  hast 
reached  tlie  heavenl}'  realms.  0 
truly  precious  faith  (recognise  it,  O 
brothers)  by  which  Adauctn.s,  a 
victor,  has  mounted  steadily  to 
heaven. . .  .  berus,  ihe  presbyter,  bj' 
tlie  order  of  Pamasu-s,  the  rector, 
has  built  this  tomb,  adoring  the 
liabit^ition  of  tiie  saints. 
3,  4.  Daniasus  Kpiscopus  fecit,  lloraclius 
vetuit  lab(p).sos  peccata.  doK-re.  Ku- 
sebius   iniseros   docuit  sua    crimiuu 


(lere.     Scinditiu-  partes  po|)ulus  glia- 
Hcente  (urore  seditio  cacdes    belliun 
discordia     lites.       ex<einplo    pariK^r 
pulsi   feritatc  l^Taiuii  *    intcgra   cinn 
rec  or  servaret  fuedera  |)acis  •  jieitulit 
e.xilium    </omino    sulj     jiuliee    hetus 
litore    Trinacrio    mundum    vit;im<j'i<; 
reliquit  Ku.sebio  Epi^'copo  et  inartyri. 
Damasus  the   bishop   made  (this), 
lleraclius    forbade    the    lapsed    to 
grieve    for    their    sins.     Kusel)ius 
taught  these  wretched  ones  to  wash 
away    their    crimes    by    weeping. 
The  poi)u!ace  was  divided  into  par- 
tics:   with  swelling  fury  there  arc 
seditions,   murders,   war,  discords, 
quarrels.     For  an  example  (or,  ae- 
coiding    to   a    suggested    reading, 
"straightway")  Ijy  the  cruelty  oi' 
the  t3Tant  botii  are  driven  into  ex- 
ile, althougli  the  rector   was   pre- 
serving intact  the  pledges  of  peace. 
He   bore  tiie  exile  joyfully  under 
the  Lord,  ins  judge.     On  the  S  cil- 
ian  coast  he  gave  up  the  worhl  ami 
life.     To  Kusebius,  bi-hopand  niar- 
tyr. — On  the  sides,  running  vcrii- 
call}-,  is  the  following  inscripiion : 
Damasi  swe  pappie  cnltor  atqiie  aina- 
tor  Furius  Dyonisius  F'ilocaius  scril)- 
sit. 

Tiie  fosterer  and  friend  of  Pope 
Daiiasus,  Fiuius   Dyonisius,   Fdo- 
calus  wrote  (this). 
5.    A  fragment. 

G.  Cum  peritnrae  Gct;i;  posuissent  castra 
sub  urbe  inovennit  sanctus  bella  ue- 
fanda  prius  istaque  sacrilego  verte- 
riMitcordesepnlcliramarlyrii)nsqiuiri- 
dam  rite  sacrata  piis  "  quos  monstranle 
dec  DamaMis  sibi  jiapa  probatos 
aflBxo  monnit  carmine  jure  coli.  Sed 
periit  tituhis  confracto  marmore  sanc- 
tus ■  nee  tamcn  his  iterum  posse  pe- 
rire  fuif  diruta  Vigiliiis  nam  inox 
hiec  papa  gemiscen.s  hostibus  expul- 
sis  omne  noiavit  opus. 

Wlien  the  Geiic  had  latched  their 
destructive  camp  under  (the  walls 
of)  the  city,  they  waged  a  nefari- 
ous warfare!  a;r:iinst  the  saints,  and 
also  directed  it  .igainst  the  sc|)id- 
chrcs  once  duly  liedicated  to  the 
pioii.s  martyrs.  I'uder  the  guid- 
ance of  (Jod.  popo  Damasus,  of  him- 
self, gave   notice    in   a   poem  ia- 


536 


TRANSLATION   OF   INSCRIPTIONS. 


No. 

scribed  on  tlicm.  thai  they  could  be 
lawfully  worshipped.  But  the  mar- 
ble haviii.ij:  beeu  sliattered,  this  sa- 
cre<l  inscription  has  perished.  Nev- 
ertheless it  was  not  possible  to 
utterly  destroy  these,  since  imuie- 
diateiy  after  the  enemy  had  been 
driven  out,  the  pope,  Vigil,  greatly- 
sorrowing  over  these  ruins,  re- 
stored every  work. 

7.  A  fiagmeut. 

8.  Hie  conjesta  jacet  quseris  si  turba 
piorinn  •  corpora  structorum  retinent 
veneranda  sepulchra.  sublimes  ani- 
uias  rapuit  sibi  regia  caili  ■  hie  conii- 
tes  Xysti  portaut  qui  ex  hoste  tro- 
psea  •  hie  numerus  procerum  servat 
qui  altaria  Xri  •  hie  posita  longavixit 
qui  in  pace  sacerdos  ■  hie  confessores 
sancti  quos  Grecia  misit  •  hie  juve- 
nes  pueriqwe  senes  castique  nepote  s " 
quels  uiag<s  virgineum  plaouit  reti- 
nei'e   pudoreni  •   hie  fateor  Damasus 


volvi  inea  condere  membra  •  sed  cine- 
res  liuuii  sanctos  vexare  piorum. 
Here  heaped  together  rest  a 
tlirong  of  pious  ones,  if  thou  art 
seeking  for  them.  These  venerated 
sepulchres  hold  the  bodies  of  the 
saints.  The  regal  heavenly  palace 
has  taken  to  itself  tht-ir  lofty  souls. 
Here  are  the  companions  of  Sixtus 
who  bore  the  tropliies  from  the 
enemy:  here  a  number  who  min- 
istered at  Christ's  altars;  here  is 
buried  a  priest  who  lived  in  long- 
continued  peace  (?):  here  the  holy 
confessors  whom  Greece  sent :  here 
the  youth  and  boys,  tiie  aged,  the 
immaculate  descendants  who  were 
pleased  to  maintain  their  virgin 
modesty.  Here,  I  confess,  0  Da- 
masus, have  1  wished  that  nij'  mem- 
bers miglit  repose.  But  1  fear  to 
disiurb  the  sacred  ashes  of  the 
saints. 


TRANSLATION  OF  EPITAPHS  OF  PLATE  VIIL 

SECOND    HALF    OF   THE    FOUIiTH    CENTURY. 


1.  Parentes'  Dionysio  tilio  ■  dulcissimo  ■ 
vixitun.  y, ra.  VIl,  d.  IX  •  D.  P.  XVI  ■ 
kai.  Sept.  Constantio  X.  Cos.  in  p. 
A  ^  i2. 

The  parents  to  llieir  most  precious 
son,  Dionysius.  He  lived  5  years, 
7  months,  9  days.  Buried  on  the 
sixteenth  before  the  Kalends  of 
September,  Constantius  being  for 
tiie  tenth  time  consul.  In  peace 
in  Ciirist  Jesus. 

2.  A  fragment.  It  lias  much  interest 
from  the  variety  of  symbols  which  it 
CHUiains.  Its  translation  has  been 
conjectured  by  de  Rossi. 

.3.    Theodora  requiovit  in  pace  die  pridie 

Non  Septembris  D.  N.  Juliano  Aug. 

IJII  et  Salustio  Cons. 

Theodora  rested  in  peace  on  tlie 
clay  beforo  the  Nones  of  Sep- 
tember, our  master  Julianns  Augus- 
tus, for  the  fourth  time,  and  Salus- 
i.ius  being  consuls. 
4.    Liipicino  et  Jovino  C.  .  .     Victories 

Q  .  An  .  XXV  . .  .  marito  fecit  An.  .  . 

XIII  et  pudiciiia  omnibus  .  . 

The  reading  is  conjectural  as  fol- 
lows: Lupinus  and  Jovinus  bc;ing 
consuls,  Victoria  was  buried,  who 
lived  25  years,  and  lived  13  years 
with  her  husband,  and  was  known 
to  all  by  her  chasieness. 


5.  Mir;e  sa[)ioutife  Augendo  qui  vixit 
Ann  .  plus  miu  LXXII  cum  uxore 
fecit ;  nn  .  XXX  •  depositus  XVI  kal . 
Oct(jb  .  DN  (iratiano  Aug.  11  .  et 
Probo  Con.   .   .   . 

To  Aujicndus  of  wonderful  wis- 
dom, who  lived  72  years  more  or 
less;  with  his  wile  he  lived  30 
3'ears.  Buried  the  sixteenth  be- 
fore the  Kalends  of  October  our 
lord  Gratianus  Augustus,  for  the 
second  time,  and  Probus  being 
consuls. 

6.  Hie  queicscit  ancilla  dei  quae  de 
sua  omnia  possedit  domum  istam 
que(a)m  amicae  deHcn<  solaciumqwe 
requiruut.  Pro  hu(a)nc  unun(a)m 
ora  su(o)  bolem  que(a)tn  superis 
titem  re//quisti  .  «eterna  requiem 
Ftlicita  ?  ?  ?  XVI  ke  (a)  lendas 
Oca)l>ris  .  Cucurbitinus  et  Abumdan- 
tius  hie  simul  quiesciii/Jt  d  'u 
Graiiano  V  et  T/iodosio  Aug. 

Here  rests  a  servant  of  God 
who  witJi  respect  to  all  her  posses- 
sions has  guarded  this  home, 
whom  lior  friends  lament  and  they 
seek  for  consolation. — Tue  balance 
is  obscure  except  the  usual  con- 
clusion. 

7.  Theodora  qurto  vixit  annos  XXT  m 
VII    d    XXIII    in    pace    est    biso- 


TRANSLATION    OF    INSCJill'TIONS. 


No. 

mu(())     atnplilieain     seqiiitiir     viUiiii 
ciiin    capita    AlVodilc    fcfit    iid    astra 
viam    Christi    inodo   gaudet   in    aula 
reslitit  liauu  iiuiiiiJu  soinper  Caelosua 
(liiuereiis      optima      servalrix      icj^is 
fidci(iiio     inai^istra     dcdit     ('j;rt'^;iain 
Sanctis  per  saecula  incnu-in   iiido  ux- 
iinios  paradisi  lejjfiiat  odores  It'inpoie 
cmiliniu)   veriiaiit  iibi  ^M•anlilla   rivis 
expectJilqiie     dfuni     siipeiaa       quo 
suryat   ad  auras  lioc    posuit   corpus 
tumiiloiiiorlaiia  linciiiuns,  fuiidavitipie 
loeuin   conjiix    l'iVa;^//ii.v  .   .  tans  dep 
.  .  die  .  Antonio  ct  8ia,frio  cons  .  . 
Tiicodora   wlio    lived  21  years,    7 
niontlis,   23  daj-s,   in   peace    is    in 
tliis  bisoinus,  while  ciiasto  Aplno- 
dilG     lived     a     still    longer    life'. 
She    lias    made    iier    way    to    ilic 
heavens,  and  now  rc^joices  in  the 
court  of  Olirist.    She  withstood  ihc; 
world,    always    si'ek'in<r    heavenly 
things;    the    most  excellent  guar- 
dian of  the  law  and  of  the  laitii, 
slie  h:is  given   back  to  the  saints 
Iicr   noble    spiri'.    forever.     Thert- 
amidst    the    delightful    odors    of 
paradise    she    reigns    wiicre     the 
grii.«s  i)loom3  perpetually  by  ihe  wa- 
ter-brook.s,  siie  waits   on   God   l)y 
wiioin  she  rises  to  those  supernal 
regions.     Her  husband,   Kvagrius. 
pressing  forward  to  join  her,  lias 
placed    this    body    in     ihe     lonil), 
leaving   beliind    the    mortal    part, 
and  has  lonuded  this  place.    Buried 
on    the   day  .    .    .    Antonius    and 
Siagrius  being  consuls. 
8.    Quid  loquor  ant  sileam  prohibet  dolor 
ipse   fateri :    hie    tunuilns    lacrimas' 
retinet;  cognosce  parentum  Projectae 
fnerat  prime  quiie  juncta  niarito,  pul- 
cAradeeore  sno  solocoiitenta  pudore. 
lieu  dilecta  satis  miserae  gene(i)tricis 
aniore!      Accipc,   quid  multis?    tha- 
iami   post  firdcra   prima,   erepta   ex 
oculis  Flori  genitoris  abiit,  aetheriain 
cnpienscaeliconscenderelucom'  haee 
Dumasus    proesUit     cunctis     solacia 
flelus  .   V'ixic   ami   XVI  m    IX  dies 
XXV-  Dep.  Ill  kal.  Jan.  Fl.  Mero- 
bande,  el  Fl.  Saturnin.  conss  ' 

Respecting  what  may  I  speak,  nr 
keep  silence?  Oriel'  itself  prohib- 
its me  from  upcaking;  this  tomb 
retJiins  my  tears.  Know  the  {Bar- 
ents of  Projeeta  (?)  who  had  scarce- 
ly had  union  with  lier  husband, 
fair  in  her  comeliness,  content 
with  modesty  alone.  Alas!  be- 
loved enough  in   the  affection  of 


No. 

an  alllieted  mollier!     Are  you  sat- 

islied  that  I  say  more?  (?)     After 

the  lirst  union  of  the  nuptial  bed, 

snatched    trom    the    eyes    of    her 

father,  Florns,  she  departed,  longing 

to  mount  to  tiie  ethereal  briglilness 

of  heaven.     Damasus  otlers  to  all 

the     solaces     of    weeping.      .She 

lived  16  years,  9  months,  25  days. 

Muriod  the  third  befure  the  kalends 

of  January,    Flavins    Merobandus 

and  ."^aturninns  being  consuls. 

!).    Hie  requieseil  quod  vuKdeus  lioneste 

recordationes  (is)  vir  (pii  vixit  annos 

LVIl  depositns   in  pace  die  V  Idus 

Oelo>)res  cons.  .  s  D*    N*    Arcadio 

Aug.  (plater  et  Honorio  Aug.  .  .  ter 

Consulibus. 

Here  rest  (as  God  wills  (?))  a  man 
of  wortliy  niemor}'  who  lived  07 
years,  buried  on  the  lifiii  of  the 
Ides  of  October,  oiu'  lords  Arca- 
dius  Augustus  for  tlic  foiwih  time, 
and  Honorius  Augustus  for  the 
tiiird  time,  being  coi  suls. 

10.  Hie  cesguid  (?)  Honifatia  nudier  quae 
blxset  annus  XLVI  d  X'  Deposila 
in  pace  Cesaiio  et  Atiieo. 

A  piece  of  barbarous  Latin. 
Probabl}'  meaning:  Hero  reposes 
the  wife  Bonifalia,  who  lived  40 
years,  1 1  days.  Buried  in  peace. 
Caesarius  and  Altieus  being  con- 
suls. 

This  is  a  genuine  palimpsest. 
On  the  opposite  side  is  fuiuid  the 
inscription  "  Leo  et  Stat'a  vivi  fe- 
c.runt."  Beneath  a  (ireek  inscrip- 
tion is  found:  'Evrvxiavu  Joiv.u 
6foi'  'Io{i')/uavf/  avi>{jini>). 

11.  Maxima  in  pace  q'<ie  vixit  annus 
plus  munus  XXXV  cons  dominis  no.s- 
iris  Oiiorio  iv  c.  . .  s  .  . .  et  Kutuc/d- 
ano  Cons.  Pridia;  Nonas  Septombres. 

Maxima  in  peace.  Who  lived  35 
years  more  or  less,  our  lords,  Ho- 
norius for  the  fourth  time,  and 
Kulucliianus  being  consuls.  On 
the  day  before  the  Nones  of  Sep- 
tember. 

303.11.  r.  Plate  III.  No.  19. 

477.  M//r/)/  Karinvi?.'A7j  epyoTTOKf). 

To    the    Mother    Katianilla    the 
toiling  one. 

478.  Amalrix  pauperorum  et  ojieraria. 

The  lover  of  the  poor,  and  her- 
self a  laborer. 
478.      Leontiie  cum  laborona?  sua'. 

To   Lcontia   together    with    her 
laborers  (?) 


538  LITERATURE  OF  CHRISTIAN  ARCHEOLOGY. 

ly. 

LITEKATUKE  OF  CHRISTIAN  ARCHiEOLOGY.' 

ENCYCLOPEDIAS,  DICTIONARIES,  ETC. 

Erscii   u.    Gruber:    Allgeiueitie   Encyklop;edie  der  Wissenschafien   und   Kiinste. 

Leipzig,  1883. 
(ii!0\'E:   Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians.     Loudon,  1880-83.     3  vols. 
Hefele:  Conciliengeschichle.     2te  Aufl.     Freiburg,  1873.     7  Bde. 
Hekzog  u.  Plitt:  Real-Encyl<lopadie   fur  protestanlische  Theologie  u.  Kirche.     2te 

Anfl.,  Leipzig,  1878-85. 
Kraus  :  Real-Encyiilopadie  der  christliclien  Alterthiimer.      Freiburg  im  Breisgau, 

1880-86. 
Lami:  Diciionnaire  des  Sculpteurs  de  FAuliquUe  uu  VP  Siecle  de  notre  Ere.     Paris, 

1884. 
LiCHTENBERGER:  Encyclopedie  des  Sciences  religieuses. 
Martigny:  Dictionnaire  des  Antiquiies  cliretiennes.     2e  ed.     Paris,  1877. 
Mansi:    Sacrorum   Conciliorum  nova  et  amplissima  collectio.      Florence,   1759-98. 

Edillo  instaurata.     Paris,  1885,  seq. 
McCiiiXTOCK  and  Strong:  Cyclopedia  of   Biblical,  Theological,  and  Ecclesiastical 

Literature.     New  York,  1869-81,  with  supplementaiy  volumes. 
Mendel:  Das  musicalische  Conversations — Lexikon.     Berlin,  1870-1883.      13  Bde, 
Smith  and  Cheetham:  Dictionary  of  Christian  Antiquities,  American  reprint.     Hart- 
ford,  1880.     2  vols. 
Wetzer  u.  Welke:  Kirclien-Lexikon. 

SYSTEMATIC  TREATISES. 

Augusti:  Denkwiirdigkeiten  ausd.  christl.  Archaologie.  Leipzig,  1817-31.  12  Bde., 
8vo. 

Haiidbncli  der  cbristlichcn  Archaologie.     Leipzig,  1836.     3  Bde.,  8vo. 

BiXGHAM:  Antiquities  of  the  Christian  Church.  Best  edition  by  his  grandson.  Pit- 
man.    Loudon,  1840.     9  vols.,  8vo. 

BiNTERiiM:   Vorzugliche  Denkwiirdigkeiten  der  christkatli.  Kirche.     Mainz,  1825-41. 

Buhmer:  Die  christlich-kirchliche  Altertiuunswisseuschaft.  Breslau,  1836.  2  Bde., 
8vo. 

De  Caumont:  Abecedaire  d' Arclieologie.     Caen,  1869-70.     3  vols.,  8vo. 

DiDRON:  Manuel  d'Iconographie  chretienne.     Paris.  1845. 

Delattre:  Archeologie  chrerienne  de  Carthage.     Lyons,  1886. 

Guericke:  Lehrbuch  der  clirisllich-kirchliciien  Archiiologie.  2te  Aufl.  Berlin, 
1859. 

Jahn:   Ueber  dasWesen  und  die  wichtigsten  Aufgaben  der  archiiologischen  Studien. 

Mallet:  Cours  elementaire  d'Archeologie  religieuse.     Paris,  1883. 

Martha,  Jules:  Manuel  d'Archeologie  Etrusque  et  Romaine.     Paris,  1884. 

MI'ller:  Archiieologie  der  Knnst.     Berlin,  1854. 

Newton:  Essaj^s  on  Art  and  Archieologj'.     London,  1885. 

'  Of  the  immense  literature  the  works  here  given  have  been  found  to  be  among  the  most 
thorough  and  suggestive. 


LITERATURE  OF  CHRISTIAN  ARCILEOLOGY.  539 

Otte:  Haiiilbucli  tier  kirelilidicii  Kmist-archaologie  des  deuisclicii  Mittelalters.     bw 

AuH.     Leipzig,  1884.     2  Bde. 
PlPEK:   Myiliolojfiu  dor  clirisilichon  Kiitisl   von  dor  allusluu  Zoit  bis  iaa  scchzehule 

Jaluiuiiidert.     Weimar,  1817-51.     2  Bde.,  8vo. 

Eiiileilimx  in  die  nionuinenule  Tlieologie.     Gotlia,  18tj7. 

JUouL-RociiKTTE:  Trois  MtMuoirs  sur  les  Autiquilo.s  cliretiouiio.s.     Puri.s,  1859. 
Rku.skx.s:  Elements  d'Archc'ologie  cliroiienue.     2er  ed.     Louvain,  1885. 
RiiEiNWALU:  Die  kirohliclio  Arciiaologio.     Berlin,  1830. 

Scilui.TZE:  Areliiiologisclie  Siudieu  iiber  all-Lhri.stlieiic  Mounmente.     Wien,  1880. 
Die  cliristiiclie   Archaologie,  in   Zuckler's   JIamlbuth   tier  IheoUxjischea   Wihskii- 

sliafltn. 
Stauk:   llaiidbuch  der  Archiiologie  der  KuMsl.     Leipzig,  1880. 

EPIGRAPin'. 

Boeckh:  Corpius  Inscriptiouiim  Grajcarum.    3  vols.  fol.     Bcrolini,  1828-53. 
Fkanz:  Elora.  Epigr.  Graic. 

In.scriptioiies  BritannicJC  Clirislianjc.     Berlin  and  London,  1876. 

Hl'BNER:  Inscripliones  Hispaniie  Clirisiianiu.     Berol.  1871. 

Article  "  Inscriptions,"  in  Enojchpoidia  Britannica.     9tli  cd. 

Hicks:  A  Mannal  of  Greek  Historical  Inscriptions.     London,  1881. 

Le  Blant:  Inscriptions  ciiretiens  antiqnes  de  la  viile  d'Aries.     Pari.s,  1878. 

Manuel  d'Epigrapine  ciiretienne,  etc.     Paris,  1869. 

McCali.:  Cliristian  Epitaphs  of  tiie  First  Six  Cod uiries.     Toronto,  1869. 
MOMMSEN:  On  Latin  In.scriptions,  in  Contemporary  Review,  May,  1871. 

Corpus  In.«cript.  Latinarnm. 

De  Rossi:  Inscriptioncs  ciiristian;u  nrbis  Romae.     I.  Roma3,  1861. 

Rkixacii:  Traite  d'Epi-rapliic  Grccqne.     Paris,  1885. 

RiTTElt:  De  Compositione  tilnl.  Ciirist.     Berol,  1877. 

Rei.vesius:  Syntagma  Inscriptionum. 

Stevens:  The  old  Rnnic  Monuments  of  Scandinavia  and  England.     London,  1865. 

Waudington:   In-^criptions  grecques  et  latines  de  la  Syrie.      Paris,  1870. 

Zell:  Handbucii  der  romischen  Epigraphik. 

OX  THE  CATACOMB.S. 

BELI.KRMANN:  ITcbcr  die  iilleslen  christlichen  Begriibnissstatten   u.   bosonders  die 

Katakomben  zn  Xeapcl.     Hanil)nrg.  1839. 
Bosio:   Roma  sotterranea.     Ronue,  1632;    and   the  Latin  translation   of  this  work 

by  Akixohi.     Roma.  1(;91. 
Caruana:   Hypogenno  Tal-Liol)ru.     Malta,  1884. 
Garrltci:  Vctri  ornali  di  figure  in  oro  trovati  nei  cemitori  dei  cristiani  primitivi  di 

Roma.     2d  ed.     Roma,  1864. 
Krai'S:   Roma  sotterranea.     Freiburg,  2le  Aufl.,  1879. 
Lenormaxt:  Les  Calacombes.     Paris,  1858. 
NoRTHCOTE  and  Brown'low  :   Roma  sotterranea.     2d  cd.     London,   1879.     3  vols., 

8vo. 
Perret:  Los  Catacombes  de  Rome.     Paris,  1850.  etc.     6  vols.,  fol. 
Roller,  Til:  Los  CaUicombea  de  Rome.     Paris,  1879-81.     2  vols.,  fol. 
DeRichemoxt:   Les  Catacombes  do  Rome.     Pnri.s,  1870. 
Dk  Rossi:    Roma  sottorrano.i  cristiana.     Roma,  1864-79.     5  vols.,  fol. 
ScnuLTZE:  Katakomben  von  S.  Gennaro  dei  Poveri  in  Neapel.     Jena,  1877. 


540  LITERATURE  OF  CHRISTIAN  ARCHEOLOGY. 

WiTHROw:    The  Catacombs   of   Rome,  and  their   testimony  relative  to   Primitive 
CJlristianiI3^     New  Yorlv,  1877. 

GENERAL  HISTORIES  OF  THE  ARTS  OP  FORM. 

Allard:  L'art  paien  sous  les  Empereurs  Chretiens.     Paris,  1879. 

Bayet:  L'Art  Byzantin. 

D'Agincourt:  Histoire  de  l'art  par  les  monuments.     6  vols.,  Paris,  1826. 

Camna:  Via  Appia. 

CiAMPiNi:  Vetera  Monumenta  in  quibus,  etc.     2  vols.,  Romae,  1694. 

De  sacris  sedificiis  a  Coustautiuo  Magno  constructis, 

EcKL:    Die   Madonna   als   Gegenstand    christliclier    Kunstmalerei    und    Sculptur. 

Brixen,  1883. 
Forster:  Bildnerei  und  Mulerei  von  Einfiihrung  des  Ciu'istenthums  bis  auf  die  neu- 

este  Zeit.     6  Bde.,  Leipzig,  1875. 

Mittel  u.  Unter-Italien.     2  Bde.,  Miinclien,  18G6. 

Gakrucci:  Storia  dell'  arte  cristiana.     6  vols.,  Praio,  1873-81. 
Hemans:  Ancient  Christianity  and  Sacred  Art.     Florence,  1866. 

Historic  and  Monumental  Rome.     London,  1874. 

KONDAKOFF:*  Histoire  de  I'Art  Byzantin  considere  principalment  dans  les  Miniatures. 

Trans,  from  the  Russian  by  Trawinski.     T.  I.     Paris.  1886. 
Labarte:  Histoire  des  Arts  indiistriels.     2d  ed.     Paris,  1872. 
Luebke:   Ecclesiastical  Art  in  Germany  during  the   Middle  Ages;  trans,  from  5i,h 

German  edition,   with  Appendix,   by  L.    A.   "Wheatley.     4th    English   edition. 

Eldinburgh,  1877. 
Lord  Lindsay:  History  of  Christian  Art.     2d  ed.     London.  1883. 
LiJTZOW  u.  Lubke:  Denkmaler  der  Kunst.     Stuttgart,  1879. 
Reber:  History  of  Mediajval  Art.     New  York,  1887. 

Schnaase:  Geschichte  der  bildenden  Kiinste.    2te  Anfl.,  8  Bde.,  Stuttgart,  1866-79. 
Unger:  Die  Byzantinische  Kunst,  in  Ersch  u.  Gruher^s  Encyklopoidle. 
Winckelmann:  Geschichte  der  Kunst  des  Altertliums.     2  vols.     1776. 

EARLY  CHRISTIAN  PAINTING. 

Crowe  and  Cavlacaselle:   History  of  Painting  in  Italy.     London,  1864. 

HOTHO:  Geschichte  der  cliristlichen  Malerei.     Stuttgart,  1867. 

Lefort,  Louis:  Etudes  sur  les  monuments  primitifs  de  la  peinture  chretienne  en 

Italie,  etc.     Paris,  1885. 
RiO:  De  l'art  chretienne.     2d  ed.     4  vols.,  Paris,  1861-67. 
WoLTMANN  and  WoERMANN:   History  of  Painting;  trans,  from  the  German  by  Col- 

vin.     2  vols.,  New  York,  1880. 

MOSAICS. 
Agnellus:  Liber  Pontilicalis. 
Appell:  CIn-istian  Mosaic  Pictures.     London,  1878. 
Artand:  Histoire  abregee  ile  la  peinture  en  mosaiqne.     Paris,  1885. 
Barbet  de  Jouy  :  Les  Mosaiques  cliretienne.s,  etc.     Paris,  1857. 
Barbier  de  Montault:    Les  mosaiques  chretiennes  de  Milan;  also  articles  in  tlie 

Revue  de  VArt  ChreUen. 
Didron:  La  Peinture  en  Mosiiiqne,  in  Gazette  des  Beaux  Artes,  vol.  xi. 
Duchesne  et  Bayet:   Mcmoire  sur  une  Mission  an  Mont  Athos,  etc.     Paris,  1870. 
FoNTANA:  Musaici  della  primitiva  epoca  delle  chiese  di  Roma.     Paris  1870,  1888. 


LITEKATUKE  OE  CIIltlSTIAX  AKCILEOLOCJ Y.  541 

Frotiiixciiam  :   Uiio  Mos;ii(iiio  coiistaiitiemio  iuconniio  a  Saiiit-Pierro  do   Rome,  in 

lieviui  Arclieolo'jique.     Jan. -Feb.,  1883. 
FuuiEiTi:  Do  Musivis. 

Oarrucci:  Storia  dell'  Arte,  etc.,  vol.  iv  Tav.  CC1\'-CCX(J1  V. 
Gerspacii  :  La  Mosaiquo. 
Hkcskk  and  Kkaus:   Article  "Mo3aii<,"  in  lital- Encyklopadie  dcr  chruittichen  Alter- 

thiimer.     Bd.  ii,  S3.  419-30. 
Lahauie:   Hi.stoiro  des  iirts  industriel.s.     2or  cd.,  Pari.s.  1872.     j;.  vol.  ii,  pp.  33:5—411. 
LiiiKK  PoNTiFiCALis.  sivo,  AnasUisii  Biblioleearii,  Do  Vitis  Pomilicnm. 
MiJ.VTZ:   Notes   sur  le.s   Mo.-<aiqno.s  clirotioaucs  do  I'llalie,  in    litvm  Archeolocjique 

1875-1878. 

The  Lost  Mosaics  of  Ravenna,  in  Am.  Jour,  of  Arcluvolo'jij,  vol.  i,  pp.  115-30. 

The  Lost  Mosaics  of  Roiuo,  IVih  to  IXlh  Century,  in  Am.  Jour,  vf  Arcliceologij, 

vol.  ii,  pp.  295-313. 

Etudes  d'lconograpiiie  chretienne. 

Pakker:  Archaeology  of  Rome:  Mc>.saic,s.  Photographs. 

Quast:  Dieall-christlichen  Banwerke  von  Riivenna.     Berlin,  1842.     Fol.,  with  plates. 

Hahn:   Ravenna;    eiue  kunstge.sehichiliche  Studio.     Leipzig,  1869. 

Richter:  Die  Mosaiken  Ravenna.s.     Wien,  1878. 

De  Rossi  :  Musaici  Cristiani.     Rome. 

Salzenberg:   Die  altcliristlichen  Denkmale  von  Constaniinopel  von  V.  bis  XII.  Jahr- 

hundert.     Berlin,  1854. 
Viinaui.es:  Article  "  Mosaics  "  in  Dictionary  of  ChrUlian  Antiquities  vol.  ii,  pp.  1322 

1341. 
Vitfct:    pitiides  snr  I'Histoirc  de  I'Art.     Paris.  1864. 
Wvatt:  Art  of  Mosaic;  Geoniolrical  Mosaics  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

SCULPTURK. 
CfiAXOT:  Les  Figures  criophores,  in  Gazette  Archeologique,  1878. 
Fergcsson:   Rnde  Stone  Monuments  of  all  Ages.     London,  1872. 
GORl:  Thesaurus  vcterum  diptj'chorum.     Florentiie,  1772. 
Orousset:  Ktnde  sur  I'histoire  des  sarcophages  Chretiens.     Paris,  1885. 
Hahn:  Fiinf  Klfenbein-Gerasse  des  friiliesten  Mittelalters.     Hanover,  18G2. 
Hasenclever  :  Der  altchristliche  Griiberschmuck.     Brannsoliweig,  188G. 
HiJBNER:  Die  antiken  Rildwcrke  von  Madrid.     Berlin,  1862. 
King:   Antique  Gems:  Tiieir  Origin,  Uses,  and  Value.     London,  1800. 
LuRKE:    History  of  Scidpture;  trans,  from   the  Gorman   by  F.  Iv  Hiiin'>tt.     2d  ed. 

London,  1878. 
Le  Bi.axt:  l^tude  sur  les  sarcophages  Chretiens  antiques  de  la  villo  d'.Vrlcs.     Paris, 

1878. 
Maskkm.:   Ivories,  ancient  and  mcdireval.     London,  1872. 
Matz  und  Vox  Diriix:   Bildwcrko  in  Rom. 
Ot.DFiEi.n:  Select  E.xamplcs  of  Ivorj'  Caning,  from  second   t'   si-xtecnth  century. 

London.  1855. 
PUI.SZKY:  The  Fejevary  Ivorie.s.     London,  1865. 
Veyries:  Les  Figures  criophore.s  dans  I'art  grec,  I'art  greco-romaiu  ct  I'art  chr6ticn. 

Paris,  1884. 

ARCHITECTURK. 

BERTt:  Suir  antico  duomo  di  Ravenna.     Ravenna,  1880. 

Browx:  From  Schola  to  Catliedral;  a  study  of  early   Christian  .\rcliitectnre  and  its 
relations  to  the  life  of  the  Church.     Edinburgh,  183G. 


5-12  LITERATURE  OF  CHRISTIAN  ARCHEOLOGY. 

Buxsen:   Die  Basilikeu  des  christlichen  Roras.     Stuttgart  und  Tubingen,  1842. 
Can'ina:  Ricerche  suU'  arcliitetttira  piu  propria  dei  tempi  cristiani.     Roma,  1843. 
Dehio:  Die  Genesis  der  christlichen  Basilika.     Miiuchen,  1883. 
Dehio  und  Bezolu:   Die  kirchhche  Baukunst  des  Abendlandes.     Stuttgart,  1884. 
DeFleury:  Le  Lateran.     Paris,  1879. 
Fergusson:  History  of  Architecture.     London,  1862-67. 

FossATi:   Aya  Sofia,  Constantinople,  as  recently  restored  by  order  of  H.  M.,  the  Sul- 
tan Abdul  Mejid.     London,  1852. 
Hirt:  Die  Geschichte  dcr  Baukunst  bei  den  Alten.     Berlin,  1822.     2  Bde. 
IliJcscH:   Die  altchristliche  Kircheii.     Carlsruhe,  1862. 
Kueuser:  Christlichen  Kirchenbau.     Berlin,  1851  and  1860. 

Wiederum  christlichen  Kirchenbau.     Berlin,  1868. 

Kugler:  Gescliiciite  der  Baukunst.     3  Bde.,  Stuttgart,  1856. 

KxiGiiT,  H.  Gally:  Ecclesiastical  Architecture  of  Italy.     London,  1842-44.     2  vols. 

Laxge  :  Haus  und  Halle ;  Studien  zur  Geschichte  des  antiken  Wohnhauses  und  der 

Basilika.     Leipzig,  1885. 
Luebke:   Geschichte  der  Architectur.     6te  Auflage,  Stuttgart,  1884. 
MOTHES:  Die  Baukunst  des  Mittelalters  in  Italien  von  der  ersten  Entwickhmg  bis  zu 

ihrer  hochsieu  Bliithe.     2  Bde.,  Jena,  1884. 
Die  Basilikenform  bei  den  Christen  der  ersten  Jahrhunderte.     Ihre  Vorbilden 

und  ihre  Entwickelung.     Leipzig,  1865. 
Messmer  :   Ueber  den  Urspruvg,  die  Entwickelung,  u.  Bedeutung  der  Basilika  in  der 

christlichen  Baukunst.     Leipzig.  1854. 

Ueber  den  Ursprung  der  christlichen  Basilika.     Leipzig,  1859. 

Norton:  Historical  Studies  of  Oluirch  Building  in  the  Middle  Ages;   Venice,  Sienna, 

Florence.     New  York,  1880. 
Parker:  The  House  of  Pudens  in  Rome,  in  Archceologi'cal  Journal,  vol.  .xxviii,  1871. 

The  Arch;ieology  of  Rome.     12  vols.,  O.'tford  and  London,  1877. 

Plat.n'er,  Buxsex,  Gerhard,  u.  Rostell:  Bescreibung  der  Stadt   Roms.     Stuttgart 

u.  Tiil)ingen,  1830-42. 
Quast:   Die  alt-christlichen  Bauwerke  von  Ravenna.     Berlin,  1842. 
R\hx:  Ueber  den  Ursprung  und  die  Entwickelung  des  christl.  Central-u.  Kuppcl- 

baues.     Leipzig,  1866. 
RiCHTER:  Christliche  Architectur  und  Plastik  in  Rom.  vor  Constantin  dem  Grossea. 

Jena,  1872. 
RosEXGARTEX:   Handbook  of  Architectural  Style.^.     London. 
Stockbauer:   Der  ciiristlichen  Kirchenbau  in  den  ersten  Jahrhunderten.     Regens- 

burg,  1874. 
Te.xier  et  Papplewell  Plt.lax:  L' Architecture  byznntine.     London,  1864. 

Eglises  byzantines.     Paris,  1869. 

De  Vogue:  Syrie  Centrale:  Architecture  civile  et  religieuse  du  premier  au  septieme 

Siecle.     2  vols.,  Paris,  1865-77. 

Les  KglL-ses  de  la  Terre  Sainte.     Paris,  1860. 

Le  Tem|)le  de  Jerusalem. 

Valextixi:  La  patriarcale  basilica  Laterana.     Roma,  1832. 

La  basilica  Liberiana.     Roma,  1839. 

La  basilica  Vaticana.     Roma,  1845. 

Weingartner:    Ursprung   und   Entwickelung   des   christlichen    Kircheugebaudes, 

Leipzig,  1858. 
AViegemanx:  Ueber  den  Ursprung  des  Spitzbogeustils.     Diisseldorf,  1842. 
Zestermann:  Die  antiken  u.  die  christlichen  Basiliken,  etc.     Leipzig,  1847.     4to. 


LITERATURE  OF  CIIRISTLVN  ARCHEOLOGY.  54:i 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  POETRY  AND  IIYMNOLOGY. 

Baur:  Geschichto  dor  romisolien  Literatur.     2tx3  Aiill.,  Leipzig,  1881.     4  Bdo. 

Die  oliristl.   Diciitor   and   Gcschichtschrciber    Horns.      2te   Auti.,    Karlsruhe, 

1872. 

BEHMiiAitDY:  Gruudriss  dcr  romisclien  Literatur.     5to  AiiH.,  Leipzig.  1879. 
BUUGESS:  Select  Metrical  Ilyiiuis  and  Iloiiiilios  of  Kpliraeiii  Syrus.     Loudon,  185:!. 
2  vols. 

Metrical  Ilymna  of  Ephracm  Syrus. 

Clement:  Carmina  e  Poctis  Christianis  excerpta.     Parisiis,  1854. 

CiiuiST  und  Pak.\nik.\s:  Antliologic  Graeca  Carminum  Ciiristianoruni.    Lipsia?,  1871. 

Danmel:  Tlie.saurus  Hyninologicus.     Lipsiie,  1841-5G.     5  toni. 

Duffield:  The  Latin  Ilyninwritera  and  their  Hymns.     New  York,  1885. 

Kbeiit:  Gescliiehto  dcr  cliristliclieu  latcinischen  Litera'ur.     Bd.  1,  Leipzig,  1874. 

GRIM.M,  W. :  Zur  Geschiclite  des  Reims,  in  tlic  Memoirs  of  the  Berlin  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences for  1851. 

Hahn:  Ueber  den  Gesang  in  dcr  griccliiscliou  Kircho. 

KoRTUM:  Des  Silentarius  Paulus  Bcsoliruibuiig  dcr  h.  Sopliia  u.  des  Ambon.  Ber- 
lin, 1854. 

KocH:  Gescliichte  des  Kirchcnlicds  und  Kirchen-Gcsangs  in  der  ciiristlichen,  in 
besonderc  der  deut-sclien  evangehschen  Kirclie.  Stuttgart,  3ie  AuH.,  18G6-7G. 
8  Bdc. 

Jacobi:  Zur  Geschiclite  des  griccliisclien  Kirchenlieds,  in  Brieger's  Zeitschrift  fiir 
Kirchengeschichte.     Vol.  v,  Gotlm,  1881. 

Koxigsfeld:  Lateinischc  Ifymnen  u.  GesJinge  aus  dom  Mittelalter.     Bonn,  1847-65. 

MoN'E:  Lateinischc  Hymnen  des  Mittelalters  aus  Handschriften  lierau.sgegeben  u. 
erklart      Freiburg,  185:J-55.     .3  Bde. 

Morris :  Select  Works  of  S.  Epliraem,  the  Syrian,  translated  out  of  the  original 
Syriac.     Oxford,  1847. 

MrxTER:  Uebcr  die  alteste  cliristlicho  Poesic.     Kopenliagen,  1806. 

Nevle:  Hymns  of  the  Eastern  Church.     Last  edition.     London,  1876. 

Medi;eval  Ilynnis  and  Sequences.     3d  ed.     London,  1867. 

The  Ecclesiastical  Poetry  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

Piper :  Dor  Ilymnus  des  Clemens  von  Alexandrien,  in  the  Evangelisclien  Kalendar, 
1868. 

PlTRA,  Cardinal:   Ilymuographie  do  I'egliso  grccquo.     Rome,  18G7. 

Analecta  Sacra  Spicilegio  Solcsmensi  parata.     T.  i.  Par.,  1876. 

Rambacii:  Anthologio  cliristlicher  Gesiinge  aus  alien  Jahrinindcrtcn  der  Kirche. 
Leipzig,  1817-3.1.     G  Bde. 

Schaff:  Christ  in  Song.     New  York  and  London,  1879. 

Tel'FEL:  Geschiclite  der  romischen  Literatur.     4te  AuH.,  Leipzig,  1882. 

Tren-cii:  Sacred  Latin  Poetry,  chiefly  Lyriad.     3d  ed.     London,  1874. 

Thierfelder:  De  Ciiristianoruni  Psalmis  et  Hyninis  usque  ad  Anibro.-ii  tcmpora. 
1868. 

Wackernagel:   Das  dculsche  Kirchenlied.     Leipzig,  1864-77.     5  Bde. 

EARLY  CHRISTIAN  MUSIC. 
AGUiLf-AR  and  df.  Sola:    The  Ancient  Melodies  of  the  Liturgy  of  the  Spanish  and 

Portuguese  Jews. 
Ambros:    Geschichte  der  Musik.     2tc  Aufl.     5  Bde. 


544  LITERATURE  OF  CHRISTIAN  ARCHAEOLOGY. 

Brexdel:  Geschiclite  der  Miisik. 

Burney:  Geuei-al   Hisiorj' of  Music  from  tlie  Earliest  Ages  to  the  Present  Period. 

4  vols.,  4to.    London,  1776-1789. 
Chappell:  Historj'  of  Music.     London,  1874,  et  seq.    4  vols. 
Clement:    Historie  de   la    Miisique  depnis  les  temps  anciens    jusq'au   nos  jours. 

Paris,  1855. 

Historie  generale  de  la  nuisique  religieuse. 

Coussemacher:     Histoire  de    Tharmonie  au  moyen  Age. 

L'art  liarmouique  aux  XIP  et  XIIP  Siecles.     Paris,  1865. 

Delitzsch:  Physiologic  und  Musik  in  ihren  Bedeutung  fiir  die  Grammatik,  besou- 
ders  die  hebraische.     Leipzig,  1868. 

fiNGEL:  Music  of  the  most  Ancient  Nations.     London,  1864. 

Forkel:    AUgemeine  Gesehichte  der  Musik.     2  vols.     Leipzig,  1788. 

Fetis:  Histoire  generale  de  la  Musique.     Paris.     4  vols. 

Hawkins:  General  History  of  the  Science  and  Practice  of  Music.  London,  1853. 
2  vols.     4to. 

Helmoije:   "  Gregorian  Modes,"  in  Grovt^s  Musical  Dictionary. 

Kiesewetter:  Gesehichte  der  Europieisch-abendlandischeu  oder  unser  heutigen 
Musik.     Leipzig,  1846. 

Lambillotte  :  Antipliouaire  de  Sainte  Gregoire.  Facsimile  du  manuscript  de  Saint- 
Gall.     VHP  Siecle.     Paris,  1851.     4to. 

Martini:  History  of  Music.  Also  "  Xotation,"  in  Grove's  Dictionary  of  Music. 

Xacmann:  History  of  Music.     Translated  by  F.  Praeger.     London,  1885. 

Reiss-Maxn:  •' Gregorianischer  Gesang,"  in  MendeTs  musicalisches  Conversations- 
Lexicon. 

AUgemeine  Gesehichte  der  Musik. 

RocKSTRO:    History  of  Music.     London,  1886. 

Schletterer:  Gesehichte  der  geistlichen  Dichtungen  und  kirclilichen  Tonkunst. 
Hanover,  1869. 

Saalschutz:  Gesehichte  und  Wiirdigung  der  Musik  in  iibersichtliclier  Darstellung. 
Leipzig,  1863. 

ScHUBiGER:  Sangerschule  St.  Gallens  vom  achten  bis  zwolften  Jahrhunderte. 

Thierfelder:  "  Ambrosianisclier  Lobgesang,"  in  MendeVs  'musicalisches  Conversa- 
tions-LexAcon,     Part  T,  pp.  199,  seq. 

Von  Dom-MER:   Musik-Geschichte. 

Von  Winterfeld:  Der  evangelische  Kirchengesang. 

Westphal:  Gesehichte  der  alten  und  mittelalterische  Musik. 

OX  THE  CONSTITUTIOX,  WORSHIP,  ETC.,  OF  THE  EARLY  CHURCH.' 

AuBE :    L'Eglise  et    I'Etat  dans   la   seconde  Moitie  du  HP  Siecle.     4    vols.,  Paris, 

1876-85. 
Bannerman  :  The  Scripture  Doctrine  of  the  Church.     Edinburgh,  1887. 

The   Church  of   Christ.      A  Treatise  on  the  Nature,  Power,  Ordinances,    Dis, 

ciphne,  and  Government  of  the  Christian  Church.     Edinburgh,  1868.     2  vols. 

Baur:  Ursprung  des  Episeopats.     Tiibingen,  1838. 

'  The  literature  is  of  immense  volume  and  of  gi-owing  importance.  The  recent  works 
are  characterized  by  great  thoroughness  of  scholarship,  and  are  generally  written  in 
a  scientific  rather  than  polemic  spirit.  Besides  the  patristic  writings  of  the 
first  six  centuries,  the  standard  Church  histories,  and  the  histories  of  Christian 
doctrines,  the  following  may  be  found  among  the  most  thorough  and  suggestive. 


L_ 


LITERATURE  OF  CHRISTIAN  ARCHAEOLOGY.  545 

Baur:    Dhs  CliiistiMitlniiu  uiid  die  cliii>tlklie  Kirdie  der  drei  ersten  JuluhunderUs. 

Tubiugon.  '2te  AuH.,  IStiO. 
BiCKELL:   (Jesiliii'hte  des  Kiielieun'tlitji.     Frankfort,  1811*. 
Bruck:  Tlie  Training  of  tlie  T«clve.     3d  ed.     Edinburgli,  1883. 
Ukysciilag  :  Die  christliolie  Geaieiudeverfai-sung  ini  Zuitalter  des  Nout-n  TesUiuent.s. 

Harlem,  187C. 
liKi'cKNKK:  Ucber   die    Ziisanimeiiliang   der  Lituigie  ira   acliten   liuthc  der   '  Apos- 

toliselien  Constilutioncn,"  in  SluJicn  mid  Kvitikau,  1883,  88.  7-32. 
Oolkma.n:  Tiie  Apo.stolic  and  I'liniitive  ("iiuitli,  etc.     Pliiladelphia,  1878. 
Oox:  Tiie  Literature  of  the  Sabbath  Qtie.stion.     Edinburgh,  ISCfi. 
Cl  NXiNr.iiAM  :  The  (Jrowtli  of  the  Cliureli.     London,  188(). 
Dale:   Manual  of  Congregational  I'rineiples.     London,  1884. 
Dasikl:  Codex  liturgicus  ecciesia;  universue  in  epitoinen  redaetus.     4  vols.     Lipsiae, 

1817-51. 
Dk.\tkk  :    Congregationalism :    What  it    is ;    whence  it    is,  etc      4th  ed.       Boston, 

187(1. 
Dollinckr:  The   First   Age  of  Christianity   and   the  Church;    trans,   by  Oxcnham. 

London.  18(i(>. 
Drky:  Neue  Untersuclmngen  iiber  die    Constitiitionen    und  Kanones  der  Aposteln. 

Tubingen,  1832. 
KnKRSHKiM  :  Life  and  Times  of  Jesus  the  Messiah. 
Fishkr:  The  Beginnings  of  Christianity.     New  York,  1887. 
Fkkkman  :    Principles  of  Divi.je  Service.     London,  1855-62. 
Geikik:  Life  and  Words  of  (Christ.     New  York,  188(».     2  vols. 
Gilfillas:    The  Sabbath    Viewed  in  the   Light  of  Reason,  Revelation,  and  History. 

New  York,  1862. 
Harnack:  Lchrbuch  der  Dogmengeschichte.     Freiburg,  188G-87.     2  vols. 
Ueber  den  Ursprung  des  Lectorates  und  der  anderen  niedcrcn  Weilicn.     (Jics- 

scn,  188G. 
Hatch:  Organization  of  the  Early  Christian  Churche.s.     London,  1882. 
Hausrath:    History  of   the  New  Testament  Tinies.     The  Times  of  Jesus.     Trans. 

from  the  (Jerman  by  Poyniing  and  Quenzer.     New  York,  1887. 
Hei.n'rici  :  Die  Kirchengcmeinde  Korinths  und  die   rcligiisen  Genossenscliaft«n    der 

Griechcn,  in  the  Zci/srhrift  fiir  wlxsemchafllichc  TUeoloyic,  1876. 
Hessey:  Sunday:  Its  Origin,  History,  and  Present  Obligation.      Bampton  Lectures. 

London,  1860. 
Heylin:   History  of  the  Sabbath. 
Hilgknkeld:     Der    Paschastreit  der   alten    Kirclie  nach  seiner   Bedeutung    fur  die 

Kirchengcschichte.     Halle,  1860. 
HoFLiNC, :  Das  Sacrament  der  TauTo.     Erlangen,  1846. 
Die  Lehre  der  iiltesten  Kirche  vom  Opfer  ini  Leben  und  Cultus  der  Christen. 

Erlangen,  1851. 
Hodge,  C:  Discussions  in  Church  Polity.     New  York,  1870. 
Jacob:  The  Ecclesiastical  Polity  of  the  New  Testament.     A  study  for  the  present 

crisis  in  the  Church  of  England.     5th  Am.  ed.     New  York,  1879. 
Kahnis:  Die  Lehre  vom  heiligcn  Al)cndmahl.     Leipzig,  \%^\. 
Kayser:  Die  Canoncs  Jacob  von  Edessa.     Leipzig,  18S7. 
Killen:  The  Ancient  Church.     Its    History,    Doctrine,   Worship,   and  Constitution. 

New  York,  1883. 
Kostlin:  Gesehichte  des  christlichen  Gottcsdienstes.     Freiburfr,  1887. 
Lange:  Life  of  Christ.     Trans,  from  the  German,     Edinburgh,  1864. 
85 


.'546  LITERATURE  OF  CHRISTIAN  ARCHAEOLOGY. 

Lechler  ;    Das  apostolische  und  das  nachapostolische  Zeitalter  mit  Riicksicht   auf 

Unterschied  und  Einheit  im  Leben  und  Lehre.    3te  Aufl.    Karlsruhe  und  Leipzig, 

1885. 
Leyerlkn  :  Die   Eustehung  des    Episcopats  in  der  christlichen  Kirche,  in  the  Zeit. 

sckrift  fiir  praktische  Theologie,  1887,  Heft  ii,  ss.  97-143;  Heft  iii,  ss.  201-244; 

Heft  iv,  ss.  297-333.     Against  Hatch  and  Harnaek. 
LiGHTFOOT:  Tiie  Apostolic  Fathers.     London,  1885., 
The  Name  and  Office  of  an  Apostle,  in  coram,  on  Galatians.    7th  ed.     London, 

1881. 

The  Christian  Ministry,  in  comm.  on  Philippians.     8th  ed.     London,  1885. 

Lipsius:  Ueber  Ursprung  und  Gebrauch  des  Christennaniens.     Jena,  1873. 

MoNE :    Lateinische  und  griechische  Messen  aus   dem    2ten  bis  6teu    Jahrhundert. 

Frankfort,  1859. 
MuRATORi,  L.  A.:  Liturgia  Romana  vetus.     Venet.,  1748. 
Neale  :  The  Liturgies  of  S.  Mark,  S.  James,  S.  Clement,  S.  Chrysostom,  S.  Basil,  or, 

according  to  the  uses  of  the  Churches  of  Alexandria,  Jerusalem,  Constantinople. 

London,  1859. 
INeander  :  The  Planting  and  Training  of  the  Christian  Church.     Trans,  by  Ryland. 

New  York,  1844. 
Palmer:  Origines  Liturgicse.    2  vols.    London,  1845. 

■PoRTEons:  The  Government  of  the  Kingdom  of  Christ,  etc.     Edinburgh,  1872. 
Powers:  L-enaeus  and  Infant  Baptism,  in  the  Am.  Prenhi/.  and  llieol.  Review,  1857. 
Probst:     Kirchliche    Disciplin    in    den    drei    ersten    christlichen    Jahrhunderten. 

Tiibingen,  1873. 
•R  ;nan  :  Rome  and  Christianitj'.     Hibbert  Lectures.     Boston,  1880. 

Marc  Aurele  et  la  fin  du  mond  antique.     Paris,  1 882. 

Les  Apostres. 

RiGG :  The  Sabbath  and  the  Sabbath  Law  before  and  after  Christ.     London,  1869. 
Ritsciil:  Die  Enstehung  der  altkatholischen  Kirche.     2t.e  Aufl.     Bonn,  1857. 
RiTscHL,  Otto:  Cyprian  von  Carthago,  etc.     Gottingen,  1885. 
■RoTHE:    Die  Aufange  der  christlichen  Kirche  und  ihrer  Verfassung.     Wittenberg, 

1837. 
■Ryckert:    Das  Abendmahl,  sein  Wesen  und   seine   Geschichte  in  der  alten  Kirche. 

Leipzig,  1856. 
•Scherer:  Handbuch  des  Kirchenrechts.     Gratz,  1886. 
SchUrer:    Die  Paschastreitigkeiten  des  2ten  Jahrhimderts,  in  Zeltschrjft  fiir  hist 

Tlieologie,  1870. 
fiEUFERT :  Der  Ursprung  und  die  Bedeutung  des  Apostolates  in  der  christlichen  Kirche 

der  ersten  zwei  Jahrhunderte.     Leiden,  1887. 
Stanley:  Cliristian  Institutions.      New  York,  1881. 

Steitz:   Der  Paschastreit,  etc.,  in  Stndlen  und  Kritiken,  1856,  1857,  1859. 
SwAiNso.N  :  The  Greek  Liturgies.     London.  1884. 

Thiersch  :   Die  Kirche  im  apostolischen  Zeitalter.     3te  Anfl.  Augsburg,  1879. 
Vitringa:  de  Synagoga  vetere  lihri  tres.     "Weissenfels,  1726. 
Wall:  History  of  Infant  Baptism.     Oxford,  1872.     2  vols. 
AVarren:  The  Liturgy  and  Ritual  of  the  Celtic  Church.     Oxford,  1881. 
Weizsacker:  Das  apostolische  Zeitalter  der  christlichen  Kirche.     Freiburg,  1886. 
Wieseler:    Die  Christenverfolgungen    der   Caesaren   bis  zum  dritten  Jahrhundeil;. 

Leipzig,  1875. 

Geschichte  des  Sonntaga  in  der  alten  Kirche.     Hanover,  1878. 

Wordsworth:  Outlines  of  the  Christian  Ministry.     London,  1872. 


LITERATURE  OF  CHRISTIAN  ARCII/EOLOGY.  W? 

WoitnswonTit :   History  of  tlic  Cluistian  (Mnircli.     Vol.  i. 
Zaun:  Ignatius  von  Antioclien.     (iotliii,  IHT.i. 

I<;niitii  et  Polycarpi  Epistolac  Marty riu  Friif;incnta.     Lipsia;,  1876. 

Zocklkk:  Apostelgescliichte.     Nordiingen,  1886. 
Das  Kreutz  Christi.     Gutersloh,  1875. 

MISCPM-LANEOUS. 

AcKERMANN :     The  Christian  Element  in  Plato  and  the  Plalonir  I'liilosophy.     Trans. 

from  the  (Jernuin.     Edinburgh,  1801. 
Ai.i.AKi>:   Lcs  Enclaves  cluL-tiens  depiiis  les  premiers  temps  dc  I'^glisc  jusq'au  la  fin  de 

la  domination   roniaine  en  Occident.     Paris.  1876. 
Alt:   Die  heiligeu  Bilder,  oder  die  bildende  Kunst  und  <lie  theologische  Wissenschaft 

in  ihrem  gegen.seitigen  Verhaltniss,  historisch  dargestellt.     Dcrlin,  1845. 
Babk:  Symbolik  des  mosiiischen  (kiltus.     Heidelberg,  18S7. 
Bkcker:  Das  Spott-Crucitix  der  romisclion  Kaiserpaliiste.     Breslau,  1866. 

Die  Darstellnng  Jesu  Christi  untcr  dem  Bilde  des  Fisches.     Breslau,  1866. 

Die  heidniselie  Weihfornicl  D.  M.  Breslau,  18G9. 

Bkurath  :    Zur  Geschiclitc  der  Marienvcrehrung,  in    Studicn  uiid  Kritikru,    1886. 

Heft  i.  FS.  7-94  ;  Heft  ii,  ss.  197-267. 
BouufiON:  Letters  from  Rome.     Loudon,  1862. 
Bi'tirKHARnT:  C  cerone.     5te  Aufl..  1884.     2  Bde. 
BoRNEM,:  Elements  of  South  Indian  Palaeography  from  the  4th  to  the  17lh  Century, 

A.  D.     2(1  ed.    London,  1878. 
Butlkr:  The  Ancient  Coptic  Churches  of  Egypt.     Oxford,  1884.     2  vols. 
(^iiASTEL :  Destruction  du  Paganisme  dans  rEm[)ire  d'Orient. 
Cockkr:    Christianity  and  the  Greek  Philosophy.     New  York,  1870. 
Cohen  :  Description  historique  des  Monnaics  frajjpees  sous  I'empire  romain,  commun- 

nement  appelees  niedailles  imperiales.     2er  ed.     T.  iv,  Paris,  1884. 
Conder:  Survey  of  Western  Palestine.     Special  Papers.     London,  188L 

Christian  and  Jewish  Traditions. 

Creuzer  :  Symbolik  u.  Mythologie. 

Crooks  and  Hcrst:  Theological  Encyclopedia  and  Methodology.     New  York,  1884. 

CuRTirs,  HiR.'!CHFELD,  etc. :  Ausgrabungen  zu  Olympia. 

CoNVREARE  and  IIowson:  Life  and  Epistles  of  St  Paul.     6th  ed.     New  York,  1858. 

DiETKicK :  Das   philosophische  System  Platons  in  seiner  Bcziehnng  zum  christlichcn 

Dogma.     Freiburg,  1862. 
Doi-linoer:  The  Gentile  and  the  .T(mv  in  the  Courts  of  the  Temple  of  Christ.     Trans. 

from  the  German  by  Darnell.      Limdoii,  18(;2. 

Hippolytus  und  Callistiis. 

Dorner:   History  of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Person  of  Christ.     5  vols. 

Dt  li.vrM  :   Der  symbolische  Character  der  christlichen  Religion  und  Kunst.    SchafThau- 

sen,  1860. 
Ermaro:  Das  Erziehungswcsen  der  christlichen  Zeit.  in  Der  Schulfreund,  lite  Jahr- 

gang.  Trier,  1855. 
Ewald:   The  History  of  Isr.nel.     Trans,  from  the  German.     London,  1874. 
Farrar  :  Life  of  St.  Paul.     London.  1882. 
Forbes,  Leslie:  The  Early   Races  of  Scotland   and    their    Monuments.     Edinburgh, 

1876.     2  vols. 
Forster.  Tn. :  Ambrosius,  Bischof  von  Mailand.     Eine  Darstellung  seines  Lebcns  und 

Wirkens.     Halle,  1884. 


54&  LITERATURE  OF  CHRISTIAN  ARCHAEOLOGY. 

Freeman  :  The  Historical  Geography  of  Europe.     2d  ed.     London,  1882. 

Friedlander:   Darstellungen  aus  der  Sittengeschiclite  Ronis.     Leipzig,  1881.     K  i^.'.jj, 

Gibbon:  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Enii)iie.     New  York,  1880.     6  vols. 

Gregorovius  :  Geschichte  der  Stadt  Roius  ini  Mittelaltcr. 

Ideler:   Handbuch  der  math,  und  tech.  Chronologic.     Breslaii,  1825. 

Jacob:  Die  Kiinst  iin  Dienste  der  Kirche.     2te  AuH.     Landshut,  1870. 

King:  1  he  Gnostics  and  their  Remains,  Ancient  and  Modern.     London,  1804.     New 
edition,  New  York,  1887. 

Kraus  :  Die  christliche  Kunst  in  ihrer  f  riihesten  Anf angen.     Leipzig,  1 873 

Synchl'onistische  Tabellen  zur  christlichen  Kunstgeschichte.     Freiburg   1880. 

Kcenen:  Ilibbert  Lectures,  1882. 

Lea:  Studies  in  Church  History.     Boston,  1883. 

. History  of  Sacerdotal  Celibacy.     2d  ed.     Boston,  1884. 

Leckey:  History  of  European  Morals,  etc.     London,  1884.     2  vols. 

Lochler:  Sclaverei  und  Christenthum.     Leipzig,  1877-78. 

Lehner:     Die  Marienverehrung  in  den  ersten  Jahrhunderten      Stuttgart,  1881. 
Mariott  :  The  Testimony  of  the  Catacombs  and  of  other  Monuments  of  Christian  Art 
from  the  Second  to  the  Eighteenth  Century.     London,  1870. 

Vestiarium  Chiistianum. 

Merivale:  Conversion  of  the  Roman  Empire.     London,  18G4. 
MiLMAN :  History  of  Latin  Christianity.  New  York,  1881.     8  vols,  in  4 
Mommsen:  History  of  Rome.     New  York,  1870.     4  vols. 

Overbeck:  Verhiiltniss  der  alten  Kirche  zur  Sclaverei  im  romischen  Reiche.     Ber- 
lin, 1875. 
Palmer,  W.  :  An  Introduction  to  Early  Christian  Symbolism.   London,  1884. 
Ratzinger:  Geschichte  der  kirchlichen  Armeiipflege.     2te  Aufl.     Freiburg,  1884. 
V.  Raumer:  Geschichte  der  Padagogik.     Stuttgart,  1843. 
Reidelbach:    Ueber  den  Zusammenhang  der   christlichen   Kunst  mit  der   antiken, 

Miinchen,  1881. 
Reuss  :  History  of  the  New  Testament.     2d  ed.     Trans,  from  the  German  by  Houghs 

ton.     1884. 
RoHAULT  DE  Fleury  :  La  Saintc  Viergc.     2  vols.     Paris,  1878. 
ScHMio:    Geschichte  der  Erziehung  voni    Anfang  bis  auf  unsere  Zeit.      Stuttgart, 

1884,  seq. 
Schmidt:  Geschichte  der  Padagogik.     3te  Aufl.     Cothen,  1874.     2  Bde, 
Schlumbergkr  :  Sigillographie  de  I'Empire  byzantine.     Paris,  1885. 
Schurer:    Der  Gemeindeverfassung  der  Juden  in  Rom.     Leipzig,  1879. 

The   Jewish  People  in  the  Time  of  Jesus  Christ.     Edinburgh,  1885. 

Stanley:  History  of  the  Eastern  Church.     New  York,  1863. 
Strzygowski:  Ikonographie  der  Taufe  Christi.     Miinchen,  1885. 
Twining,  Louisa  :  Symbols  and  Emblems  of  Early  and  Medieval  Christian  Art.     Lon- 
don, 1852. 
Tyrwhitt:  Christian  Art  Symbolism.     London,  1881. 

The  Art  Teaching  of  the  Primitive  Church.     London,  1886. 

Uhlhorn:  Conflict  of  Christianity  with  Heatlienism.     Trans,  from  3d  German  ed.  by 
Smith  and  Ropes.     Revised  Am.  Ed.,  New  York.     1879. 

Christian  Charity  in  tlie  Ancient  Church.     Trans,  from  the  German,  New  York, 

1«83. 
Wallon  :  Histoire  de  I'esclavage.     2er  ed.     Paris.  1879. 
■Wood:  Discoveries  at  Ephesus.     Boston,  1867.     New  ed.,  1887. 
Kahn:  Sclaverei  und  Christenthum  in  der  alten  Welt.     Heidelberg,  1879. 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


In  this  Index  f  sliows  that  the  subject  is  coniiniicd  on  the  next  papje;  ff  that  tlio 
mibject  is  continued  on  the  luUowing  pages;  n  lliat  the  matter  is  contained  in  a  note 


Abortion,  frequency  of  among  pagans, 
4til{ ;  not  condemned  by  R unans,  464  ; 
liow  viewed  by  the  Clmrch,  4t>5. 

'Aljraxas  gems,  as  evidence,  21;  nature 
of,  3 1 ; 

Absohilion,  sUiges  of,  ;^83. 

Aeolytiis,  d\ities  of,  374. 

Actor.i,  V.  Drama. 

Agnc-Uns,  biogranliies  by,  206  f. 

Alberti,  on  Christian  basilicn,  157. 

Alexandria,  important  eucliarisiic  fresfci 
at,  82;  schools  of,  505  f;  tlieologians 
oi;  506  f. 

Altiir,  names  and  forms  of,  426;  position 
of,  426;  accompaniments  of,  427  f. 

Ambo,  situation  of,  184;  uses  of,  184. 

.Vmbrose,  on  the  phoeni.x,  71;  conliibu- 
tions  to  liymnoiogy,  291;  musical 
reforms  of,  304 ;  musical  modes  of, 
30!t;  on  trine  baptism,  414  f;  quoted, 
420. 

Amor  and  P.sychc,  significance  of,  in  Chris- 
tian art,  68  f. 

Ampnlhe,  controversy  respecting.  156; 
opniions  on  tlie  contents  of.  156. 

Amuscmenis,  interdicted,  480. 

Aiiatiilin.s,  liymns  of,  282. 

Anaphora.  440. 

Angels,  gnaidian  in  art,  69. 

Aniiphonaiium,  (iregorian,  314. 

Apostles,  in  Jewisii  Chnrcii,  326;  signili- 
caiiee  of  the  Twelve,  327  ;  first  test 
of,  328 ;  harmony  of  teaching  of,  354. 

Apostoiate,  323  f. 

Apostolic  Constiintions,on  baptism,  414  f; 
on  epii'cop.icy,  361  f;  on  Clmrch 
government,  362. 

Apostolic  succession,  according  to  the 
Clementines,  346;  according  to  Irc- 
niens,  355. 

Apse,  termination  of  law  basilica,  177; 
signiticance  of,  in  Christian  basilica, 
181;  Cliristian,  and  pagan  governed 
by  diffbrent  principles,  181  f;  origin 
of,  182;   furniture  of,  184. 

Arc!)JCologist9,  sciiools  of,  74  f. 


Arcbicology,  de(initi<»n  of,  13;  divisions 
of,  13  f;  history  of,  15;  relations  of 
Christian  to  cla<si -hI,  16;  limits  of, 
17;   utility  of.    19  If. 

Arcliileacon,  appo  ntmcnt  and  functions 
of,  368;   importance  of,  368. 

Area,  deliuition  of,  170;  sacredness  ot 
170,  513;   carefully  bounded,  172. 

Arciiit<>cture,  t'.  Basilica;  Iranformations 
gradual,  197;  germs  of  (Juthic,  189; 
dome  style  of,  217  :  Byzantine,  232  f. 

Ariaiis,  cliin-clies  of,  208;  hymns  of,  in 
fourth  century,  292;  practise  trine 
baptism,  414. 

Ark,  syml)ol  ol^  261, 

Art,  iuHuences  affecting,  51;  helpful  to 
filth,  51  ;  presence  of  formative  art 
in  {)ublic  services  opposed  by  early 
Cliristian  fathers.  52;  how  far  and 
why  opposed,  53,  131;  relaiions  of 
religion  to.  55;  Rubji.'Cis  of  uniform, 
112;  ecclesiastical  control  of.  108; 
last  judgment  in,  149;  activity  in 
West,  203. 

Asceticism,  p--rtiins  to  all  religions,  467; 
heathen  examples  of,  467 ;  encour- 
agements to,  468. 

.\ss,  a  caricature  of  Christ.  95  f. 

Atria,  five  classes  of.  167  f. 

Angusti,  274  n.  276,  280,  284  n. 

Augustine,  livmns  of,  296;  on  public  wor- 
ship, 437. 

A.  il.  nionnnuMiis,  chronology  and  signifi- 
cance of,  S8;  connected  with  other 
symbols,  89. 

Biihr.   283  n,   284,   28.5,  286,   288  n,  293, 

295. 
Balancing,   principle  of,  in  early  frescos, 

98  f;  in  sarcophasri,  136,  140. 
Baptism,  formidaol".  389;  Christ's  peculiar, 

389  ;  meaning  of.  390;  n.ilureof,  390  ; 

regenerative  jiower  of,  390;   subjects 

of,  391  ;   infant,  391  ff:    adult  more 

common.   393;    conditions  of,   393  f; 

roioistrants  of,  394  f ;  mode  of,  395  ff; 


550 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


when  administered,  396;  testimony  of 
"Teaching"  respecting,  397  f;  pic- 
torial representations  of,  398  ff;  bj' 
aspersion,  403  ff;  mosaics  contain- 
ing, 404  f;  uniformitj^  of  art  testi- 
mony concerning,  406  f;  liberty  re- 
specting, 407  ;  clinic,  why  not  encour- 
aged, 407  f ;  reasons  of  delay  of,  409 ; 
time  of,  409 ;  place  of,  409  ff ;  pre- 
liminaries to,  412  f;  sponsors  in,  413; 
ceremonies  of,  413  ff;  trine,  413; 
reasons  of  trine,  414;  why  trine  was 
discontinued,  414  ;  unction  following, 
414;   sign  of  the  cross  after,  415. 

Baptisteries,  arrangement  of,  410  ;  size  oi" 
410. 

Bardesanes,  hymns  of,  278. 

Baronius,  15. 

Basil,  on  trine  baptism,  413;  on  canonical 
singers,  304 ;  on  education,  507  f. 

Basilica,  origin  of  Christian,  157  ;  theories 
discussed,  157  ff:  Zestermann's  four 
classes,  159  ;  Alberti's  theory  of,  157  ; 
Weingartner's  iheorj-.  159,  f.;  Mess- 
mer's  theory,  161;  Dehio's  theory, 
162;  Lange's  theorj',  162:  eclectic 
view,  162  ff;  description  of  law  ba- 
silicas, 175;  derivation  of,  175;  uses 
of,  178;  Christian  basilica  a  growtli, 
178;  earliest  notices  of,  180;  resem- 
blances to  pagan  basilica,  181,  186; 
differences  from,  183,  186;  parts  of. 
184;  transformation  of.  186;  balanc- 
ing of  parts  of,  186,  187  ;  later  devel- 
opment of,  187;  influence  on  other 
forms  of  architecture,  188:  how  far 
original,  191;  few  remains  of,  191; 
post-Constantine  examples  of,  195  ft': 
in  Syria  exceptional,  213;  ceilings  of, 
213] 

Becker,  opinion  of  respecting  heathen  car- 
icatures, 94;  on  Diis  Manibus,  255. 

Bernhardy,  285,  295. 

Boveridge,  278  n. 

Bishop,  Ignatius  on,  344  f;  identical  witli 
presbyters,  338  ff;  congregational, 
345 ;  tiie  unifjqng  power  of,  348  :  the 
arbiter  of  doctrine,  347  ;  mode  of  elec- 
tion of,  351  ;  relation  of  to  each  other, 
352;  of  Rome,  352;  increased  pow(!r 
of,  352;  catalogues  of,  355;  deposi- 
taries of  apostolic  teaching,  356;  be- 
come general  officers,  358. 

Bohmer,  274  n. 

Bostliius,  310. 

Bingham,  on  canonical  singers,  303;  on 
the  nntitia,  371  n;  on  absolution.  383. 

Bucher,  quoted,  136  n. 

Bulla;,  476  f. 

Bunsen,  quoted.  28  n. 

Burial,  Jewisli  cif-toms  of,  510  f;  luck  of, 
a  punishment,  510;  duly  of,  among 


the  Greeks,  511  f;  preparation  of  body 
for.  51 1  f;  Roman  custom  of,  512;  legal 
provisions  among  tlie  Romans,  513; 
revival  of,  at  Rome,  514;  Christian 
customs  of,  514  f;  shared  in  the  com- 
mon feeling,  515;  doctrine  of  resur- 
rection affecting,  515  ;  the  family  idea 
preserved  in,  516;  Christian,  protect- 
ed bylaw,  516;  no  secrecy  necessary 
in,  516;  clubs  for,  516;  in  catacombs, 
517. 

Burial  brotherhoods,  influence  of,  on  bur- 
ial, 31,  510. 

Burgess,  quoted,  272  n,  278  n,  279. 

Burnell,  on  lateness  of  South  Indian  in- 
scriptions, 85  n;  on  lack  of  original- 
ity in  the  Indian  Trinity,  85  n. 

Burning  of  the  dead,  seldom  practised  by 
the  Jews,  510;  custom  among  the 
Greeks  varjnng.  511  f;  also  among 
the  Romans,  512  f;  not  practised  Ijy 
Cliristiatis,  516. 

Business,  v.  Trades. 

Butler,  on  baptism  in  Coptic  Cliurcli, 
393  n. 

Byzantine  Architecture,  principle  (^f.  '.';>-'; 
periods  of,  232;  perlection  of,  in  St. 
Sophia,  232  f. 

Byzimiine  art,  early  origin  of,  34  n. 

Byzantine  churclies,  in  Constantinople,  40. 

Byzantine  Empire,  degeneracy  of,  203  ;  ab- 
soltitism  of,  231 :  good  offices  of,  231. 

C\elius  Sedulius,  296. 

Calistus,  his  care  for  the  cemeteries,  32. 

Canon  Paschalis,  sculptured,  135. 

Capella,  310. 

Capitoline  Fragments,  166. 

Caricatures  of  Christ,  94  f.  ;  Terlullian'a 
testimony  to,  94. 

Carriere,  on  symbolism,  quoted,  73  n. 

Catacombs,  less  used  in  4th  century,  35 ; 
of  Syracuse,  35  ;  of  Malta,  36 ;  de- 
scription of,  56,  516  ff;  origin  of 
Roman,  516:  entrance  to,  not  con- 
cealed, 516;  construction  of.  517  ff; 
iminber  of,  518;  numbers^buried  in, 
518;  not  used  for  public  worship, 
519;   lighting  of,  520. 

Carvings,  in  ivor}^,  150;  of  book-covers, 
153;   on  ]iixes,  154. 

Cassiodorus,  310. 

Catholic  Cliurcli,  when  tl  e  term  first  used, 
357  f;  meaning  of.  358. 

Celibac}^  early  inculcated,  467  f;  evils 
of  among  tlie  Romans,  463  ;  difficul- 
lies  of  enforcing,  468. 

Cellar,  uses  of,  169;  influence  on  Cliristian 
architecture,  170;  examples  of,  172; 
growth  into  cliurches,  206. 

Cemeteries,  separate,  desired  by  Jews, 
510   f;    removed   from    cities,    511; 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


551 


Christian,  peculiar,  519;  Jewish,  ;ii 
Unnir.  511. 
Ceiiinil  slylc,  »'.  Oomcd  stylo. 
Chalieo,  ricliiic.ss  of,  428;  protests  ngainsi 

riohiiL'ss  of,  429. 
Chamber  of  ilio   Sucramcuts,    iinporiiuit 

fresco  of,  81. 
Chant,    ori<jciiiiil  st3'le  of  music  in   early 

C:|iureh.  ItOl. 
Ciiiirisms.  :!24,  341  ;  result  of  office,  :{51. 

CJKiriiles,  under  Roman  fiovernment,  488; 
nunil)er3  relieved,  188 ;  Stoics  I'a- 
vour;il)le  to,  488;  defects  of  paj^'an, 
489,  490  f;  of  guilds  and  clubs, 
489;  selfishness  in.  489;  intincMico  of 
collt'i/ia  upon  Christian,  490;  idea  of 
early  ('hristian,  492;  true  inspiration 
of,  in  early  Church,  491 ;  in  ilie  early 
oblations,  491  f;  inlluence  of  finan- 
cial eondition  of  the  imperial  period 
on,  492  f;  inHuences  adverse  to. 
49.'i :  scope  of,  493  f ;  organized, 
494  f;  intluenco  on  pauperism,  495 
f:  opportunities  for,  496  f;  princi- 
ples adverse  to,  497  f;  relation  of 
Monianism  to,  498;  doctrine  of  <;ood 
works  coiuiected  with,  498  ;  indii- 
enee  of  union  of  Churcii  and  SUite 
on,  498  f;  decay  of,  499;  intiuence 
of  hospitals  on,  499. 

Charles.  Mrs.,  295  n,  296  n. 

C!iarnay,on  cross  in  Central  America,  8.'{  n. 

Children,  absolute  property''  of,  among 
Romans,  46:5;  care  for  by  Ciiristians, 
465;   exposure  of,  4(!5. 

Chorepiscopi,  when  instituted,  ;!7I  ;  func- 
tions of,  :J71. 

Chriat.  no  portrait  of,  76,  131  ;  traditions 
concernuig  art  representations  of,  76 
n ;  two  general  types  of,  in  earl}-  art, 
100;  tlic  earlier  fri>m  Greek,  the 
later  from  Hebrew  intiuence,  100  fl"; 
tendency  to  decoration  in  later  frescos 
of,  10!!;  reasons  of  change  in  type  of, 
104:  cruciti.\ion  of,  in  art,  114;  statues 
of,  symbolic,  132;  type  of,  in  sculpture, 
136;  nativity  seldom  found  in  early 
an,  146;  cross-bearing  of,  148; 
crowning  with  tliorns,  148;  cruci- 
fixion of,  in  :irt,  152;  divinity  of, 
207  ;   date  of  birlli  unknown,  45(5  f. 

Christians,  number  of,  26,  51 ;  high  position 
of  some,  26,  KJl,  165,  262,  516  f; 
judged  a  sect  of  tlio  Jews,  163  ;  their 
places  of  worship,  163;  burial  of. 
515  IT. 

Christianity,  rapid  aprend  of,  25;  a  mes- 
sage to  the  poor,  25;  cause  of  prop- 
agation of,  27 ;  not  hostile  to  art. 
42;  contaminated  by  heatiicn  intlii- 
ences,  65;  compared  to  Judaism  re- 
specting the  priesthood,  79  lu 


Christian  art,  causes  of  oncauragenient  of, 
52;  early  forms  of.  54;  originality  o(. 
54;  symbolism  in,  55;  ap|)ropriuto<i 
wiiiit  was  at  hand  l)iit  modiliol  it, 
55  f.  521  ;  decorative  in  character, 
57;  naturalness  of  early,  58;  pagan 
olemeiils  in,  59;  mythologic  elenn.nl« 
in,  60  tl;  contaminated  by  heuthcii 
iuHneuceH,  65. 
Christinas,    origin    of,    457;     conclusion:* 

Concerning,  457. 
Choirs,  female,  organixed  by  Kphraim  of 
Kdessa,  278;  by  Basil  and  Chrv.sos- 
tom.  304. 
Christian    fatiicrs,    their     art     teachings 
compared  with  those  of  the  reforni- 
cTs,  54  n. 
Churches,  many  destroyed,  35;  traces  o*'. 
in  Kgvpi,  36;  appropriation  of  p.igan 
elements    in,     62,     197;     in    private 
hon.se.s     101;     temples    changed    to, 
198;   mined  near  Carthage,   211;   ni 
Egypt,  211  f. 
Chnrciies,  of  Syria,  212  ff;  ceilings  of,  21.3. 
Church    Discipline,    design    of,    378;    in- 
curred  iiu   loss  of  civil    ri;:lits.   379; 
relation  of,  to  the  lap.si.  381  ;   decline 
of  penitential,   382;    rcadmission    to 
(Jliurch   by,  382;   stages  of,  383;   no 
merit  in,  383  ;  of  the  clergy,  383. 
Church,    symbolized  by  Xoih's  ark.    93, 
259;  "an  organism,    181,   322;   New 
Testiimeiit   idc;i  of,   321    f;    a   kin'.r- 
dom,  321  ;   the  body  of  Christ,  322; 
a  temple,  322;  the  lir  de,  322;  names 
of     menil)crs     of.    322  f;     believers, 
323;     brethren,   323;    a    fellowship, 
325;    officers  of,  327;  lirst  organiza- 
tion of,  333;  each  congregation  inde- 
pendent, 335  fl";  general  conclnsiona 
respecting.  341  l;  government  of,  350; 
priesthood  of  the  entire,  359 ;  a  divine 
state,  36_';  jiovcrnmeni  of,  a  develop- 
ment, 362  ;  rcadmission  lo,  382;   rela- 
tiotis  of,  to  slavery,  47ii  ff;    relations 
of,  to  civil  govcriuneni,  470;  onconr- 
aged  labor,  477  f. 
Church  consiitniion,  iuHuence  of  (inost'CH 
on,  353  ;  .iposiolic  teaching  respect- 
iii^r,    353    f;     IrenHMis's   principle  of, 
354  ff;   Cyprian's  leaching,  .'iSti  tl'. 
(Jhurcli   government,    republican    type    of 
early,  ;{36;    inllitetice  of  desirucliou 
of  Jerusalem  on.  34:'.  f;  a  congrega- 
tional epi.scopacy.  350. 
Church   letters,   church    nnitv    promoted 

by,  348. 
Chrysostom.   on    nmonic'il    snurops,   304; 

on  Christian  edu  ation,  5  i7  f. 
Circidiir  style.  >•.  I>o    ed. 
('lemenl  of   .VIexandria,  .'tl,  53;  op-nioa 
ou  OrpiieiLS,  64;  hymns  of,  280. 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


Clement  of  Rome,  on  episcopac}-,  342. 

Clementines,  on  episcopacy,  346  f. 

Clergy,  prie.-thood  of,  359 ;  sub-orders  of, 
373. 

Collegium,  moaning  and  objects  of,  512; 
'     for  burial  purposes,  513. 

Columbarium,  meaning  of,  513  f;  arrange- 
ment of,  513. 

Comraodianus,  hymns  of,  285. 

Coniinunion.  what,  419;   infant,  419,  421. 

Compluvium,  use  of,  1G9;  how  guarded, 
169. 

Coiider,  quoted,  39  n. 

Constantine,  keen  liiscernment  of,  27  ;  na- 
.  lure  of  his  vision,  86  n. ;  great  influ- 
ence of,  86;  statesmanlike  quali- 
ities  of,  19G;  donations  of  Clmrclies. 
19G:  luxurious  reign  of,  203;  re- 
script of,  respecting  Lord's  day,  445, 

Oonstaniini;in  monogram,  lorms  of,  8G; 
on  the  Roman  standards',  86;  on 
coins,  87. 

Constantinople,  motives  for  founding, 
2"i9  f;  syncretism  of  pagan  and 
Christian  elements  in,  230;  art  treas- 
ures of,  230,  509. 

Cousin,  quoted,  318  n. 

Creeds,  simplicity  of  early,  389. 

Crooks  &  Hurst,  quoted,  19  n. 

Cross,  wide  diffusion  of  83 ;  power  of, 
83  f;  widely  recognized  by  early 
Cliristians,  84;  Indian  derivation  of, 
doubtful,  84  ;  Ciiarney"s  remark  on, 
83  n;  forms  of,  86;  leger.d  of  find- 
ing: the  true,  87 ;  tlie  patibularj'^, 
88. 

Crucilixion  of  Christ,  tl  e  eailiest  art  rep- 
reseniation  of,  152. 

Cruciform,  v.  Domed. 

Cunningham,  on  transubstantiation,  424  n. 

Cupid  and  Psycho,  on  Cliristian  monu- 
uments,  62. 

Cubiculum,  in  Roman  hous",  168;  in  cat- 
acombs, 519. 

Curias,  intluence  on  Christian  architeettire. 
16'J. 

Cyprian,  31 ;  on  Cliurcli  constitution  and 
government,  356  f;  on  ordination, 
358;  on  sacraments,  387;  on  clinic 
baptism,  407 ;  on  sacrificial  cliarac- 
tcr  of  Lord's  Supper,  422  f;  on  in- 
fant communion.  434 ;  on  drama  and 
shows,  484  f;  on  education,  504. 

Dainasus,  inscriptions  of,  265;  hvmns  of, 
287. 

Daniel,  280,  281,  283  n,  287  n,  293  n. 

Deacons,  first  institution  of,  329;  qualifi- 
cations of,  330 ;  Irenjeuson,  330;  pe- 
culiariy  Christian  character  of,  331  f; 
preaciiingof,  332:  (hitiesof,  not  sharp- 
ly   defined,    311;    in    post -apostolic 


Churcli  342;  change  in  function  of, 
366;  eligibility  of,  367  ;  seven  contin- 
ued, 368. 

Deaconesses,  institution  of,  331;  quali- 
fications of,  368:  ordination  of,  369; 
duties  of,  369,  494  f 

Decalogue,  infiiience  of,  on  art  cultiva- 
tion, 43  ;  hinderance  of;  to  art,  45. 

Dchio,  162. 

Delbttre,  32. 

De  Sola,  on  Hebrew  music,  298. 

Dexter,  280  n. 

Diis  Manibus,  conclusions  respecting,  255. 

Diocletian,  of  edict  for  persecution,  32; 
destruction  of  monuments  by,  34. 

Diptychs,  BarljeiMui  mentioned,  60 :  in 
ivor)',  150:  consular,  importance  of, 
150;   uses  of,  150  f 

Disciples,  the  lamb,  sheep,  and  fisli,  sym- 
bol of.  91  f. 

Divorce,  Scripture  ground  of,  461 ;  Justin 
Martyr's  opinion  of,  463;  frequency 
of,  among  tiie  Romans,  46  f. 

Dollinger,  on  Pentecostal  baptism,  397  n. 

Domed  style,  diflusion  of,  217  ;  origin  of. 
218;  resembled  Roman  baptisteries, 
218:  was  it  indigenous  to  the  West, 
219;  principles  of  classification,  220 
f:  not  a  slavish  imitation,  222;  cir- 
cidar  style  of,  242  fi';  cruciform  style 
of,  244  "if. 

Door-keeper.s.  duties  of,  374. 

Dormit,  significance  of,  263. 

Dove,  a  Cluistian  symbol  of  innocence  and 
peace,  92,  261  ;  sometimes  used  as 
a  mciins  of  decoration,  92  ;  chronology 
of  moiniments  containing,  92. 

Doxologies,  specimens  of,  296. 

Drama,  low  condition  of  Roman,  481 ;  of 
Eastern,  481 ;  actors  in,  under  legal 
disabilities,  481  f;  Tertidlian's  opin- 
ion of,  482 ;  Cyprian's  opinion  of, 
482  f;  conciliary  decisions  respect- 
ing, 483 ;  severe  discipline  of  Church 
respecting,  483;  actors  in,  excluded 
from  the  Cliurch,  483. 

Dupin,  285. 

Easter,  connection  with  passover,  452 ; 
lime  of  celebration  of,  452;  disputes 
respecting,  452  f;  opinion  of  Jewish 
party  respecting,  452  f;  of  Roman 
pari3%  453;  attempts  to  reconcile  dif- 
ferences, 453  ;  conciliarj'  decisions  re- 
specting, 454 ;  rule  for  celebration 
of,  454;  different  cycles  454  f;  tJu'ee 
periods  of  the  conirovcrs}-  concern- 
ing, 455  n  ;  ceremonies  of,  455;  two 
pai  ts  of  the  celebration  of,  455  ;  man- 
ner of  oliservance  of,  455;  acts  of 
clemencj-  connected  witli,  456. 

Eastern  Cnurcli,  decline  of  music  in,  316. 


GKNKUAL   INDEX. 


553 


Kccle-:iastical  divisions,  cxplimalioiis  of, 
HG;i  ff;    followed  liu'  i><)|ilii-al,  H70. 

Ediicalinii,  of  ii|)o.sLlo.s  (liilioHll  to  ilv- 
terniine,  500;  Jewish  Ciire  for,  fiOO  f; 
influeiicft  of  llio  huv  iiiioii,  501  ;  of 
the  s\Minjroffue,  501  ;  Puiil's  view  of, 
501  f;  illiislriilod  hy  chiiraolerofiiijos- 
tolic  wriliiijrs.  502  f;  bv  character  of 
tlie  fatiiily,  50;{ :  dcflniiii^jcoiidiiion  in 
the  West,  5o;i  f;  Torliillian's  views  of, 
504  ;  indiiciice  of  tin-  ca'ec'liiimonalc 
upon,  505  ;  iufluence  of  Greek  tlioiijrlu 
on  Christian,  505  ;  uillucnce  of  Alex- 
andria npoi),  505  f;  Christian  theory 
of,  507  ;  Chrysostotn's  advice  respeci- 
iufr,  507  f;  more  kindly  fcelin}>:  towaid 
pagan  culture,  507;  .lullan's  intliierice 
on,  507;  Basil's  f^aehinj;  on,  508; 
Jerome's  views  on,  508  f ;  ellecls  ol' 
barbarian  invasions  on,  509 ;  in  the 
Eastern  Church,  509. 

Egyptians,  grotesqucncss  of  art  of,  101. 

El-Harali,  churches  of,  '215. 

Elij;iii,  translation  of,  in  scnlpiure,  138  f. 

Epi;.^raphy,  detinition  of,  247. 

K|)iphany.  feast  of,  45G  ;  when  observed, 
45G;   cornnicinorates  what,  456. 

Episcopacy.  James'  relation  to,;'."?;!:  Ig- 
naiius  on,  344  f;  of  the  Clementin  -s 
011,346  f ;  Hcrmas  on,  347  ;  Poycarp 
on,  348 ;  a  development,  35 1 ;  be- 
comes general,  358;  theories  of  origin 
of,  363  ff. 

Ephracm  Syrns,  hymns  of,  278  f;  homi- 
lies of,  cpioted,  278  n. 

Eras,  252. 

Eucharist,  v.  Lord's  Supper ;  symbolizeil 
by  the  'I,vi?i''f,  81  ft'. 

Endoxia,  Empres.s,  hymns  of,  282. 

Eiisebius.  on  Lord's  daj-,  445. 

Euthimius,  hynnis  of,  281. 

I'lwald,  299  n'. 

Excommunication,  greater  and  lesser,379f ; 
notice  given  of,  380;  effects  of,  380: 
appeal  from  the  sentence  of,  380. 

ICxorcisls,  origin  and  functions  of,  374. 

Family,  a  tj'pc  of  the  Church,  461 ;  Christ's 
sanction  of,  461  ;  Paul's  leaching 
respecting,  462;  teachings  of  ti'o 
Christian  fathers  concerning,  462  ff; 
two  threats  to  the,  468  f ;  Roman  idea 
of,  4()3;  decline  of  the  life  of  under 
tlie  empire,  463  f. 

Earrar,  on  Paul's  lack  of  art  sensibilitv. 
50  n. 

Feasts  and  festivals,  burial,  where  cele- 
braied,  165;  Easter,  452  fl";  t^ninqua- 
gcsima,  456;  Quadragosmia,  456: 
Pentecost,  456;  Epipimn}',  457; 
Christmas,  456  f;  multiplicity  of, 
457  f. 


Fish,  a  .symbol   of  Christ,  71-83;  of  the 

disci |)les,  92. 
Formative  arts,  principles  governing,  47; 

grolosqueness  o'  Jewish,  48. 
Fossore.s,    who,  520:  modes   of   working 

and  duties  (>l°.  520. 
Frescos,   oucharisiic,  at    Alexandria,  82; 

teaching     of,     respecting     baptism, 

398  ft". 
Fricdliindor,  294  n. 

Oalla  Placidia.  120,  244,  245. 

(ialcrius,  his  edict  of  toleration,  34. 

(larrucci,  119,  154. 

(iibbon,  289. 

Glyptic  art,  utility  of,  156. 

Gnosticism,  illustrated  by  abraxas  gems, 
21. 

Got  t'  c,  308  n. 

Gooil  Shepherd,  mistaken  for  llermes- 
Kriophorus.  61 ;  diilerences  between, 
53;  ussociated  with  ."Vmor  and 
Psyche,  69 ;  a  sjinbol  of  protection 
among  pastoral  peoples,  90;  imt 
necessarily  derived,  91 :  associated 
with  oiiur  Christian  svmboU,  91; 
with  swastika.  100;  stali.es  of,  132  H; 
compared  with  Hermes-Kriophorus, 
l.>3;  conueotcd  with  inscriptions, 
258  f. 

Grenii,  opinion  of  Christian  fathers  con- 
cerning, 69;  low  far  used  for  decor- 
ative purposes  in  Christian  art,  70. 

Grafliti.  found  on  Palatine  Hill,  94; 
Becker's  conclusions  concerning,  94; 
evamplcs  of,  268;  work  of  pilgrims, 
268. 

Gothic  architecture,  first  germs  of,  189; 
the  consummation  of  the  Christian 
basilica,  190. 

Grapes,  symbol  of,  261. 

Greeks,  mythology  and  influence  of,  on 
an  culture.  40;  freedom  of  their 
worsiiip,  49;  could  represent  their 
god.s,  50 ;  their  ideal  of  divine  per- 
loction,  101. 

Green  and  tlie  Red,  factions  of,  29. 

Gregory,  the  Great,  hymns  of,  296;  mu- 
sical reforms  of,  310  :  Antiphonarium 
of.  314;  advice  of,  against  trine  iin- 
iTicrsion,  414. 

(iipgory  Xazianzen,  hymns  of,  281. 

Grimin.  \V  .  288,  321.' 

Groiisset,  his  caUilogue  of  Christian  sar- 
cophagi mentioned,  70  n;  of  .sar- 
cophagi containing  the  Good  Shep- 
herd, 91  n. 

Guidoof  .\rczzo,  ?15. 

Guild.s,  burial,  special  privileges  of,  170. 

Harmoi.ius,  measnrps  of,  278. 
Harnuck,  on  biipiism,  392  k. 


io4 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


Hegesippns,  on  Gnostic  influence,  354. 

Helena,  traditional  discovery  ol  true  cross 
by,  87. 

Hemans,  remarks  of,  on  Mercury-Krinph- 
oros,  90  n. 

Hercules,  a  type  of  Christ,  64. 

Herder,  quoted,  27;^  u. 

Hilarius.  hymns  of,  286. 

Hippoiytus,  statue  of,  33;  its  chronoloajv, 
136. 

Holland,  quoted,  53  n. 

Hospitals,  rise  of,  499;  influence  of,  on 
Christian  charities,  499. 

Hubner,  132. 

Hymnology,  of  early  church,  272  ;  favor- 
able conditions  for,  272;  growth  re- 
tarded b}-  danger  and  persecution, 
273  ;  and  by  hesitation  about  using 
pagan  forms  of  art,  273;  germs  (if, 
in  New  Testament,  273;  "fsalni" 
and  "ode,"  274;  probable  use  ol'. 
in  second  century,  274;  reasons  for 
scant  information  respecting,  275; 
councils  upon  use  of,  275;  Greek 
fathers  favorable  to,  276;  relaiive- 
ly  small  number  of  liymns,  276: 
reason  for,  276;  of  Svrian  Church, 
277  :  of  Greek  Cluircli,  280 ;  of  West- 
ern Church,  283  ;  narrative  and  Ij'ric, 
283  f;  improvement  under  Consian- 
linian  rule,  287  ;  influence  of  Julian's 
policy  on,  289. 

Idolatry,  trades  connected  with,  479  f. 

Ignatius,  epistles  of,  345  n  f;  on  epis- 
copacy, 344  f;  on  Lord's  Supper, 
421 ;  on  Lord's  day,  445. 

Illuminations,  reason  of,  112:  examples 
of,.  113  f. 

Image  worship,  wars  over,  29. 

Immortality  suggested  in  inscriptions,  257, 
264. 

Imposition  of  hands  in  baptism,  415. 

Inclictions,  252. 

Industries,  v.  Trades. 

Infanticide,  frequency  of,  among  the  Ro- 
mans, 464  f. 

Inscriptions,  unconscious  testiinonv  of. 
21 ;  two  classes  of.  77  ;  late  origin  of 
S.  Indian,  85  ;  definition  of,  247  :  early 
use  of,  247  ;  utility  of,  247  f ;  num- 
ber of,  248  f;  classes  of,  249:  by 
whom  prepared,  250:  forms  of  wri- 
ing  used  in,  250 ;  how  read,  250 ; 
punctuation  of.  250  f;  orthography 
of,  250;  chronology  of.  250  f;  few- 
ness of  dated,  252  n  ;  eras  used  in. 
252;  dale  how  determined  253  f; 
subject  and  context  of,  254  ff ;  care- 
lessness in  prepai'aiioii  of.  265;  dog- 
matic character  of,  264;  indications 
of  a  belief  in  a  future   life   in,    264 ; 


character  of  Damasene,  265 ;  of  fonrtli 
century,  266  ;  aids  of,  to  history  illus- 
strated,  270  f. 
Irena;us,  theorj'  of  the  Church,  353 ;  on 
Church    constitniio'i,  354  f;  on  dea- 
cons, 330;  Oil  mysteries,  388   n;  on 
infant  baptism,  391;  on  Lord's  day, 
445. 
Ivory,  carvings  in,  150;  dipiychs  of.  150 
'IxSi'i  monuments,  ehronulogy  of,  77  ;   in- 
terpretation   of,    78    ff;    de     Rossi's 
opinion  of,  78. 

.lacob,  286,  291. 

James,  relation  of.  to  episcopacy',  333 ; 
Ilegesippiis  on.  334  n. 

Jews,  exclusiveness  of,  42;  pastoral  life 
of,  unfavorable  to  art  culture,  42; 
depressed  condilioLi  of.  43;  peculiarity 
of  imagination  uula\orable  to  arts 
of  form,  45,  46;  monotheism  of,  not 
promotive  of  forn  aiive  art,  48  f ;  lyric 
poetry  of,  48  n;  special  piivileges  of, 
516. 

Jerome,  on  h're  and  flute,  273 ;  on  baptism, 
413;   on  Cliristian  ednealioii,  508. 

Jonah,  iiistory  of,  in  sculpture,  139  I". 

Judaism  compared  with  Christianity  re- 
specting th^  priesthood,  79  n. 

Judgment,  last,  seldom  found  in  early 
art,  149. 

Julian,  attempt  of,  to  restore  heathenism, 
37  :  influence  of  policy  of,  on  Christian 
poetry,  289;  influence  of,  on  Christian 
eilucation,  5U7. 

Junius  Bassns,  sarcopliagns  of,  60,  143- 
145;  casts  of,  143  n;  subjects  of, 
144;   baptismal  scene  in,  145 

.lustiu  Martyr,  on  nuisic  of  Eastern 
Churcii.  301  :  on  the  I-ords  Supper, 
419;  on  pui)lic  worship,  434  f;  on 
Lord's  dav.  447  f. 

Justinian,  232',  2:!4,  235.  240. 

Juvencus,  hymns  of,  286. 

Kalat   Sem'au,    chui-cii    and    convent    of, 

216  f. 
Kaltenbrnuner,   his   three   periods  of  the 

i'^asler  conliovers}',  455  n. 
Karliini.  282  n. 
Keary,  similarity  of  use  does   not   imply 

dependence,  90  n. 
Kherbei-Hass.  213. 
Knuser,  opinion  of.  respecting  the  (Jliris- 

tian  basilica,  159  u. 
Kngler,  207. 

Labarte,  119. 

Labor,  eucouragenient  of,  by  Church, 
477;  nionumental  evidence  respect- 
ing. 477  r. 

Lactantius,  iiymns  of,   285. 


GENKIiAL    INDI'LX. 


5r,n 


Luity.  limitalion  of  riplita  of,  .'{Gr» ;  de- 
cline of  iiifliieiico  ill  councils,  'M:>. 

Lamb,  a  symbol  of  Clirist,  7G;  forbidden 
by  TruUun  Council.  77. 

Lamps,  materials  of,  155;  symbols  upon, 
155;  artistic  in  form,  155. 

Langs,  J.  P.,  on  tlio  "Seven,"  332  n. 

LiiiK'e.  K..  1G2,  180. 

L  lodice.'in  Council,  on  Ciuirch  music,  303. 

l.ji/,arus,  raising'  of,  in  art,  99  f.  140,  259. 

I.e  Biiiiit,  on  number  of  inscriptions,  252  n. 

Lcyrer,  on  proselytes,  396  n. 

Liberius,  infrequently  met,  476. 

Liglitfoot,  J.  B.,  on  origin  of  sacerdotal- 
ism, 360. 

Lifihts  by  the  altar,  260. 

Lion,  symbol  of,  261. 

Liturgies,  occasion  of  growtli  of,  438 : 
connection  of  pcnitontlHl  system 
with,  438;  modilicationa  of,  439; 
classification  of,  439;  two  parts  of, 
440;  of  St.  Clemein,  440;  of  St. 
James,  441;  branches  of,  441;  of 
St.  Mark,  441  ;  the  Western,  441  f; 
the  philosophy  of,  442;  central 
ihougiit  ill  Greek,  442;  ceiifal 
thought  in  Latin,  443;  idea  in  Piol- 
esiant,  443  n. 

Loculi,  delined.  56;  number  of,  517. 

Lombards,  destruction  of,  29. 

Lord's  day,  eucliarist  celebrated  on,  444; 
reason  for  observing,  444,  446;  rela- 
tion of,  to  Jewish  Sabbath,  444  f ;  no 
ciiaciment  concerning,  445;  Barry 
on,  445  ;  imjierial  provisions  concern- 
ing, 445  f;  New  Testament  idea  of, 
447  ;  Conslaiitine's  rescript  concern- 
ing, 445;  Justin's  opinion  of,  447  f , 
Tertullian's  view  of,  448;  provisions 
for  observance  of,  448  f;  iin|)Ossibiliiy 
of  literal  observance  ot,  449  ;  ground 
of  sanction,  449  f;  Wiittke  on,  449 
f  n;  why  legally  sanctioned,  450;  the 
Christian  emperors  had  no  reference 
to  Mosaic  law,  450  f ;  legal  supplant- 
ing the  moral  sanction  of,  451. 

Lord's  Supper,  symbolized  by  'iX9YS,  81 
flf;  symbolic,  416;  a  memorial,  416; 
when  celebrated,  416;  likeness  to 
other  feasts,  416;  character  of,  417; 
celebrants  of!  417  :  modes  of  celebra- 
tion of,  417;  connected  with  the 
agape,  418;  simplicity  of  early  observ- 
ance of,  418;  "The  Teaching  "  on, 
418;  Justin  Martyr's  account  of,  419; 
Terlnlliairs  account  of,  419;  aiiie- 
Nicene  order  of,  419;  liturgical  forms 
in,  420;  theory  of  operation  of, 
421,  CT. ;  how  far  a  sacrilice,  421 
f;  three  views  of,  423;  teaciiing  of 
t!ie  liturgies  respecting,  not  uniform, 
423;  obligations  of,  424;  where  cel- 


ebrated, 42.'5;  order  of,  425;  in  ono 
kind,  425;  frecinency  of,  425;  no 
elevation  of  host  in,  426;  magiiitied 
by  the  fathers,  426. 

Lotze,  on  Hebrew  lyric  poetry,  48  n. 

Luminarium,  meaning  and  u.scs  of,  520. 

Macrobius,  310. 

Magdeburg  centuriators,  15. 

Magi,  on  nionnmcnts,  258. 

Maimbourg,  on  Gregory,  quoted,  311. 

Malta,  catacombs  of,  36. 

Manuscripts,  illuminated,  40. 

Muriott,  quoted  on  subject  of  early  fres- 
cos. 108  n. 

Marriage,  .sacredness  of,  462  f ;  Church 
had  oversight  of,  466;  Pauline  doc- 
trine respecting,  466. 

Martyrs,  number  of,  266. 

Matliias  Klacius.  15  n. 

.Mcnas,  St.,  of  Egypt,  154. 

Me  ri  vale,  276. 

Messmer,  161. 

Military  life,  aversion  to,  in  early  Church, 
484;  tainted  with  idolatry,  484;  Tcr- 
lullian  on.  484  ;  decadence  of  Koman, 
485;  milder  views  later  held,  485; 
relation  of  clergy  to,  486;  monu- 
mentiil  evidence  respecting.  486  f. 

Mihnan,  mistake  respecting  Solomon's 
temple,  47  n;  quoted,  317  n. 

Miniatures,  examples  of,  112  f. 

Mohammedans,  iconoclasm  of,  29. 

Monasticism,  philosophy  of,  468 ;  its  two 
principles,  468 ;  evils  of,  468  f. 

Mone,  393  n. 

Mosaics,  classification  of,  114  f;  in  an- 
tiquit}',  115;  kinds  of,  1 15 ;  limited  use 
in  catacombs.  115;  three  types  of, 
116;  uses  of,  116;  restorations  of, 
116;  locjition  of,  116;   chronology  of, 

116  f;  style  of,  117;  examples  of, 
118  IT:  .seriousness  of  later,  118  f; 
transition  in  style  of,  119;  of  Rome. 

117  ff;  of  Thessalonica,  116:  of 
Uavenna,  121  fl";  of  Constantinople, 
127  ir. 

Mothes,  quoted,  157  n. 

Monuments,  fewness  of,  28 ;  where  best 
preserved,  28;  can.ses  of  destruc- 
tion of,  28  f;  of  first  century,  29  f; 
of  second  century,  30  f;  third  cen- 
tury, 31  f;  fourth  century,  34  flf; 
tifth  century,  36  ff;  sixth  century, 
39  f ;   numerous  in,  41. 

Miinter,  on  hymn  service,  275. 

Muntz,  oil  mo.saics  of  Santa  Constanzia, 

118  n. 
Mnraton,  289  n. 

Music,  early  Christian,  298;  no  tune  of 
the  first  two  centuries  in  existence, 
298;    probable  adoption  of  existing 


55G 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


Jewish  forms,  299  f;  testimony  of 
Piiiij  respeetiiig,  301 ;  of  Jii^^tiii.  Ter- 
tullian,  Oiigeu,  uud  Eusebiiis,  301; 
original  style  the  chant,  301 ;  lime 
when  Cliristiaa  Church  began  a  com- 
position of  iis  own,  uncertain,  302; 
tirst  recorded  attempts,  303 ;  action 
ofi'ouncils  respecting,  303;  Council  of 
of  Laodicea  and  tlie  kuvovikoI  rliaAToi, 
303 ;  diverse  interpretation  of  this  ac- 
tion, 303  f ;  Basil's  service  of  song, 
304 :  Chrysostom's.  304;  Sjn-ian  modes 
probably  prevalent  in  East  and  West, 
304;  Anibrosian  reforms  of,  305;  de- 
velopment of,  under  improved  condi- 
tions of  Church  life,  305  ;  musical  no- 
tation among  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
307  ;  harmonic  arrangement  first  de- 
veloped by  Clirisiianity,  308;  Anibro- 
sian notation,  309;  reforms  of,  under 
Gregory  the  Great,  310;  his  Anti- 
phonarium,  314;  tlie  numai,  314; 
later  modifications  of  Gregorian  sys- 
tem of,  316;  decline  of,  in  Eastern 
Church,  316. 

Mystery,  confounded  with  sacrament,  388. 

Mythologic  clenienl  in  sculpture,  139. 

Neale,  J.  M.,  282,  283  ti,  284  n,  287  n,293  n. 

JN'eauder,  quoted,  54  n ;  on  canonical  sing- 
ers, 303. 

Neo-Platonism,  inhuoiice  of,  16. 

Xounus  of  Panopolis,  litmus  of,  282. 

J^orthcole  and  Brownlow,  quoted,  142  n. 

Noiaiion,  Ambrosian,  authentic,  and  Gre- 
gorian Plagal,  311. 

Numae,  of  ancient  music  not  capable  of 
interpretation,  314. 

Numismatics,  service  of,  37  ;  a  special  sci- 
ence, 156. 

Oblation,  what,  419;  by  the  whole 
Church,  420. 

Olympia,  Christian  remains  at,  39. 

Optaius,  165,  180. 

Orantes,  meaning  of,  106;  on  inscribed 
monuments,  258,  260. 

Ordination,  Cj'prian's  view  of,  358  ;  in  the 
Apostolic  Constitutions,  362. 

Origen,  31;  on  the  music  of  the  Alexan- 
drian Church,  301 ;  on  baptism,  392. 

Orpheus,  a  t^-pe  of  Christ,  64;  as  anti- 
type, 64. 

Otte,  on  symbolical  character  of  Christian 
art,  73  n. 

Pagans,  externality  of  tlieir  religion,  49 ; 

defects  of  tlieir  charities,  489  ff. 
Painting,  Christian,  earliest  in  catacombs, 

97  ;    chiefly  decorat  ve,   97  ;    similar 

to    heathen,    97;    how    painted,    98; 

Subjects  of,  peculiar,  98,  100;   princi- 


ple of  balancing  in,  98  ;  in  Santa  Ce- 
cilia, 102;  transitions  in,  110  f;  on 
gilt  glasses,  111;  fewness  of,  111. 

Palm  branch,  a  symbol  of  triumph,  262. 

Palm  tree,  symbol  of  paradise,  93. 

Palmer,  287  n. 

Palimp.sest,  268. 

Pappa,  signification  of,  266. 

Paradise,  indicated  symbolically,  258. 

Parker,  J.  H.,  authority  of,  on  painting, 
30  n. 

Pastor,  terras  for,  266. 

Patriarchs,  when  originated,  373;  duties 
of,  373. 

Paul,  St.,  want  of  susceptibility  to  art, 
50  f;  representations  on  gilt  glasses, 
112;  associated  with  Peter,  112. 

Paul  Silentiarius,  hymns  of,  282. 

Paulinus  of  Nola,  poems  of,  290 ;  theory 
of  poetry  of,  290. 

Pausanius,  39. 

Peacock,  symbol  of  immortality,  93. 

Penitents,  orders  of,  381  f. 

Pentecost,  meaning  of,  456 ;  mode  of  ob- 
servance of,  456. 

Peter,  representation  of,  on  gilt  glasses, 
111  f;  no  primacy  of,  intimated,  112. 

Phenix,  on  coins  of  Chrislian  emperors, 
67 ;  used  by  the  Christian  fathers,  7 (J ; 
symbol  of  resurrection,  71,  93. 

Piper,  17  n,  63  n,  75  n,  280  n. 

Pixes,  in  ivory,  154;  uses  of,  154. 

Plin\',  on  singing  of  early  Christians,  301. 

Plumptre,  on  proselytes,  396  n. 

Poetry,  Greek  and  Hebrew,  contrasted, 
48  ;  Christian,  v.  Hj'mnology. 

Polycarp,  on  episcopacj',  348. 

Pondi  d'oro,  how  made.  111. 

Prayer,  attitude  in,  as  found  on  tnonu- 
nients.  145. 

Presbyters,  common  to  Jewisli  and  Gen- 
tile societies,  334;  a  council,  334; 
officers  of  administration,  335 ;  a  de- 
liberative body,  336;  Scripture  ac- 
count of,  337 ;  in  Gentile  churches, 
337  f;  identical  with  bishops,  338  ft'; 
why  two  terms,  339 ;  duties  of,  not 
sharply  defined,  341 ;  decliue  of,  in 
power,  352 ;  cliange  in  functions  of, 
366:  penitential,  382. 

Priests,  not  recognized  by  apostolic 
Church,  349. 

Primates,  origin  of,  3'72 ;  how  appointed, 
372;  functions  of,  372. 

Proanapliora,  440. 

Propert}',  in  Roman  empire,  492  f. 

Prudentius,  hymns  of,  293. 

Psalter,  use  of,  in  early  Church,  273. 

Quadragesima,  456. 
Quast,  101. 
Quinquagesima,  456. 


GENE  HAL    INDEX. 


557 


Kumbiich,  quoted,  274  u,  276,  280  ii,  281, 
•JUa  11. 

Ravenna,  cluirclies  of,  38;  a  niiddlo 
^ruiind,  202;  simplicity  oCitscluiivlies, 
20(J,  I'.;  four  periods  of  ardiitectiire 
in,  207. 

Renders,  duties  of,  374. 

Uobor,  ([noted,  ;U7  n. 

Reiiseus,  divisions  of  arcliDeology,  15  n. 

Kicliter,  180  ii. 

Roller,  on  symbolism,  quoted,  72  n,  75  ii, 
132  n. 

do  Rossi,  school  of  symbolism,  75  u ; 
quot 'd,  174;  on  number  of  (Jliristiiui 
iiisfriplioMS,  248  ii,  249,  252  ii,  2G5, 
2Grf,  400,  47  7  ii ;  on  slavery,  475  f. 

Roman  liou.se.  arran^'emciit  of,  1G6  f;  iii- 
rtueneo  of,  on  early  Christian  aiehi- 
teeture,  1U6;  how  lighted,  IG'J, 

Rome,  bisiio|)  of,  352. 

Rutinus,  reference  of,  to  the  phonix, 
71. 

Sacerdotalism,  rise  of,  349;  growtli  of, 
359;   origin  of,  3G0  ff. 

Sacraments,  lueaiiing  uf,  indefinite,  387 ; 
number  of,  not  determined,  388. 

Sacriliee,  in  Lord's  Supper,  422. 

Salzenberg,  282  n. 

San  ApoUinare,  in  Classe,  209  if. 

St.  S'lpliia,  Ciiurch  of,  originality  of,  234  ; 
difficulty  lit  construction  of,  2.34;  pres- 
ent condition  of,  235;  vast  prc[)ara- 
tioii.s  f>)r  Ijuilding  of,  235;  injury  of, 
2:{G  ;  description  of,  236;  dimensions 
of,  236;  dome  support  in,  239;  iigiit- 
iiig  of,  239;  decorations  of,  240; 
arrangement  of,  2  U. 

Sail  V'ilale,  description  of,  225  ff;  n)o- 
saics  of,  lost,  22G;  contrast  witli  Uo- 
maii  basilica,  228. 

Sarcopliagi,  preference  for,  136;  slight 
originalit}'  of,  13G;  subjects  of,  137, 
142;  decorative  and  symbolic  prin- 
ciple in,  137. 

Sav.onarola,  131  n. 

Sciiaff,  280  n,  281  n,  293  n,  295  n. 

Selilettorcr,  273  n. 

Svluiauso,  <iuoted,  178  n,  181  n. 

ycholuj,  inlluence  of,  on  CnrisUai)  archi- 
tecture, 1G2,  164;  e.\ample»  of,  170f. 

Schools,  V.  liducation.  Culture,  Teaching; 
secular  under  the  empire,  503;  'Icr- 
lullian's  views  of  heatlicn,  501 ;  of 
Ale.vaiidria,  505  f ;  cnleclmmenical, 
505;   of  Anlioch,  506  f. 

Scludtze,  Victor,  75  n. 

Sculpture,  in  pagan  cultus,  131 ;  sensu- 
ousucss  of,  131  ;  decadence  of,  131; 
architcctur.il  principle  in,  136;  balanc- 
ing of  parts  in,  136;  Scripture  sub- 
ject of,  142. 


Serpent,  a  symbol  of  wisdom,  or  of  heal- 
ing, 93. 

Sexes,  separated  in  ancient  Church,  186. 

Sheep,  symbol  of  disciples  of  Christ,  92. 

Shi|),  symbol  of  the  Churcli,  93,  261. 

Sibylline  Oracles,  reference  of,  to  the 
'I,i;(%  SO  ;   nature  of,  80  n. 

Singers,  diuies  ol',  374. 

Sins,  venial  and  niorial,  379. 

Slavery,  a  ti.xed  institution  in  Roman  om- 
))ire,  470  f ;  no  attempt  at  immediate 
abolition  of  by  Cnurch,  471 ;  emanci- 
pation encouraged  by  Church,  472  ; 
UJiliiorira  opinion  concerning,  472; 
Stoical  teachings  respecting,  473; 
slight  amelioration  of,  in  2d  and  3d 
centuries,  473;  moral  type  of  Chris- 
tianity unfavourable  to,  47.3:  smiplicity 
of  Cnuich  opposed  to,  474;  in  United 
Slates,  474  ii ;  testimony  of  monu- 
ments respecting,  475  f;  do  Rossi 
on,  475  f;  relations  of  labor  to,  477; 
inscri[)tions  relating  to,  477  f. 

Slaves,  condition  of,  under  Roman  govern- 
ment, 470  f;  care  of  Church  lor,  472; 
eligibility  of,  to  office,  474;  etpiality 
of,  in  burial,  475;  fewness  of  names 
of,  on  Christian  monuiuenls,  47(;. 

Smith,  W.  Robertson,  on  tlic  principle  of 
the  2d  comniandment,  45  n. 

Soldiers,  v.  Military  life. 

Sopiu-oniiis,  hymns  ol,  281. 

Sponsors,  duty  of,  413. 

Stanle}',  opinion  of,  on  Solomon's  temple, 
47  n. 

Statues,  of  Christ  symbolic,  132;  testi- 
monies respecting,  132;  conform  to 
pagan  morals,  133;  of  (Jood  Shep- 
jicrd  and  llermos-Kiiophoros  com- 
paied,  133;  of  llippolytu-s  134  ;  New- 
ness of,  13G. 

SteveiLS,  on  the  value  of  rude  dialects, 
22  11. 

Sunday,  v.  Lord's  day. 

Supernatural  religion,  author  of.  quoted, 
59  n. 

Swastica,  a  Buddhistic  symbol,  84. 

Symbolism,  in  Christian  art,  55,  72;  tran- 
sition from,  to  literal  representation, 
55;  not  occasioned  by  ilesire  for 
concealment,  55:  delinilion  of  symbol, 
72;  used  by  Cniist  in  tcaclung,  72; 
not  arbitrary,  73;  how  interpreted, 
72,  73;  two  schools  of  inter[)rela,ion 
of,  74  1 ;  in  painti:ig  of  lal-'r  origin.  98; 
ill  .liinius  Bassus  sarcopliagus,  145. 

Symbols,  the  lish,  77  f;  the  cross  and 
crucilix.  83  f;  the  vine,  89;  the 
dove,  91;  the  sheep  and  lambs,  92; 
the  ship,  93;  the  anchor,  93;  the 
]i:ilm-lree,  9:i;  the  crown,  lyre,  phe- 
nix,   serpent,   93;    commingling   of, 


558 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


259;  the  grapes,  261 ;  tlie  lion,  261; 
the  ark,  261 ;  the  palm-branch,  262. 

Synesius.  hj'mns  of,  281. 

Synods,  analogous  to  civil  councils,  375; 
provincial,  375;  metropolitan,  376; 
oecumenical,  376;  by  whom  assem- 
bled, 376:  by  whom  presided  over, 
376  f;  subjects  considered  by,  377; 
method  of  voting  in,  377  ;  decisions 
of,  how  enforced,  377 ;  decisions  of, 
how  far  binding,  377. 

Syria,  chiu'ches  of,  38,  212;  generous  life 
iu,  213;  destitute  of  mosaics,  217. 

Tabernacle,  furniture  of,  dictated,  44;  ar- 
tistic character  of,  44;  animal  and 
vegetable  forms  allowed  in,  44. 

Teachhig,  v.  Education;  Paul's  estimate  of, 
501  f;  a  charism,  502;  Christ's  meth- 
od of,  502. 

''Teaching  of  the  Twelve,"  on  apostles, 
328  n;  importance  of,  397;  chronol- 
ogy of,  397  n;  statements  of,  concern- 
ing baptism,  398;  on  trine  baptism, 
413;  on  the  Lord's  Supper,  418;  on 
public  worship,  433. 

Tertullian,  on  nimiber  of  the  Christians, 
26;  opposition  to  image  makers,  53; 
on  the  caricatures  of  Christ,  94  f; 
h3'^m.ns  ascribed  to,  284;  on  music  of 
early  African  Clnircii,  301 ;  on  bap- 
tism, 392,  413;  on  unction,  414; 
on  Lord's  Supper,  419;  on  public 
worship,  436;  on  Lord's  Bay,  448; 
on  trades,  482  f ;  on  shows.  482  ;  on 
idolatry,  482;  on  heathen  schools, 
504. 

Temple,  Jewish,  site  of,  sacred,  44. 

Teuflel,  285,  286,  294,  n.,  295. 

Thayer,  321. 

Tlieater,  v.  Drama, 

Theodoric,  influence  of,  on  architecture, 
208. 

Tombs,  three  kinds  of,  among  the  Jews, 
511 ;  ornamentation  of  Jewish,  511 ; 
leadmg  tlioughtof,  among  the  Greeks, 

512,  bovnidaries  of,  carefully  defined, 

513,  sanctity  of,  513;  publicity  of, 
in  Roman  towns,  514;  at  Pompeii, 
514;  gorgeousness  of,  514;  Roman 
idea  of,  514;  single,  found  in  the  East. 
521;  in  Sj^ria,  521. 

Tourmanin,  church  of,  215. 

Trades,  trying  position  of  Christians  re- 
specting, 479;  certain  ones  con- 
demned, 479  f;    TertuUian's  opinion 


of,  480  f;  Apostolic  Constitutions  re- 
specting, 480. 

Tradition,  Cyprian's  view  of,  357. 

Transept,  significance  of,  187  f' 

Tricliuium,  influence  on  early  Christian 
architecture,  161. 

Triumphal  arch,  how  important.  188. 

Types,  heathen  gods  and  heroes  used  as. 
61,  63  f;  two,  of  Christ,  100;  the 
earlier,  tlie  product  of  Greek  influ- 
ence, 100. 

Uhlliorn,    on  heathen  guilds,   55  n,   276, 

288. 
Ultzen,  287  n. 
Unction,  what,  414;  two  are  met,  414. 

Verantins  Forlunatus,  hymns  of,  295. 

Vestibule,  explained,  185. 

Victory,  statue  of,  set  up  by  Augustus, 
66;  on  li.e  earlj' coins,  67. 

Vine,  symbolic  of  Christ  and  disciples, 
89;  not  necessarily  borrowed  from 
paganism,  89. 

Virgin  Mary,  no  portrait  of,  106;  never 
symbolically  represented,  106;  ex- 
amples of  frescos  of,  106  ft". 

Vitrnvius,  157,  161,  166,  175,  219. 

de  Vogiie,  on  Syrian  churches,  212  f; 
quoted,  216,  *2 17,  218. 

Wackernagle,  284  n,  293  n,  296. 

Weizsiicker,  on  presbyters  and  bishops, 
339  n. 

Whitsuudav,  456. 

Wilkie,  32 f. 

Wolimann,  on  seriousness  of  the  later 
mosaics,  118;  quoted,  119. 

Woman,  position  of,  among  the  Romans, 
463. 

Worship,  places  of,  164;  suggestions  of 
liturgy  in  early,  430 ;  Jewish  influ- 
ences in,  430 ;  spirituality  of,  in  early 
Church,  430 ;  tbrms  of,  different  in 
different  churches,  432 ;  independent 
forms  of,  in  Gentile  churches,  433; 
"  The  Teaching  "  on,  433 ;  heathen 
notices  of,  434;  Justin  Martyr's  ac- 
count of,  334  f;  order  of  service  in, 
435 ;  TertuUian's  statements  concern- 
ing, 436;  in  third  century,  436  ;  Cyp- 
rian on,  436  f;   Augustine  on,  437. 

Zestermann,  theory  of,   on   the  origin  of 

basilica,  158;  classification  of,  159. 
Zockler,  quoted,  83  n. 


THE   END. 


